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Ethnocentrism

2025-07-23T15:51:45Z

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{{short description|Judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Гумплович.jpg|thumb|237px|Polish sociologist [[Ludwig Gumplowicz]] is believed to have coined the term "ethnocentrism" in the 19th century, although he may have merely popularized it]]
'''Ethnocentrism''' in [[social science]] and [[anthropology]]—as well as in [[Colloquialism|colloquial]] English discourse—means to apply one's own [[culture]] or [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, [[behavior]]s, [[belief]]s, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular culture involved. Since this judgment is often negative, some people also use the term to refer to the belief that one's culture is superior to, or more correct or normal than, all others—especially regarding the distinctions that define each ethnicity's cultural identity, such as [[language]], [[behavior]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], and [[religion]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Choices and Connections: An Introduction to Communication|last1=McCornack|first1=Steven|last2=Ortiz|first2=Joseph|publisher=Bedford/St.Martin's|year=2017|isbn=978-1-319-20116-6|location=Boston, New York|pages=109|oclc=1102471079}}</ref> In common usage, it can also simply mean any culturally biased judgment.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00857-3 |chapter=Ethnocentrism |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |date=2001 |last1=Levine |first1=R.A. |pages=4852–4854 |isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 }}</ref> For example, ethnocentrism can be seen in the common portrayals of the [[Global North and Global South|Global South and the Global North]].

Ethnocentrism is sometimes related to [[racism]], [[Stereotype|stereotyping]], [[discrimination]], or [[xenophobia]]. However, the term "ethnocentrism" does not necessarily involve a negative view of the others' race or indicate a negative connotation.<ref name="Hooghe Ethnocentrism">{{cite book |last1=Hooghe |first1=Marc |chapter=Ethnocentrism |pages=11–12 |editor1-last=Darity |editor1-first=William A. |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences |edition=2nd |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |isbn=978-0-02-866418-7 }}</ref> The opposite of ethnocentrism is [[cultural relativism]], a guiding philosophy stating that the best way to understand a different culture is through their perspective rather than judging them from the subjective viewpoints shaped by one's own cultural standards.

The term "ethnocentrism" was first applied in the social sciences by American sociologist [[William Graham Sumner|William G. Sumner]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice|last1=Shala|first1=Blerim|last2=Cooper|first2=Robin|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4422-1606-8|editor-last=Thompson|editor-first=Sherwood|location=Lanham|oclc=900277068}}</ref> In his 1906 book, ''Folkways,'' Sumner describes ethnocentrism as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to [[pride]], [[vanity]], the belief in one's own group's [[Superior (hierarchy)|superiority]], and [[contempt]] for outsiders.{{sfn|Sumner|1906|p=13}}

Over time, ethnocentrism developed alongside the progression of social understandings by people such as social theorist [[Theodor W. Adorno]]. In Adorno's ''[[The Authoritarian Personality]]'', he and his colleagues of the [[Frankfurt School]] established a broader definition of the term as a result of "in group-out group differentiation", stating that ethnocentrism "combines a positive attitude toward one's own ethnic/cultural group (the in-group) with a negative attitude toward the other ethnic/cultural group (the out-group)." Both of these juxtaposing attitudes are also a result of a process known as ''social identification'' and ''social counter-identification.''<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvHRNNk9hHEC&q=Social+Identification |title = Encyclopedia of Nationalism|isbn = 9780080545240|date = 2000|entry=Ethnocentrism|pages=152–153|edition=Two-Volume Set|publisher=Elsevier|last=Motyl |first=Alexander J. }}</ref>

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{{Anthropology |methods}}

==Origins and development==
The term ethnocentrism derives from two Greek words: ''"ethnos"'', meaning nation, and ''"kentron"'', meaning center. Scholars believe this term was coined by Polish sociologist [[Ludwig Gumplowicz]] in the 19th century, although alternate theories suggest that he only popularized the concept as opposed to inventing it.<ref name=":1">Naturalism in Sociology of the Turn of the Century (by Alexander Hofman and Alexander Kovalev), A History of Classical Sociology. Ed. by [[Igor Kon]]. Moscow, 1989, p. 84. {{ISBN|5-01-001102-6}}</ref><ref name="Bizumic2014">{{Cite journal | doi=10.5964/jspp.v2i1.264 | title=Who Coined the Concept of Ethnocentrism? A Brief Report| journal=Journal of Social and Political Psychology| volume=2| pages=3–10| year=2014| last1=Bizumic| first1=Boris|doi-access=free| hdl=1885/38646| hdl-access=free}}</ref> He saw ethnocentrism as a phenomenon similar to the delusions of [[geocentrism]] and [[anthropocentrism]], defining Ethnocentrism as "the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past."<ref name=":1" />

Subsequently, in the 20th century, American social scientist [[William Graham Sumner|William G. Sumner]] proposed two different definitions in his 1906 book ''Folkways.'' Sumner stated that "Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it."<ref name=folkways>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/folkwaysstudyofs00sumnrich|page=[https://archive.org/details/folkwaysstudyofs00sumnrich/page/13 13]|title=Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals|last=Sumner|first=William Graham|date=1906|publisher=Ginn and Company|access-date=January 18, 2019}}</ref> In the ''War and Other Essays (1911)'', he wrote that "the sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group, is technically known as ethnocentrism."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/warandotheressa01kellgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/warandotheressa01kellgoog/page/n46 12]|title=War, and Other Essays|last=Sumner|first=William Graham|date=1911|publisher=Yale University Press|access-date=January 18, 2019}}</ref> According to Boris Bizumic, it is a popular misunderstanding that Sumner originated the term ethnocentrism, stating that in actuality, he brought ethnocentrism into the mainstreams of [[anthropology]], [[social science]], and [[psychology]] through his English publications.<ref name="Bizumic2014"/>

Several theories have been reinforced through the social and psychological understandings of ethnocentrism including [[Theodor W. Adorno|Adorno's]] [[The Authoritarian Personality|Authoritarian Personality Theory]] (1950), [[Donald T. Campbell]]'s [[Realistic Group Conflict Theory]] (1972), and [[Henri Tajfel]]'s [[Social identity theory]] (1986). These theories have helped to distinguish ethnocentrism as a means to better understand the behaviors caused by [[in-group and out-group]] differentiation throughout history and society.<ref name="Bizumic2014"/>

== Ethnocentrism in social sciences ==
[[File:William_Graham_Sumner_(1907).jpg|thumb|William Graham Sumner]]
In social sciences, ethnocentrism means to judge another culture based on the standard of one's own culture instead of the standard of the other particular culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Barbara D. |title=Cultural Anthropology |date=2013 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0-205-26001-0 |page=23 }}</ref> When people use their own culture as a parameter to measure other cultures, they often tend to think that their culture is superior and see other cultures as inferior and bizarre. Ethnocentrism can be explained at different levels of analysis. For example, at an intergroup level, this term is seen as a consequence of a conflict between groups; while at the individual level, in-group cohesion and out-group hostility can explain personality traits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Öğretir |first=Ayşe Dilek |date=2008 |title=The Study Of Ethnocentrism, Stereotype And Prejudice: Psycho-Analytical And Psycho-Dynamic Theories |journal=Journal of Qafqaz University |volume=24 |pages=236–244 }}</ref> Also, ethnocentrism can help us to explain the construction of identity. Ethnocentrism can explain the basis of one's identity by excluding the outgroup that is the target of ethnocentric sentiments and used as a way of distinguishing oneself from other groups that can be more or less tolerant.<ref name="Elchardus Siongers 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Elchardus |first1=Mark |last2=Siongers |first2=Jessy |title=Ethnocentrism, taste and symbolic boundaries |journal=Poetics |date=August 2007 |volume=35 |issue=4–5 |pages=215–238 |doi=10.1016/j.poetic.2007.09.002 }}</ref> This practice in social interactions creates social boundaries, such boundaries define and draw [[symbolic boundaries]] of the group that one wants to be associated with or belong to.<ref name="Elchardus Siongers 2007"/> In this way, ethnocentrism is a term not only limited to anthropology but also can be applied to other fields of social sciences like sociology or [[psychology]]. Ethnocentrism may be particularly enhanced in the presence of interethnic competition, hostility and violence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cashdan |first1=Elizabeth |title=Ethnocentrism and Xenophobia: A Cross-Cultural Study |journal=Current Anthropology |date=December 2001 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=760–765 |doi=10.1086/323821 }}</ref> On the other hand, ethnocentrism may negatively influence expatriate worker's performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caligiuri |first1=Paula |last2=Baytalskaya |first2=Nataliya |last3=Lazarova |first3=Mila B |title=Cultural humility and low ethnocentrism as facilitators of expatriate performance |journal=Journal of Global Mobility |date=14 March 2016 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=4–17 |doi=10.1108/JGM-03-2015-0007 }}</ref>

A more recent interpretation of ethnocentrism, which expands upon the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, highlights its positive dimension. Political sociologist Audrey Alejandro of the [[London School of Economics]] argues that, while ethnocentrism does produce social hierarchies, it also produces diversity by maintaining the different dispositions, practices, and knowledge of identity groups. Diversity is both fostered and undermined by ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism, for Alejandro, is therefore neither something to be suppressed nor celebrated uncritically. Rather, observers can cultivate a 'balanced ethnocentrism', (individual self worth) allowing themselves to be challenged and transformed by difference whilst still protecting difference.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alejandro |first1=Audrey |title=Western Dominance in International Relations?: The Internationalisation of IR in Brazil and India |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-69204-5 |pages=175–179 |oclc=1145913401 |doi=10.4324/9781315170480 }}</ref>

== Anthropology ==
The classifications of ethnocentrism originate from the studies of [[anthropology]]. With its omnipresence throughout history, ethnocentrism has always been a factor in how different cultures and groups related to one another.<ref name=":2" /> Examples including how historically, foreigners would be characterized as "Barbarians". These trends exist in complex societies, e.g., "the Jews consider themselves to be the 'chosen people', and the Greeks defend all foreigners as 'barbarians'", and how China believed their country to be "the centre of the world".<ref name=":2">{{cite book |doi=10.4135/9781446220375.n79 |chapter=Ethnocentrism |title=Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity and Culture |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7619-6900-6 |page=103 |editor1-last=Bolaffi |editor1-first=Guido |editor2-last=Bracalenti |editor2-first=Raffaele |editor3-last=Braham |editor3-first=Peter |editor4-last=Gindro |editor4-first=Sandro }}</ref> However, the anthropocentric interpretations initially took place most notably in the 19th century when anthropologists began to describe and rank various cultures according to the degree to which they had developed significant milestones, such as monotheistic religions, technological advancements, and other historical progressions.

Most rankings were strongly influenced by colonization and the belief to improve societies they colonized, ranking the cultures based on the progression of their western societies and what they classified as milestones. Comparisons were mostly based on what the colonists believed as superior and what their western societies have accomplished. [[Victorian era]] politician and historian [[Thomas Babington Macaulay|Thomas Macaulay]] once claimed that "one shelf of a [[Western literature|Western library"]] had more knowledge than the centuries of text and literature written by [[Asia]]n cultures.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |editor1-first=William H. |editor1-last=McNeill |editor2-first=Jerry H. |editor2-last=Bentley |editor3-first=David |editor3-last=Christian |editor4-first=Ralph C. |editor4-last=Croizier |editor5-first=J. R. |editor5-last=McNeill |editor6-first=Heidi |editor6-last=Roupp |editor7-first=Judith P. |editor7-last=Zinsser |title=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History |edition=2nd |date=2010 |publisher=Berkshire |isbn=978-1-933782-65-2 |jstor=jj.9941129 |oclc=707606528 |pages=952–954 }}</ref> Ideas developed by Western scientists such as [[Herbert Spencer]], including the concept of the "[[survival of the fittest]]", contained ethnocentric ideals; influencing the belief that societies which were 'superior' were most likely to survive and prosper.<ref name=":3" /> [[Edward Said]]'s concept of [[Orientalism]] represented how Western reactions to non-Western societies were based on an "unequal power relationship" that the [[Western world]] developed due to its history of [[colonialism]] and the influence it held over non-Western societies.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|last=Bangura|first=Ahmed S.|date=2005|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |editor1-last=Horowitz |editor1-first=Maryanne Cline |isbn=0-684-31377-4|volume=4|location=Detroit, MI|pages=1679–1680|chapter=African and Black Orientalism|oclc=55800981}}</ref>

The ethnocentric classification of "primitive" were also used by 19th and 20th century anthropologists and represented how unawareness in cultural and religious understanding changed overall reactions to non-Western societies. 19th-century anthropologist [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] wrote about "primitive" societies in ''Primitive Culture'' (1871), creating a "civilization" scale where it was implied that ethnic cultures preceded civilized societies.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Race and Racism|last=Moore|first=John H.|date=2013|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|others=Mason, Patrick L.|isbn=978-0-02-866195-7|edition=2nd|volume=2|location=Detroit, MI|pages=124–125|chapter=Ethnocentrism|oclc=825005867}}</ref> The use of "savage" as a classification is modernly known as "tribal" or "pre-literate" where it was usually referred as a derogatory term as the "civilization" scale became more common.<ref name=":4" /> Examples that demonstrate a lack of understanding include when European travelers judged different languages based on the fact that they could not understand it and displayed a negative reaction, or the intolerance displayed by Westerners when exposed to unknown religions and symbolisms.<ref name=":4" /> [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], a German philosopher, justified Western [[imperialism]] by reasoning that since the non-Western societies were "primitive" and "uncivilized", their culture and history was not worth conserving and thus should welcome [[Westernization]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450|last=Da Baets|first=Antoon|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|editor-last=Benjamin|editor-first=Thomas|isbn=978-0-02-866085-1|location=Detroit, MI|pages=456–461|chapter=Eurocentrism|oclc=74840473|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216195643/http://1.droppdf.com/files/noC4Z/encyclopedia-of-western-colonialism-since-1450.pdf|archive-date=December 16, 2019|chapter-url=http://1.droppdf.com/files/noC4Z/encyclopedia-of-western-colonialism-since-1450.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:FranzBoas.jpg|alt=Photograph of anthropologist Franz Boas|thumb|Franz Boas|281x281px]]
Anthropologist [[Franz Boas]] saw the flaws in this formulaic approach to ranking and interpreting cultural development and committed himself to overthrowing this inaccurate reasoning due to many factors involving their individual characteristics. With his methodological innovations, Boas sought to show the error of the proposition that race determined cultural capacity.<ref name="Eriksen2015">{{cite book |last1=Eriksen |first1=Thomas Hylland |title=Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology |edition=4th |date=2015 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-3593-3 |jstor=j.ctt183p184 |pages=10–18 }}</ref> In his 1911 book ''[[The Mind of Primitive Man]]'', Boas wrote that:<ref name="Boas The Mind of Primitive Man"/><blockquote class="templatequote">It is somewhat difficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization, and that it has been controlling all our actions from the time of our birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civilizations, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilibrium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours, although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without having grown up under their influence.</blockquote>Together, Boas and his colleagues propagated the certainty that there are no inferior races or cultures. This egalitarian approach introduced the concept of [[cultural relativism]] to anthropology, a methodological principle for investigating and comparing societies in as unprejudiced a way as possible and without using a developmental scale as anthropologists at the time were implementing.<ref name="Eriksen2015" /> Boas and anthropologist [[Bronisław Malinowski]] argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentric views that could blind any scientist's ultimate conclusions.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Both had also urged anthropologists to conduct [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] fieldwork to overcome their ethnocentrism. To help, Malinowski would develop the theory of [[Structural functionalism|functionalism]] as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include [[Margaret Mead]]'s ''[[Coming of Age in Samoa]]'' (1928), which in time has met with severe criticism for its incorrect data and generalisations, Malinowski's ''[[The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia]]'' (1929), and [[Ruth Benedict]]'s ''[[Ruth Benedict#Patterns of Culture|Patterns of Culture]]'' (1934). Mead and Benedict were two of Boas's students.<ref name="Eriksen2015"/>

Scholars generally agree that Boas developed his ideas under the influence of the German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]]. Legend has it that, on a field trip to the Baffin Islands in 1883, Boas would pass the frigid nights reading Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. In that work, Kant argued that human understanding could not be described according to the laws that applied to the operations of nature, and that its operations were therefore free, not determined, and that ideas regulated human action, sometimes independent of material interests. Following Kant, Boas pointed out the starving Eskimos who, because of their religious beliefs, would not hunt seals to feed themselves, thus showing that no pragmatic or material calculus determined their values.<ref name="Boas The Mind of Primitive Man">{{cite journal |last1=Boas |first1=Franz |title=The Mind of Primitive Man |journal=Science |date=22 February 1901 |volume=13 |issue=321 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.1126/science.13.321.281 |pmid=17814977 |bibcode=1901Sci....13..281B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hitchens |first1=Janine |title=Critical implications of Franz Boas' theory and methodology |journal=Dialectical Anthropology |date=November 1994 |volume=19 |issue=2–3 |pages=237–253 |doi=10.1007/BF01301456 |jstor=29790560 }}</ref>

==Causes==
Ethnocentrism is believed to be a [[Behavior|learned behavior]] embedded into a variety of beliefs and values of an individual or group.<ref name=":2"/>

Due to [[enculturation]], individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of loyalty and are more likely to follow the norms and develop relationships with associated members.<ref name=":0" /> Within relation to enculturation, ethnocentrism is said to be a transgenerational problem since stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> Although loyalty can increase better in-grouper approval, limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater ethnocentrism.<ref name=":0" />

The [[social identity approach]] suggests that ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture. It is theorized by [[Henri Tajfel]] and [[John C. Turner]] that to maintain that positive view, people make [[Social comparison theory|social comparisons]] that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.<ref>Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191126151828/http://ark143.org/wordpress2/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Tajfel-Turner-1979-An-Integrative-Theory-of-Intergroup-Conflict.pdf An integrative theory of intergroup conflict]. In M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams (Eds.), Key readings in social psychology. Intergroup relations: Essential readings (pp. 94–109). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press.</ref>

Alternative or opposite perspectives could cause individuals to develop [[naïve realism]] and be subject to limitations in understandings.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Sammut|first1=Gordon|last2=Bezzina|first2=Frank|last3=Sartawi|first3=Mohammad|date=2015|title=The spiral of conflict: Naïve realism and the black sheep effect in attributions of knowledge and ignorance|journal=Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology|volume=21|issue=2|pages=289–294|doi=10.1037/pac0000098}}</ref> These characteristics can also lead to individuals to become subject to ethnocentrism, when referencing out-groups, and [[black sheep effect]], where personal perspectives contradict those from fellow in-groupers.<ref name=":5" />

[[Realistic conflict theory]] assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict" between groups. This also happens when a dominant group may perceive the new members as a threat.<ref name="Hooghe Ethnocentrism"/> Scholars have recently demonstrated that individuals are more likely to develop in-group identification and out-group negatively in response to intergroup competition, conflict, or threat.<ref name=":0" />

Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of context and reason, the effects of ethnocentrism has had both negative and positive effects throughout history. The most detrimental effects of ethnocentrism resulting into [[genocide]], [[apartheid]], [[slavery]], and many violent conflicts. Historical examples of these negative effects of ethnocentrism are [[The Holocaust]], the [[Crusades]], the [[Trail of Tears]], and the [[internment of Japanese Americans]]. These events were a result of cultural differences reinforced inhumanely by a majority group who thought of themselves as superior. In his 1976 book on evolution, ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] writes that "blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretative in terms of [[W. D. Hamilton|Hamilton's]] genetic theory."<ref name="Dawkins200622">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=go0e5sBRznYC&pg=PA99|title=The selfish gene|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-929115-1|page=99}}</ref> Simulation-based experiments in [[evolutionary game theory]] have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hammond|first1=R. A.|last2=Axelrod|first2=R.|s2cid=9613947|year=2006|title=The Evolution of Ethnocentrism|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=50|issue=6|pages=926–936|doi=10.1177/0022002706293470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.18564/jasss.2176 |title = The Evolutionary Dominance of Ethnocentric Cooperation|journal = Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation|volume = 16|issue = 3|year = 2013|last1 = Hartshorn|first1 = Max|last2 = Kaznatcheev|first2 = Artem|last3 = Shultz|first3 = Thomas|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The positive examples of ethnocentrism throughout history have aimed to prohibit the callousness of ethnocentrism and reverse the perspectives of living in a single culture. These organizations can include the formation of the United Nations; aimed to maintain international relations, and the [[Olympic Games]]; a celebration of sports and friendly competition between cultures.<ref name=":2" />

== Effects ==
A study in New Zealand was used to compare how individuals associate with in-groups and out-groupers and has a connotation to discrimination.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Ryan |last2=Priest |first2=Naomi |last3=Paradies |first3=Yin |last4=Barlow |first4=Fiona Kate |last5=Sibley |first5=Chris G. |title=Barriers to Multiculturalism: In-Group Favoritism and Out-Group Hostility Are Independently Associated With Policy Opposition |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |date=January 2018 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=89–98 |doi=10.1177/1948550617703169 }}</ref> Strong in-group favoritism benefits the dominant groups and is different from out-group hostility and/or punishment.<ref name=":6" /> A suggested solution is to limit the perceived threat from the out-group that also decreases the likeliness for those supporting the in-groups to negatively react.<ref name=":6" />

Ethnocentrism also influences consumer preference over which goods they purchase. A study that used several in-group and out-group orientations have shown a correlation between [[national identity]], consumer cosmopolitanism, [[consumer ethnocentrism]], and the methods consumers choose their products, whether imported or domestic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeugner-Roth |first1=Katharina Petra |last2=Žabkar |first2=Vesna |last3=Diamantopoulos |first3=Adamantios |title=Consumer Ethnocentrism, National Identity, and Consumer Cosmopolitanism as Drivers of Consumer Behavior: A Social Identity Theory Perspective |journal=Journal of International Marketing |date=June 2015 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=25–54 |doi=10.1509/jim.14.0038 }}</ref> Countries with high levels of [[nationalism]] and [[isolationism]] are more likely to demonstrate consumer ethnocentrism, and have a significant preference for domestically-produced goods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balabanis |first1=George |last2=Siamagka |first2=Nikoletta Theofania |title=A meta-analysis of consumer ethnocentrism across 57 countries |journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing |date=September 2022 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=745–763 |doi=10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.12.002 |url=https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/29265/3/body%20ethnocentrismJMR2.pdf }}</ref>

== Ethnocentrism and racism ==
Ethnocentrism is usually associated with racism. However, as mentioned before, ethnocentrism does not necessarily implicate a negative connotation. In European research, the term racism is not linked to ethnocentrism because Europeans avoid applying the concept of race to humans; meanwhile, using this term is not a problem for American researchers.<ref name="Hooghe Ethnocentrism"/> Since ethnocentrism implicated a strong identification with one's in-group, it mostly automatically leads to negative feelings and stereotyping to the members of the outgroup, which can be confused with racism.<ref name="Hooghe Ethnocentrism"/> Finally, scholars agree that avoiding stereotypes is an indispensable prerequisite to overcome ethnocentrism; and mass media play a key role regarding this issue. The differences that each culture possess causes could hinder one another leading to ethnocentrism and racism. A Canadian study established the differences among French Canadian and English Canadian respondents based on products that would be purchased due to ethnocentrism and racism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ouellet |first1=Jean-François |title=Consumer Racism and Its Effects on Domestic Cross-Ethnic Product Purchase: An Empirical Test in the United States, Canada, and France |journal=Journal of Marketing |date=January 2007 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=113–128 |doi=10.1509/jmkg.71.1.113 }}</ref> Due to how diverse the world has become, society has begun to misinterpret the term cultural diversity, by using ethnocentrism to create controversy among all cultures.

== Effects of ethnocentrism in the media ==

=== Film ===
As the United States leads the film industry in worldwide revenue, ethnocentric views can be transmitted through character tropes and underlying themes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 20 countries by filmed entertainment revenue |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/296431/filmed-entertainment-revenue-worldwide-by-country/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> The 2003 film "''[[The Last Samurai]]''," was analyzed to have strong ethnocentric themes, such as in-group preference and the tendency to show judgement towards those in the out-group.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mustofa |first1=Ali - |title=Ethnocentrism in Edward Zwick's The Last Samurai Movie: Postcolonial Perspective |journal=Lensa: Kajian Kebahasaan, Kesusastraan, Dan Budaya |date=30 December 2021 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=206 |doi=10.26714/lensa.11.2.2021.206-216 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, the film received criticism for historical inaccuracies and perpetuating a "[[White savior narrative in film|white savior narrative]]," showing a tendency for ethnocentrism centered around the United States.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Lim |first1=Sam Kyung-Gun |title=Themes of Western Superiority in The Last Samurai |date=2007 |hdl=10161/582 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Social media ===
Approximately 67.1% of the global population use the internet regularly, with 63.7% of the population being social media users.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digital Around the World |url=https://datareportal.com/global-digital-overview |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=DataReportal – Global Digital Insights |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Internet and social media users in the world 2024 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/#:~:text=As%20of%20July%202024,%20there,population,%20were%20social%20media%20users. |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> In a 2023 study, researchers found that social media can enable its users to become more tolerant of other people, bridging the gap between cultures, and contributing to global knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pradanna |first1=Satrio Alpen |last2=Abdulkarim |first2=Aim |date=2023-07-02 |title=The Role Of Social Media In Strengthening Multicultural Tolerance Among Digital Citizenship |url=https://conference.loupiasconference.org/index.php/icoissee3/article/view/342 |journal=Proceeding of International Conference on Innovations in Social Sciences Education and Engineering |volume=3 |pages=013 }}</ref> In a similar study done regarding social media use by Kenyan teens, researchers found that when social media is limited to a certain group, it can increase ethnocentric views and ideologies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cellan |first1=Narciso |title=We Are Therefore I Am: Social Media and Ethnocentrism |journal=The International Journal of Technology, Knowledge, and Society |date=2017 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=11–25 |id={{ProQuest|2712866043}} |doi=10.18848/1832-3669/CGP/v13i01/11-25 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Afrocentrism]]
* [[American exceptionalism]]
* [[Americentrism]]
* [[Asiocentrism]]
* [[Chosen people]]
* [[Collective narcissism]]
* [[Consumer ethnocentrism]]
* [[Ethnic nationalism]]
* [[Eurocentrism]]
* [[Hellenocentrism]]
* [[Indocentrism]]
* [[Mediterraneanism]]
* [[Mortality salience]]
* [[Nordicism]]
* [[Sinocentrism]]
** [[Little China (ideology)|Little China]]
* [[Xenocentrism]]
* [[Zionism]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Further reading'''
* {{cite journal |last1=Allfrey |first1=Fran |title=Ethnonationalism and medievalism: reading affective 'Anglo-Saxonism' today with the discovery of Sutton Hoo |journal=Postmedieval |date=December 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1–4 |pages=75–99 |doi=10.1057/s41280-021-00209-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ankerl |first1=Guy |title=Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western : a Scientific Essay |date=2000 |publisher=INU PRESS |isbn=978-2-88155-004-1 }}
* {{cite book|title=Ethnocentrism: Integrated Perspectives|last1=Bizumic|first1=Boris|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon|isbn=9781138187733}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kinder |first1=Donald R. |last2=Kam |first2=Cindy D. |title=Us Against Them: Ethnocentric Foundations of American Opinion |date=2010 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-43571-8 }}
* {{cite book|title=How to Observe Morals and manners|url=https://archive.org/details/howtoobservemor00martgoog|last=Martineau|first=H.|date=1838|publisher=Charles Knight and Co.|location=London}}
* {{cite book|title=The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism|editor-last=Reynolds|editor-first=V.|editor-last2=Falger|editor-first2=V.|editor-last3=Vine|editor-first3=I.|date=1987|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|location=Athens, Georgia}}
* {{cite book |last1=Salter |first1=Frank K. |title=Risky Transactions: Trust, Kinship and Ethnicity |date=2002 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-57181-319-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=van den Berghe |first1=Pierre L. |title=The Ethnic Phenomenon |date=1987 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-275-92709-7 }}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/11/science/11hormone.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/11/science/11hormone.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|title=The Dark Side of Oxytocin, the Hormone of Love: Ethnocentrism|last=Wade|first=Nicholas|date=January 10, 2011|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=January 19, 2019 }}{{cbignore}}

== External links ==
* [http://gpi.sagepub.com/ Group Processes and Intergroup Relations]
* Examples of ethnocentric maps: select [https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject "Ethnocentrism" subject at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], Cornell University Library

{{Ethnocentrism}}
{{Ethnicity}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnocentrism| ]]
[[Category:Chauvinism]]
[[Category:Ethnicity]]
[[Category:Sociology of culture]]
[[Category:1900s neologisms]]

Isolationism

2025-06-04T13:04:54Z

45.164.25.216: /* See also */

{{Short description|Policy against engaging in international relations}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}{{For|the ambient music subgenre|Dark ambient}}
{{For|the music album|Isolationism (album)}}

'''Isolationism''' is a term used to refer to a [[political philosophy]] advocating a [[foreign policy]] that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and [[Anti-war movement|especially the wars]], of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates [[Neutral country|neutrality]] and opposes entanglement in military [[alliance]]s and mutual defense pacts. In its purest form, isolationism opposes all commitments to foreign countries, including [[treaties]] and [[trade agreements]].<ref>Thomas S. Vontz, "Isolationism." '' World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia'' (2013).</ref> In the political science lexicon, there is also the term of "[[non-interventionism]]", which is sometimes improperly used to replace the concept of "isolationism".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Romanov |first=V. V. |last2=Artyukhov |first2=A. A. |year=2013 |title=The Notion of "Isolationism" in U.S. Foreign-Policy Thought: Conceptual Characteristics |url=https://www.elibrary.ru/download/elibrary_21336929_87848794.pdf |journal=Vestnik Vâtskogo Gosudarstvennogo Gumanitarnogo Universiteta |language=ru |publication-place=Kirov, Russia |volume= |issue=3-1 |page=67 |issn=1997-4280}}</ref> "Non-interventionism" is commonly understood as "a foreign policy of political or military non-involvement in foreign relations or in other countries' internal affairs".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=M. |title=The Myth of American Isolationism, Part I: American Leadership and the Cause of Liberty |url=https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/the-myth-isolationism-part-1-american-leadership-and-the-cause-liberty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320031411/http://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/the-myth-isolationism-part-1-american-leadership-and-the-cause-liberty |url-status=unfit |archive-date=20 March 2017 |journal=The Heritage Foundation |publication-place=Washington D.C. |publication-date=2010 |page=2}}</ref> "Isolationism" should be interpreted more broadly as "a foreign policy [[grand strategy]] of military and political non-interference in international affairs and in the internal affairs of sovereign states, associated with trade and economic [[protectionism]] and cultural and religious isolation, as well as with the inability to be in permanent [[Military alliance|military alliances]], with the preservation, however, some opportunities to participate in temporary military alliances that meet the current interests of the state and in permanent [[International organization|international organizations]] of a non-military nature."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Artiukhov |first=A. A. |title=The Conceptual Characteristics of the Notion “Isolationism” at the Current Historical Stage |url=https://research-journal.org/archive/8-122-2022-august/10.23670/IRJ.2022.122.54 |journal=Meždunarodnyj Naučno-Issledovatel'skij Žurnal [International Research Journal] |language=ru |publication-place=Yekaterinburg, Russia |publication-date=2022 |volume= |issue=8 (122) |page=2 |doi=10.23670/IRJ.2022.122.54 |issn=1997-4280 |eissn=2227-6017}}</ref>

This contrasts with philosophies such as [[colonialism]], [[expansionism]], and [[liberal internationalism]].

==Introduction==
Isolationism has been defined as:

{{blockquote|sign=|source=|A policy or doctrine of trying to isolate one's country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, international agreements, and generally attempting to make one's economy entirely self-reliant; seeking to devote the entire efforts of one's country to its own advancement, both diplomatically and economically, while remaining in a state of peace by avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045301744.html "Neutrality, Political,"] (2008). ''[[International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]]''; retrieved 2011-09-18</ref>}}

==By country==
===Albania===
{{Main|People's Socialist Republic of Albania#Self-reliance}}

===Bhutan===
Before 1999, [[Bhutan]] had banned [[television]] and the [[Internet]] in order to preserve its culture, environment, and identity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bhutan/|website=CIA World Factbook|access-date=17 May 2017|title=South Asia :: Bhutan }}</ref> Eventually, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] lifted the ban on television and the Internet. His son, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], was elected Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan, which helped forge the [[Bhutanese democracy]]. [[Bhutan]] has subsequently undergone a transition from an [[absolute monarchy]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]] [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[democracy]]. The development of ''Bhutanese democracy'' has been marked by the active encouragement and participation of the reigning [[Druk Gyalpo|Bhutanese monarchs]] since the 1950s, beginning with legal reforms, and culminating in the enactment of [[Constitution of Bhutan|Bhutan's Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insidebayarea.com/bhutan/ci_15906144 |title=Reporter's Notebook from Bhutan: Crashing the Lost Horizon |first=Matt |last=O'Brien |publisher=Contra Costa Times |date=2010-08-29 |website=Inside Bay Area |access-date=2011-09-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323203117/http://www.insidebayarea.com/bhutan/ci_15906144 |archive-date= Mar 23, 2012 }}</ref>

[[Tourism in Bhutan]] was prohibited until 1974. Since then, the country has allowed foreigners to visit, but has tightly controlled tourism in an effort to preserve its natural and cultural heritage. {{As of|2022|post=,}} tourists must pay a $200 per day fee on top of other travel expenses such as meals and accommodation. Prior to 2022, visitors were not allowed to travel independently and had to be accompanied by a [[tour guide]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yeginsu |first=Ceylan |date=2022-07-05 |title=Famous for Happiness, and Limits on Tourism, Bhutan Will Triple Fees to Visit |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/05/travel/bhutan-tourism.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-02-18 |issn=0362-4331 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218233052/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/05/travel/bhutan-tourism.html |archive-date=2023-02-18 }}</ref> {{as of|2021|post=,}} Bhutan does not maintain formal [[foreign relations of Bhutan|foreign relations]] with any of the five [[permanent members of the UN Security Council]], notably including [[China]], its neighbor to the north with which it has a [[Bhutan–China relations|historically tense relationship]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chaudhury|first=Dipanjan Roy|title=Bhutan doesn't have diplomatic ties with any of the 5 UNSC permanent members|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bhutan-doesnt-have-diplomatic-ties-with-any-of-the-5-unsc-permanent-members/articleshow/59601903.cms?from=mdr|access-date=19 October 2021}}</ref>

===Cambodia===
{{Main|Post-Angkor Period}}
{{See also|Khmer Rouge}}
From 1431 to 1863, the [[Post-Angkor Period|Kingdom of Cambodia]] enforced an isolationist policy. The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. When [[Pol Pot]] and the [[Khmer Rouge]] came to power on 17 April 1975 and established [[Democratic Kampuchea]], the urban population of every city, including [[Fall of Phnom Penh|Phnom Penh]], was relocated to the countryside. This was ordered by the [[Communist Party of Kampuchea]] and the secret police [[Santebal]], and they then established an infamous prison gulag inside the torture chamber called [[Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum|Tuol Sleng (S-21)]]. Cambodia proceeded to implement the [[Year Zero (political notion)|Year Zero]] policy, hastening isolation from the rest of the world. Ultimately, the authority of the Khmer Rouge and its isolationist policy would collapse in 1978 when the [[Vietnam]]ese invaded the country and then overthrew Pol Pot on 7 January 1979.

===China===
{{Main|Haijin}}
{{See also|One China|Political status of Taiwan}}
After [[Ming treasure voyages|Zheng He's voyages]] in the 15th century, the foreign policy of the [[Ming dynasty]] in [[China]] became increasingly isolationist. The [[Hongwu Emperor]] was not the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1390.<ref>Vo Glahn, Richard. [1996] (1996). Pit of Money: money and monetary policy in China, c. 1000–1700. University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-20408-9}}</ref> The [[Qing dynasty]] that came after the Ming dynasty often continued the Ming dynasty's isolationist policies. [[Wokou]], which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China, Japan, and Korea, and were one of the key primary concerns, although the maritime ban was not without some control.

In the winter of 1757, the [[Qianlong Emperor]] declared that—effective the next year—[[Guangzhou]] was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders, beginning the [[Canton System]].<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC |title=Intra-Asian Trade and the World Market |editor=A. John H. Latham |editor2=Heita Kawakatsu |display-editors=0 |series=Studies in the Modern History of Asia |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |date=2006 |contribution=China's Overseas Trade Policy and Its Historical Results: 1522–1840 |page=10 |last=Shi |first=Zhihong |isbn=978-1-134-19408-7 |author-mask=Shi Zhihong }}</ref>

Since the division of the territory following the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, China is divided into two regimes with the [[China|People's Republic of China]] solidified control on [[mainland China]] while the existing [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] was confined to the [[island of Taiwan]] as both governments lay claim to each other's sovereignty. While the PRC is recognized by the [[United Nations]], [[European Union]], and the majority of the world's states, the ROC remains diplomatically isolated although 15 states recognize it as "China" with some countries maintaining unofficial diplomatic relations through [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office|trade offices]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/08/taiwans-growing-diplomatic-isolation/|title=Taiwan's Growing Diplomatic Isolation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/local/archives/2001/09/12/0000102595|title = Taiwan and the United Nations - Withdrawal in 1971 was an historic turning point |website=Taipei Times|date = 12 September 2001 |first1= Monique |last1=Chu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324045720/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/local/archives/2001/09/12/0000102595 |archive-date= Mar 24, 2024 }}</ref>

===Japan===
{{Main|Sakoku}}
From 1641 to 1853, the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] of [[Japan]] enforced a policy called ''kaikin''. The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. The commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed, however, is misleading. In fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with [[China]], [[Korea]], and the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryukyu Islands]], as well as the [[Dutch Republic]] as the only Western trading partner of Japan for much of the period.<ref>400 jaar handel – [http://www.400jaarhandel.nl/ ''Four centuries of Japanese–Dutch trade relations: 1609–2009''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111044011/http://www.400jaarhandel.nl/ |date=2008-01-11 }}</ref><ref>Ronald P. Toby, ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu'', Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.</ref>

The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the outside world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history. During this period, Japan developed thriving cities, castle towns, increasing commodification of agriculture and domestic trade,<ref>Thomas C. Smith, ''The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan'', Stanford Studies in the Civilizations of Eastern Asia, Stanford, Calif., 1959,: Stanford University Press.</ref> wage labor, increasing literacy and concomitant [[print culture]],<ref>Mary Elizabeth Berry, ''Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.</ref> laying the groundwork for modernization even as the shogunate itself grew weak.<ref>Albert Craig, ''Chōshū in the Meiji Restoration'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1961; Marius B. Jansen, ''Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration'', Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1961.</ref>

===Korea===
{{See also|Hermit kingdom|Juche}}
In 1863, [[Gojong of the Korean Empire|Emperor Gojong]] took the throne of the [[Joseon Dynasty]] when he was a child. His father, Regent [[Heungseon Daewongun]], ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s he was the main proponent of isolationism and the principal instrument of the persecution of both native and foreign Catholics.

Following the [[division of Korea|division of the peninsula]] after independence from [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] at the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of World War II]], [[Kim Il Sung]] inaugurated an isolationist [[Juche|nationalist regime]] in the [[North Korea|North]], which would continued by his [[Kim Jong-il|son]] and [[Kim Jong-un|grandson]] following [[Death and state funeral of Kim Il Sung|his death]] in 1994.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Drew (PhD) |first=Chris |date=2023-07-30 |title=25 Isolationism Examples (2023) |url=https://helpfulprofessor.com/isolationism-examples/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=helpfulprofessor.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Paraguay===
In 1814, three years after [[Independence of Paraguay|it gained its independence]] on May 14, 1811, Paraguay was taken over by the [[dictator]] [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]]. During his rule which lasted from 1814 until his death in 1840, he closed Paraguay's borders and prohibited trade or any relationship between Paraguay and the outside world. The [[Spaniards|Spanish]] settlers who had arrived in Paraguay just before it gained its independence were required to marry old colonists or the native [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] in order to create a single [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguayan people]].

Francia had a particular dislike of foreigners, and any foreigners who attempted to enter the country were not allowed to leave for an indefinite period of time. An independent character, he hated European influences and the [[Catholic Church]] and in order to try to keep foreigners at bay, he turned church courtyards into artillery parks and turned confession boxes into border sentry posts.<ref name=":0" />

===United States===
{{Main|United States non-interventionism#Isolationism between the World Wars}}

Some scholars, such as [[Robert J. Art]], believe that the United States had an isolationist history, but most other scholars dispute that claim by describing the United States as following a strategy of [[unilateralism]] or [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]] rather than a strategy of isolationism.<ref name=ArtGrandStratpg172-173>{{cite book|last1=Art|first1=Robert J.|title=A grand strategy for America|date=2004|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-8014-8957-0|pages=172–73}}</ref><ref name=McDougallPLCSpg39-40>{{cite book|last1=McDougall|first1=Walter A.|title=Promised land, crusader state : the American encounter with the world since 1776|date=1998|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston, Mass.|isbn=978-0-395-90132-8|pages=39–40}}</ref> Robert Art makes his argument in ''A Grand Strategy for America'' (2003).<ref name="ArtGrandStratpg172-173"/> Books that have made the argument that the United States followed unilaterism instead of isolationism include [[Walter A. McDougall]]'s ''Promised Land, Crusader State'' (1997), [[John Lewis Gaddis]]'s ''Surprise, Security, and the American Experience'' (2004), and [[Bradley F. Podliska]]'s ''Acting Alone'' (2010).<ref>[[Bradley F. Podliska|Podliska, Bradley F.]] ''Acting Alone: A Scientific Study of American Hegemony and Unilateral Use-of-Force Decision Making''. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-7391-4251-6}}</ref> Both sides claim policy prescriptions from [[George Washington's Farewell Address]] as evidence for their argument.<ref name="ArtGrandStratpg172-173"/><ref name="McDougallPLCSpg39-40"/> Bear F. Braumoeller argues that even the best case for isolationism, the United States in the interwar period, has been widely misunderstood and that Americans proved willing to fight as soon as they believed a genuine threat existed.<ref>Braumoeller, Bear F. (2010) "[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2010.00117.x/asset/j.1743-8594.2010.00117.x.pdf?v=1&t=idkox1xs&s=0a733ff5e5ab90b455a9d501387f32935e75ac6b The Myth of American Isolationism.]" Foreign Policy Analysis 6: 349–71.</ref> Warren F. Kuehl and Gary B. Ostrower argue:
<blockquote>Events during and after the Revolution related to the treaty of alliance with France, as well as difficulties arising over the neutrality policy pursued during the French revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic wars, encouraged another perspective. A desire for separateness and unilateral freedom of action merged with national pride and a sense of continental safety to foster the policy of isolation. Although the United States maintained diplomatic relations and economic contacts abroad, it sought to restrict these as narrowly as possible in order to retain its independence. The Department of State continually rejected proposals for joint cooperation, a policy made explicit in the Monroe Doctrine's emphasis on unilateral action. Not until 1863 did an American delegate attend an international conference.<ref>Warren F. Kuehl and Gary B. Ostrower, "Internationalism" ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'' ed. Alexander DeConde (2002) [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Internationalism.aspx online]</ref></blockquote>

==Criticism==
Isolationism has been criticized for the lack of aiding nations with major troubles. One notable example is that of American isolationism, which [[Benjamin Schwarz (writer)|Benjamin Schwartz]] described as a "tragedy" inspired by [[Puritanism]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209494|title=Review: The Tragedy of American Isolationism|first=Benjamin|last=Schwartz|journal=World Policy Journal |volume=13 |number=3 |date=Fall 1996|page=107|jstor=40209494|access-date=December 6, 2020}}</ref>

Some modern American conservative commentators assert that labeling others as isolationist is used against individuals in a pejorative manner.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Larison |first=Daniel |date=2020-09-30 |title=Getting Rid of the Myth of 'Isolationism' |url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/getting-rid-of-the-myth-of-isolationism/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=The American Conservative |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Are Republicans Really Turning Back to Isolationism? |url=https://www.aei.org/articles/are-republicans-really-turning-back-to-isolationism/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=American Enterprise Institute - AEI |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Autarky]]
* [[Cordon Sanitaire]]
* [[Economic nationalism]]
* [[Iron Curtain]]
* [[Uncontacted peoples|Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation]]
* [[International isolation]]
* [[Monroe Doctrine]]
* [[Non-interventionism]]
* ''[[Sakoku]]'', Japan's policy before 1868
* [[Swiss neutrality]]
* [[Isolation (disambiguation)]]
* [[Splendid isolation]]
* [[United States non-interventionism]]
* [[Unilateralism in the United States]]
* ''[[Why die for Danzig?]]''
{{div col end}}

==Works cited==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Barry, Tom. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070808082014/http://www.irc-online.org/fpif/pdf/gac/0211power.pdf "A Global Affairs Commentary: The Terms of Power,"] ''Foreign Policy in Focus'', November 6, 2002, University Press.
*Chalberg, John C. (1995). ''Isolationism: Opposing Viewpoints.'' San Diego: Greenhaven Press. {{ISBN|978-1-56510-223-1}}; {{OCLC|30078579}}

* [[Michael P. Sullivan|Sullivan, Michael P.]] "Isolationism." World Book Deluxe 2001. CD-ROM.
* Artiukhov A. A. [https://www.elibrary.ru/download/elibrary_49468420_19397103.pdf The Conceptual Characteristics of the Notion “Isolationism” at the Current Historical Stage] / A. A. Artiukhov // Meždunarodnyj Naučno-Issledovatel'skij Žurnal [International Research Journal]. – 2022. – № 8 (122). – [https://research-journal.org/en/archive/8-122-2022-august/10.23670/IRJ.2022.122.54 DOI 10.23670/IRJ.2022.122.54].
===China and Japan===
* [[Mary Elizabeth Barry|Berry, Mary Elizabeth]]. (2006). ''Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-23766-7}}; {{OCLC|60697079}}

* [[Albert M. Craig|Craig, Albert]]. (1961). ''Chōshū in the Meiji Restoration.'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-12850-7}}; {{OCLC|413558}}
* Glahn, Richard Von. (1996). ''Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-20408-9}}; {{OCLC|34323424}}

* [[Marius Jansen|Jansen, Marius B.]] (1961). ''Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{OCLC|413111}}
* Smith, Thomas C. (1959). ''The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press. {{OCLC|263403}}

* [[Ronald Toby|Toby, Ronald P.]] (1984). ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-05401-8}}; {{OCLC|9557347}}

===United States===
{{Main|United States non-interventionism#References and further reading}}
* Adler, Selig. ''The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth Century Reaction'' (1957); says it's based on economic self-sufficiency and the illusion of security, together with Irish and German ethnic factors.
* Graebner, Norman A. (1956). ''The New Isolationism; a Study in Politics and Foreign Policy Since 1950.'' New York: Ronald Press. {{OCLC|256173}}
* Kupchan, Charles A. ''Isolationism: A History of America's Efforts to Shield Itself from the World'' (Oxford University Press, USA, 2020). [https://books.google.com/books?id=P7_1DwAAQBAJ&dq=Kupchan+Isolationism&pg=PP1 online]; also see [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/789552/summary online review]

* Nichols, Christopher McKnight (2011). "Promise and Peril: America at the Dawn of a Global Age." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. {{OCLC|676725368}}
* Nordlinger, Eric A. (1995). ''Isolationism Reconfigured: American Foreign Policy for a New Century.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-04327-2}}; {{OCLC|31515131}}

* Rose, Kenneth D. ''American Isolationism Between the World Wars: The Search for a Nation's Identity'' (Routledge, 2021) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ytMhEAAAQBAJ&dq=isolationism&pg=PT5 online].
* Weinberg, Albert K. "The Historical Meaning of the American Doctrine of Isolation." ''American Political Science Review'' 34#3 (1940): 539–547. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1949358 in JSTOR]
* Romanov V. V., Artyukhov A. A. (2013) [https://www.elibrary.ru/download/elibrary_21336929_23442819.pdf The Notion of "Isolationism" in U.S. Foreign-Policy Thought: Conceptual Characteristics] / V. V. Romanov, A. A. Artyukhov // Vestnik Vâtskogo Gosudarstvennogo Gumanitarnogo Universiteta. – № 3-1. – pp. 67–71.

===Primary sources===
*[[George Washington|Washington, George]] "Washington's Farewell Address 1796." ''Yale Law School Avalon Project, 2008''. Web. 12 Sept 2013.

{{Anti-war}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Isolationism]]
[[Category:International relations theory]]