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Congress

2025-10-10T23:01:03Z

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{{Short description|Formal meeting of representatives}}
{{about|the forum|other uses}}
[[File:Europa Congres Ridderzaal Den Haag. Overzicht, Bestanddeelnr 902-7379.jpg|thumb|Meeting in the [[Ridderzaal|Hall of Knights]] in [[The Hague]] during the [[Congress of Europe]], 1948]]

A '''congress''' is a formal meeting of the [[Representative democracy|representatives]] of different [[countries]], constituent states, organizations, [[trade unions]], [[political party|political parties]], or other groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/congress |title=congress |work=Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online |publisher=[[Longman]] |location=London |access-date=June 12, 2013 |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135447/https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/congress |url-status=live }}</ref> The term originated in [[Late Middle English]] to denote an [[wikt:encounter|encounter]] (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:congressus|congressus]]''.<ref>{{cite web| title=congress |url= https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/congress |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160925012628/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/congress |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 25, 2016 |work=Oxford English Dictionary Online| publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]| location=Oxford |access-date=March 9, 2018}}</ref>

==Political congresses ==
===International relations===
The following congresses were formal meetings of representatives of different nations:
*The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)]], which ended the [[War of Devolution]]
*The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)]], which ended the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]
*The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)]]
*The [[Congress of Berlin]] (1878), which settled the [[Eastern Question]] after the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]]
*The [[Congress of Gniezno]] (1000)
*The [[Congress of Laibach]] (1821)
*The [[Congress of Panama]], an 1826 meeting organized by [[Simón Bolívar]]
*The [[Congress of Paris (1856)]], which ended the Crimean War
*The [[Congress of Troppau]] (1820)
*The [[Congress of Tucumán]] (1816)
*The [[Treaty of Utrecht|Congress of Utrecht]] (1712–1713)
*The [[Congress of Verona]] (1822)
*The [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814–15), which settled the shape of Europe after the [[Napoleonic Wars]]
*The [[Congress of the Council of Europe]].

===Legislatures===
[[File:Buenos Aires-Plaza Congreso-Pensador de Rodin.jpg|thumb|[[Argentine National Congress]] in [[Buenos Aires]]]]

====[[presidential system|Presidential]] and [[semi-presidential system]]s====
In the mid-1770s, the [[Thirteen Colonies|British colonies]] that became the United States of America adopted for their joint [[Convention (meeting) | convention]] the word "Congress" - to emphasize each colony's status as a [[State (polity)|state]] in its own right.{{cn|date=July 2024}} The term has been adopted by many [[Sovereign state| countries]] to refer to their [[legislature]]s.
*The [[United States Congress]] is the bicameral legislative branch of the [[United States federal government]].
**The [[Continental Congress]] (1774–1781) was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (1781–1789), legislature of the [[United States]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]].
**The [[Confederate States Congress]] of 1861–1865 operated in the [[Confederate States of America]] during the [[American Civil War]].
*The [[Congress of Guatemala]] ({{langx | es | Congreso de la República}}) is the [[unicameral legislature]] of [[Guatemala]].
*The [[National Congress of Honduras]] ({{langx | es | Congreso nacional}}) is the legislative branch of the government of [[Honduras]].
*The [[Congress of Mexico]] ({{langx|es|Congreso de la Unión}}) is the legislative branch of the [[Mexico|Mexican]] government.
*The [[Congress of Paraguay]] is the bicameral legislature of [[Paraguay]].
*The [[Argentine National Congress|Congress of the Argentine Nation]] ({{langx | es | Congreso de la Nación Argentina}}) is the legislative branch of the government of [[Argentina]].
*The [[Congress of the Dominican Republic]] is the [[bicameral legislature]] of the [[Dominican Republic]].
*The [[Palau National Congress]] ([[Palauan language|Palauan]]: ''Olbiil era Kelulau'') is the bicameral legislative branch of the [[Republic of Palau]].
*The [[Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia]] is the unicameral legislature of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]].
*The [[Congress of the Philippines]] ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]: ''Kongreso ng Pilipinas'') is the legislative branch of the [[Philippines|Philippine]] government.
*The [[Congress of Peru|Congress of the Republic of Peru]] ({{langx | es | Congreso de la República}}) is the unicameral legislature of [[Peru]].
*The [[Congress of Colombia]] ({{langx | es | Congreso de la República}}) is the bicameral legislature of [[Colombia]].
*The [[National Congress of Bolivia]] was the national legislature of [[Bolivia]] before being replaced by the [[Plurinational Legislative Assembly]].
*The [[National Congress of Brazil]] ({{langx|pt|Congresso Nacional}}) is the bicameral legislature of Brazil.
*The [[National Congress of Chile]] ({{langx | es | Congreso Nacional}}) is the legislative branch of the government of [[Chile]].
*The [[National Congress of Ecuador]] was the unicameral legislature of [[Ecuador]] before being replaced by the [[National Assembly (Ecuador)|National Assembly]].
*France:
**The [[Congress of the French Parliament]] refers specifically to when both houses of France's legislature sit together as a single body, usually at the Palace of Versailles, to vote on revisions to the Constitution, to listen to an address by the President of the French Republic, and, in the past, to elect the President of the Republic.
**The [[Congress of New Caledonia]] is the national legislature under the semi-presidential system of the autonomous [[sui generis collectivity]].

====Non-presidential systems====
*[[Spanish Congress of Deputies]] (Spanish: ''Congreso de los Diputados'') is the lower house of the [[Cortes Generales]], Spain's legislative branch.
*The [[National Congress of Belgium]] was a temporary legislative assembly in 1830, which created a constitution for the [[Belgian Revolution|new state]].
*The legislature of the [[People's Republic of China]] is known in [[English language|English]] as the [[National People's Congress]].
*The [[Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union]] was the legislature and nominal supreme institution of state power in the [[Soviet Union]].
**[[Congress of People's Deputies of Russia]] was modeled after the Soviet Union's and existed in 1990–1993.
*The [[Congress of Cuba]] was the bicameral legislature of Cuba from 1902 to 1959.

===Parties===
Many political parties have a '''party congress''' every few years to make decisions for the party and elect governing bodies, while others call it a [[political convention|party convention]]. Congress is included in the name of several [[political parties]], especially those in former British colonies:
*[[India]]
**[[Indian National Congress]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=कांग्रेस पार्टी के अध्यक्ष पद के लिए चुनाव की तारीख की घोषणा कर दी गई है जाने चुनाव की तारीख|url=https://www.tnrnews.in/2021/05/blog-post_10.html|access-date=2021-09-10|website=TNR NEWS|language=en|archive-date=2021-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917045100/https://www.tnrnews.in/2021/05/blog-post_10.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
**[[All India Trinamool Congress]]
**[[Kerala Congress]]
**[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
**[[Tamil Maanila Congress]]
**[[YSR Congress]]
**[[Janta Congress Chhattisgarh]]
**[[All India N.R. Congress]]
*[[Canary Islands]]
**[[National Congress of the Canaries]]
*[[Eswatini]]
**[[Ngwane National Liberatory Congress]]
*[[Fiji]]
**[[National Congress of Fiji]]
*[[Guyana]]
**[[People's National Congress (Guyana)|People's National Congress]]

*[[Lesotho]]
**[[Basotho Congress Party]]
**[[Lesotho Congress for Democracy]]
**[[Lesotho People's Congress]]
*[[Malawi]]
**[[Malawi Congress Party]]
*[[Malaysia]]
**[[Malaysian Indian Congress]]
*[[Namibia]]
**[[Congress of Democrats]]
*[[Nepal]]
**[[Nepali Congress]]
*[[Pakistan]]
**[[Peoples Revolutionary Congress Pakistan]]
**[[Pakistan Christian Congress]]
*[[Sierra Leone]]
**[[All People's Congress]]
*[[South Africa]]
**[[African National Congress]]
**[[Congress of the People (South African political party)|Congress of the People]]
**[[Pan-Africanist Congress]]
*[[Sri Lanka]]
**[[All Ceylon Tamil Congress]]
**[[Sri Lanka Muslim Congress]]
*[[Sudan]]
**[[National Congress (Sudan)]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
**[[United National Congress]]
*[[Uganda]]
**[[Ugandan People's Congress]]
*[[Iraqi National Congress]]

===Political organizations===
*[[National Congress of American Indians]]
*[[Congress of Racial Equality]]
*[[Continental Congress 2.0]]

==Labor congresses==
*[[Congress of Industrial Organizations]]
*[[Trade Union Congress of the Philippines]]
*[[Trades Union Congress]]
*[[Canadian Labour Congress]]

== Religious Congresses ==
*Catholic Congresses
*[[Eucharistic Congresses]]
* 1947 Marian Congress
* [[Subud]] Congress

==Non-political congresses==
'''Congress''' is an alternative name for a large national or international [[academic conference]]. For instance, the World Congress on Men's Health is an annual meeting on men's medical issues.

Organizations in some athletic sports, such as [[bowling]], have historically been named "congresses". The predecessors to the [[United States Bowling Congress]] (formed in 1995) were the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895) and the Women's International Bowling Congress (founded in 1927).[[Image:Chess congress, Ormskirk.jpg|thumb|Chess congress]]
A c''hess congress'' is a [[chess]] tournament, in one city, where a large number of contestants gather to play competitive chess over a limited period of time; typically one day to one week, or more.

[[ICCA Congress & Exhibition]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.euagenda.eu/ European affairs events]
*[http://www.uia.be/sites/uia.be/db/db/x.php?dbcode=ca&go= International congress calendar]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20041206194212/http://allcongress.com/ Medical Congresses Around the World]}}
*[https://www.satyajeettambe.com/ Congress Youth Leader]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Congress | volume= 6 |last=Phillips|first=Walter Alison |author-link=Walter Alison Phillips| pages = 937–938 |short= 1}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Legislatures]]
[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Meetings]]

Iteration

2025-10-01T18:56:25Z

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{{short description|Repetition of a process}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{other uses}}{{More citation needed|date=July 2024}}
'''Iteration''' means repeating a process to generate a (possibly unbounded) sequence of outcomes. Each repetition of the process is a single iteration, and the outcome of each iteration is the starting point of the next iteration.

In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], iteration (along with the related technique of [[recursion]]) is a standard element of [[algorithm]]s.

== Mathematics ==
[[File:Hyperbolic_rotation.gif|thumb|An iteration of nine [[squeeze mapping]]s applied to a [[hyperbolic sector]]]]
In mathematics, iteration may refer to the process of [[iterated function|iterating a function]], i.e. applying a function repeatedly, using the output from one iteration as the input to the next. Iteration of apparently simple functions can produce complex behaviors and difficult problems – for examples, see the [[Collatz conjecture]] and [[juggler sequence]]s.

Another use of iteration in mathematics is in [[iterative method]]s which are used to produce approximate numerical solutions to certain mathematical problems. [[Newton's method]] is an example of an iterative method. Manual calculation of a number's square root is a common use and a well-known example.

== Computing ==

In computing, iteration is a technique that marks out of a block of statements within a [[computer program]] for a defined number of repetitions. That block of statements is said to be ''iterated''. A computer programmer might also refer to that block of statements as ''an'' ''iteration''.

=== Implementations ===
[[Control flow#Loops |Loops]] constitute the most common language constructs for performing iterations. The following [[pseudocode]] "iterates" three times the line of code between begin & end through a ''for loop'', and uses the values of ''i'' as increments.

<syntaxhighlight lang="pascal">
a := 0
for i := 1 to 3 do { loop three times }
begin
a := a + i; { add the current value of i to a }
end;
print(a); { the number 6 is printed (0 + 1; 1 + 2; 3 + 3) }
</syntaxhighlight>

It is permissible, and often necessary, to use values from other parts of the program outside the bracketed block of statements, to perform the desired function.

[[Iterators]] constitute alternative language constructs to loops, which ensure consistent iterations over specific data structures. They can eventually save time and effort in later coding attempts. In particular, an iterator allows one to repeat the same kind of operation at each node of such a data structure, often in some pre-defined order.

[[Iteratees]] are purely functional language constructs, which accept or reject data during the iterations.

=== Relation with recursion ===
Recursions and iterations have different algorithmic definitions, even though they can generate identical results. The primary difference is that recursion can be a solution without prior knowledge as to how many times the action must repeat, while a successful iteration requires that foreknowledge.

Some types of programming languages, known as [[functional programming languages]], are designed such that they do not set up a block of statements for explicit repetition, as with the ''for'' loop. Instead, those programming languages exclusively use [[recursion]]. Rather than call out a block of code to repeate a pre-defined number of times, the executing code block instead "divides" the work into a number of separate pieces, after which the code block executes itself on each individual piece. Each piece of work is divided repeatedly until the "amount" of work is as small as possible, at which point the algorithm does that work very quickly. The algorithm then "reverses" and reassembles the pieces into a complete whole.

The classic example of recursion is in list-sorting algorithms, such as [[merge sort]]. The merge sort recursive algorithm first repeatedly divides the list into consecutive pairs. Each pair is then ordered, then each consecutive pair of pairs, and so forth until the elements of the list are in the desired order.

The code below is an example of a recursive algorithm in the [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] programming language that outputs the same result as the pseudocode under the previous heading.
<syntaxhighlight lang="scheme">
(let iterate ((i 1) (a 0))
(if (<= i 3)
(iterate (+ i 1) (+ a i))
(display a)))
</syntaxhighlight>

== Education ==
{{main|Educational theory}}

In some schools of [[pedagogy]], iterations are used to describe the process of teaching or guiding students to repeat experiments, assessments, or projects, until more accurate results are found, or the student has mastered the technical skill. This idea is found in the old adage, "Practice makes perfect." In particular, "iterative" is defined as the "process of learning and development that involves cyclical inquiry, enabling multiple opportunities for people to revisit ideas and critically reflect on their implication."<ref>{{cite web |author1=Helen Timperley |author-link=Helen Timperley |author2=Aaron Wilson |author3=Heather Barrar |author4=Irene Fung |title=Teacher Professional Learning and Development: Best Evidence Synthesis Iteration [BES] |url=http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/48727127.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626044003/http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/48727127.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-26 |access-date=4 April 2013 |publisher=[[OECD]] |page=238}}</ref>

Unlike computing and math, educational iterations are not predetermined; instead, the task is repeated until success according to some external criteria (often a test) is achieved.

== See also ==
* [[Recursion]]
* [[Fractal]]
* [[Brute-force search]]
* [[Iterated function]]
* [[Infinite compositions of analytic functions]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Articles with example pseudocode]]
[[Category:Articles with example Scheme (programming language) code]]
[[Category:Time management]]
[[Category:Fractals]]
[[Category:Programming idioms]]
[[Category:Algorithms]]
[[Category:Iteration in programming| ]]