Grammatical conjugation

2025-05-29T06:29:23Z

45.187.103.2: /* Examples */

{{Short description|Creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection}}
{{Distinguish|Conjunction (grammar)}}
[[File:Conjugation of verb-es.svg|thumb|270px|Part of the conjugation of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] verb ''correr'', "to run", the lexeme is "corr-". Red represents the speaker, purple the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]] (or speaker/hearer) and teal a third person. One person represents the singular number and two, the plural number. Dawn represents the past (specifically the [[preterite]]), noon the present and night the future.]]
{{Grammatical categories}}
In [[linguistics]], '''conjugation''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɒ|n|dʒ|ᵿ|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|ʃ|ən}} {{respell|con|juug|AY|shən}}{{refn|{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182042/https://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-03-22 |title=conjugation |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|access-date=2016-01-26|conjugation}}}}) is the creation of derived forms of a [[verb]] from its [[principal parts]] by [[inflection]] (alteration of form according to rules of [[grammar]]). For instance, the verb ''break'' can be conjugated to form the words ''break'', ''breaks'', and ''broke''. While English has a relatively simple conjugation, other languages such as [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are more complex, with each verb having dozens of conjugated forms. Some languages such as [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Basque language|Basque]] (some verbs only) have highly complex conjugation systems with hundreds of possible conjugations for every verb.

Verbs may inflect for [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] such as [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical case|case]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[possession (linguistics)|possession]], [[definiteness]], [[politeness]], [[Causative|causativity]], [[clusivity]], [[interrogative]]s, [[Transitivity (grammar)|transitivity]], [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]], [[Affirmation and negation|polarity]], [[telicity]], [[Volition (linguistics)|volition]], [[mirativity]], [[evidentiality]], [[animacy]], associativity,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grammaticalfeatures.net/features/associativity.html|title=Grammatical Features - Associativity|website=www.grammaticalfeatures.net|access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref> [[pluractionality]], and [[Reciprocal (grammar)|reciprocity]]. Verbs may also be affected by [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]], [[polypersonal agreement]], [[Incorporation (linguistics)|incorporation]], [[noun class]], [[noun classifier]]s, and [[verb classifier]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/10502997|title=Verb Classifiers - 'Misfits' of Nominal Classification?|first=Matthias|last=Passer|website=academia.edu|access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref> [[Agglutinative]] and [[polysynthetic language]]s tend to have the most complex conjugations, although some [[fusional language]]s such as [[Archi language|Archi]] can also have extremely complex conjugation. Typically the principal parts are the [[root (linguistics)|root]] and/or several modifications of it ([[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s). All the different forms of the same verb constitute a [[lexeme]], and the canonical form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent that lexeme (as seen in dictionary entries) is called a [[lemma (morphology)|lemma]].

The term conjugation is applied only to the inflection of verbs, and not of other parts of speech (inflection of [[noun]]s and [[adjective]]s is known as [[declension]]){{citation needed|date=November 2022}}. Also it is generally restricted to denoting the formation of [[finite verb|finite forms]] of a verb – these may be referred to as ''conjugated forms'', as opposed to [[non-finite verb|non-finite forms]], such as an [[infinitive]], [[gerund]], or [[participle]] which respectively comprise their own grammatical categories{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}.

''Conjugation'' is also the traditional term for a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a ''verb class''). For example, [[Latin]] is said to have four conjugations of verbs. This means that any [[regular verb|regular]] Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts. A verb that does not follow all of the standard conjugation patterns of the language is said to be an [[irregular verb]]. The system of all conjugated variants of a particular verb or class of verbs is called a '''verb paradigm'''; this may be presented in the form of a '''conjugation table'''.

==Verbal agreement==
'''Verbal agreement''', or '''concord''', is a [[morphology (linguistics)|morpho]]-[[syntax|syntactic]] construct in which properties of the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and/or [[object (grammar)|object]]s of a [[verb]] are indicated by the verb form. Verbs are then said to [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with their subjects (resp. objects).

Many [[English language|English]] verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort: whereas ''I go'', ''you go'', ''we go'', ''they go'' are all grammatical in standard English, ''he go'' is not (except in the [[subjunctive]], as "They requested that ''he go'' with them"). Instead, a special form of the verb ''to go'' has to be used to produce ''he goes''. On the other hand ''I goes'', ''you goes'' etc. are not grammatical in standard English. (Things are different in some English dialects that lack agreement.) A few English verbs have no special forms that indicate subject agreement (''I may'', ''you may'', ''he may''), and the verb ''to be'' has an additional form ''am'' that can only be used with the pronoun ''I'' as the subject.

Verbs in written [[French verbs|French]] exhibit more intensive agreement [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] than English verbs: {{lang|fr|je suis}} (I am), {{lang|fr|tu es}} ("you are", singular [[T–V distinction|informal]]), {{lang|fr|elle est}} (she is), {{lang|fr|nous sommes}} (we are), {{lang|fr|vous êtes}} ("you are", plural), {{lang|fr|ils sont}} (they are). Historically, English used to have a similar verbal paradigm. Some historic verb forms are used by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] as slightly archaic or more formal variants (''I do'', ''thou dost'', ''he doth'') of the modern forms.

Some languages with verbal agreement can leave certain subjects [[null-subject language|implicit]] when the subject is fully determined by the verb form. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], for instance, subject pronouns do not need to be explicitly present, but in French, its close relative, they are obligatory. The Spanish equivalent to the French {{lang|fr|je suis}} (I am) can be simply {{lang|es|soy}} (lit. "am"). The pronoun {{lang|es|yo}} (I) in the explicit form {{lang|es|yo soy}} is used only for emphasis or to clear ambiguity in complex texts.

Some languages have a richer agreement system in which verbs agree also with some or all of their objects. [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] exhibits verbal agreement for the subject, direct object, indirect object, benefaction and ablative objects ({{lang|uby|a.w3.s.xe.n.t'u.n}}, ''you gave it to him for me'').

[[Basque language|Basque]] can show agreement not only for subject, direct object and indirect object but it also can exhibit agreement for the listener as the implicit benefactor: {{lang|eu|autoa ekarri digute}} means "they brought us the car" (neuter agreement for the listener), but {{lang|eu|autoa ekarri ziguten}} means "they brought us the car" (agreement for feminine singular listener).

Languages with a rich agreement morphology facilitate relatively free word order without leading to increased ambiguity. The canonical word order in Basque is [[subject–object–verb]], but all permutations of subject, verb and object are permitted.

===Nonverbal person agreement===
In some languages,<ref>Stassen, Leon; '''Intransitive Predication (Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory)'''; published 1997 by [[Oxford University Press]]; p. 39. {{ISBN|0-19-925893-7}}</ref> predicative [[adjective]]s and [[copula (linguistics)|copular]] complements receive a form of person agreement that is distinct from that used on ordinary [[predicative verb]]s. Although that is a form of conjugation in that it refers back to the person of the subject, it is not "verbal" because it always derives from [[pronouns]] that have become [[clitic]] to the nouns to which they refer.<ref>Stassen; '''Intransitive Predication'''; pp. 77 & 284-288</ref> An example of nonverbal person agreement, along with contrasting verbal conjugation, can be found from [[Beja language|Beja]]<ref name="Stassen40">Stassen, '''Intransitive Predication'''; p. 40</ref> (person agreement affixes in bold):

* {{lang|bej-latn|wun.tu.'''wi'''}}, “you (fem.) are big”
* {{lang|bej-latn|hadá.b.'''wa'''}}, “you (masc.) are a sheik”
* {{lang|bej-latn|'''e'''.n.fór}}, “he flees”

Another example can be found from [[Ket language|Ket]]:<ref name="Stassen40"/>

* {{lang|ket-latn|fèmba.'''di'''}}, “I am a [[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]]”
* {{lang|ket-latn|'''dɨ'''.fen}}, “I am standing”

In [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], and a few [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[indigenous Australian languages|Australian Aboriginal languages]], predicative adjectives and copular complements take affixes that are identical to those used on predicative verbs, but their [[negation (linguistics)|negation]] is different. For example, in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]:

* {{lang|tr|koş.u.yor.'''sun'''}} “you are running”
* {{lang|tr|çavuş.'''sun'''}} “you are a sergeant”

Under negation, that becomes (negative affixes in bold):

* {{lang|tr|koş.'''mu'''.yor.sun}} “you are not running”
* {{lang|tr|çavuş '''değil'''.sin}} “you are not a sergeant”

Therefore, the person agreement affixes used with predicative adjectives and nominals in Turkic languages are considered to be nonverbal in character. In some analyses, they are viewed as a form of verbal takeover by a copular strategy.

==Factors that affect conjugation==
These common [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] affect how verbs can be conjugated:
*[[Finite verb|Finite verb forms]]:
**[[Grammatical person]]
**[[Grammatical number]]
**[[Grammatical gender]]
**[[Grammatical tense]]
**[[Grammatical aspect]]
**[[Grammatical mood]]
**[[Grammatical voice]]
*[[Non-finite verb|Non-finite verb forms]].

Here are other factors that may affect conjugation:
*Degree of formality (see [[T–V distinction]], [[Honorific speech in Japanese]], [[Korean speech levels]])
*[[Clusivity]] (of personal pronouns)
*[[Transitivity (grammatical category)|Transitivity]]
*[[Valency (linguistics)|Valency]]

==Examples==
[[Indo-European languages]] usually [[inflection|inflect]] verbs for several grammatical categories in complex [[Inflectional paradigm|paradigm]]s, although some, like English, have simplified verb conjugation to a large extent. Below is the conjugation of the verb ''to be'' in the present tense (of the infinitive, if it exists, and indicative moods), in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbo-Croatian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Urdu]] or [[Hindi]], [[Bengali Language|Bengali]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Ancient Attic Greek]] and [[Modern Greek]]. This is usually the most irregular verb. The similarities in corresponding verb forms may be noticed. Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English ''[[thou]]''-form, or have additional meanings, like the English ''[[you]]''-form, which can also stand for second person singular or be [[generic you|impersonal]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+ |"To be" in several Indo-European languages
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:left" | Branch
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:left" | Language
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:left" | Present infinitive
! colspan="6" | Present indicative
|-
! colspan="3" | Singular persons
! colspan="3" | Plural persons
|-
! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd
! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="14" | Germanic
! style="text-align:left" | Proto-Germanic
| {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*wesaną}}
| *immi
| *izi
| *isti
| *izum
| *izud
| *sindi
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Anglo-Saxon
| {{wikt-lang|ang|wesan}}
| eom
| eart
| is
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | sind sindon
|-
! style="text-align:left" | English
| {{wikt-lang|en|be}}
| am
| are art1 beest1
| is are11
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | are
|-
! style="text-align:left" | German
| {{wikt-lang|de|sein}}
| bin
| bist
| ist
| sind
| seid
| sind
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Yiddish ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|yi|זײַן|זיין}} {{transliteration|yi|zayn}}
| בין ''bin''
| ביסט ''bist''
| איז ''iz''
| זענען/זײַנען ''zenen/zaynen''
| זענט/זײַט ''zent/zayt''
| זענען/זײַנען ''zenen/zaynen''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Luxembourgish
| {{wikt-lang|lb|sinn}}
| sinn
| bass
| ass
| sinn
| sidd
| sinn
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Dutch
| {{wikt-lang|nl|zijn}}
| ben
| bent zijt2
| is
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | zijn
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Afrikaans
| {{wikt-lang|af|wees}}
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | is
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Old Norse
| {{wikt-lang|non|vesa}} {{wikt-lang|non|vera}}
| em
| est ert
| es er
| erum
| eruð
| eru
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Icelandic
| {{wikt-lang|is|vera}}
| er
| ert
| er
| erum
| eruð
| eru
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Faroese
| {{wikt-lang|fo|vera}}
| eri
| ert
| er
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | eru
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Norwegian
| {{wikt-lang|no|være}}3 (Bokmål) {{wikt-lang|no|vera}}, {{wikt-lang|no|vere}}4 (Nynorsk)
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center"| er
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Danish
| {{wikt-lang|da|være}}
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | er
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Swedish
| {{wikt-lang|sv|vara}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | är
| colspan="3" style="text align:center" | är äro5
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! rowspan="13" style="text-align:left" | Italic
! style="text-align:left" | Latin
| esse
| {{wikt-lang|la|sum}}
| es
| est
| sumus
| estis
| sunt
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Italian
| {{wikt-lang|it|essere}}
| sono
| sei
| è
| siamo semo5
| siete sète5
| sono enno5
|-
! style="text-align:left" | French
| {{wikt-lang|fr|être}}
| suis
| es
| est
| sommes
| êtes
| sont
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Catalan
| {{wikt-lang|ca|ésser}} {{wikt-lang|ca|ser}}
| sóc
| ets eres14
| és
| som
| sou
| són
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Lombard
| {{wikt-lang|lmo|vésser}}
| ''(a)'' son
| ''te'' sé
| ''l'''è
| som sem5
| sî
| ''i'' è ''(i)'' enn14
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Venetian
| {{wikt-lang|vec|èsar}}
| son
| ''te'' si
| ''el'' ze
| semo
| si
| ''i'' ze
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Spanish
| {{wikt-lang|es|ser}}
| soy
| eres
| es
| somos
| sois
son
| son
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Galician
| {{wikt-lang|gl|ser}}
| son
| es
| é
| somos
| sodes
| son
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Portuguese
| {{wikt-lang|pt|ser}}
| sou
| és
| é
| somos
| sois
| são
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Sardinian ([[Limba Sarda Comuna|LSC]])
| {{wikt-lang|sc|èssere}}
| so
| ses
| est
| semus
| seis
| sunt
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Friulian
| {{wikt-lang|fur|jessi}}
| soi
| sês
| è
| sin
| sês
| son
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Neapolitan
| {{wikt-lang|nap|èssere}}
| songo, so
| sî
| è
| simmo
| site
| songo, so
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Romanian
| a {{wikt-lang|ro|fi}}
| sunt
| ești
| este
| suntem
| sunteți
| sunt
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="3" | Celtic
! style="text-align:left" | Irish
| bheith
| {{wikt-lang|ga|bím}}
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" |bíonn
| bímid
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" |bíonn
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Welsh (standard form)
| {{wikt-lang|cy|bod}}
| rydw
| rwyt
| mae
| rydych
| rydyn
| maen
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Breton
| {{wikt-lang|br|bezañ}}
| on
| out
| eo
| omp
| oc'h
| int
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="2" | Greek
! style="text-align:left" | Ancient6 ''transliterated''
| {{lang|grc|εἶναι}} ''eînai''
| {{lang|grc|εἰμί}} ''eimí''
| {{lang|grc|εἶ}} ''eî''
| {{lang|grc|ἐστί}} ''estí''
| {{lang|grc|ἐσμέν}} ''esmén''
| {{lang|grc|ἐστέ}} ''esté''
| {{lang|grc|εἰσί}} ''eisí''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Modern ''transliterated''
| όντας7 ''óntas''
| είμαι ''eímai''
| είσαι ''eísai''
| είναι ''eínai''
| είμαστε ''eímaste''
| είσ(ασ)τε ''eís(as)te''
| είναι ''eínai''
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" colspan="2" | Albanian
| ''me qenë''
| jam
| je
| është
| jemi
| jeni
| janë
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="2"| Armenian
! style="text-align:left" | Western ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|hy|ըլլալ}} ĕllal
| {{lang|hy|Եմ}} ''em''
| {{lang|hy|ես}} ''es''
| {{lang|hy|է}} ''ē''
| {{lang|hy|ենք}} ''enk‘''
| {{lang|hy|էք}} ''ēk‘''
| {{lang|hy|են}} ''en''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Eastern ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|hy|լինել}} ''linel''
| {{lang|hy|Եմ}} ''em''
| {{lang|hy|ես}} ''es''
| {{lang|hy|է}} ''ē''
| {{lang|hy|ենք}} ''enk‘''
| {{lang|hy|եք}} ''ek‘''
| {{lang|hy|են}} ''en''
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="10" | Slavic
! style="text-align:left" | Czech
| {{wikt-lang|cs|být}}
| jsem
| jsi
| je
| jsme
| jste
| jsou
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Slovak
| {{wikt-lang|sk|byť}}
| som
| si
| je
| sme
| ste
| sú
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Polish
| {{wikt-lang|pl|być}}
| jestem
| jesteś
| jest
| jesteśmy
| jesteście
| są
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Russian ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|ru|быть}} ''byt'''
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | есть ''yest'''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Ukrainian ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|uk|бути}} ''buty''
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center" | є ''ye''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Serbo-Croatian'' strong''
| biti
| jesam
| jesi
| jest(e)
| jesmo
| jeste
| jesu
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Serbo-Croatian'' clitic''
| ''none''
| sam
| si
| je
| smo
| ste
| su
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Slovenian
| biti
| sem
| si
| je
| smo
| ste
| so
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Bulgarian ''transliterated''
| ''none''
| {{wikt-lang|bg|съм}} ''săm''
| си ''si''
| е ''e''
| сме ''sme''
| сте ''ste''
| са ''să''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Macedonian ''transliterated''
| ''none''
| {{wikt-lang|mk|сум}} ''sum''
| си ''si''
| е ''e''
| сме ''sme''
| сте ''ste''
| се ''se''
|-
| colspan="9" style="height:3px" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="2"| Baltic
! style="text-align:left" | Latvian
| {{wikt-lang|lv|būt}}
| esmu
| esi
| ir
| esam
| esat
| ir
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Lithuanian
| {{wikt-lang|lt|būti}}
| esu
| esi
| yra
| esame
| esate
| yra
|-
| colspan="9" |
|-
! style="text-align:left" rowspan="7" | Indo-Iranian
! style="text-align:left" | Persian'' transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|fa|بودن}} ''budan''
| {{lang|fa|ام}} ''æm''
| {{lang|fa|ای}} ''ei''
| {{lang|fa|(است (ا}} ''æst'' (''æ'')10
| {{lang|fa|ایم}} ''eem''
| {{lang|fa|(اید (این}} ''eed (spoken: een)''
| {{lang|fa|(اند (ان}} ''and (spoken: an)''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Sanskrit ''transliterated''
| {{wikt-lang|sa|अस्ति}} ''{{Transliteration|sa|asti}}''
| अस्मि ''asmi''
| असि ''asi''
| अस्ति ''asti''
| स्मः ''smah''
| स्थ ''stha''
| सन्ति ''santi''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Hindustani ''Devanagari Script'' ''Perso-Arabic Script'' ''transliterated'' ''([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''
| {{wikt-lang|hi|होना}} {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہونا}}}} {{Transliteration|hi|honā}}
| हूँ {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہوں}}}} ''hūm̥''
| colspan="2" | है {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہے}}}} ''hai''
| हैं {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہیں}}}} ''haim̥''
| हो {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہو}}}} ''ho''
| हैं {{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہیں}}}} ''haim̥''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Marathi ''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''
| {{wikt-lang|mr|असणे}} {{Transliteration|mr|asṇe}}
| आहे ''āhe''
| आहेस ''āhes''
| आहे ''āhe''
| आहोत ''āhot''
| आहात ''āhāt''
| आहेत ''āhet''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Gujarati ''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''
| {{wikt-lang|gu|હોવું}} {{Transliteration|gu|hovũ}}
| છું ''chũ''
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | છે ''che''
| છીએ ''chīe''
| છો ''cho''
| છે ''che''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Bengali ''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''
| {{wikt-lang|bn|হওয়া}} {{Transliteration|bn|hôoā}}
| হই ''hoi''
| হও12 ''hôo''
| হয়12 ''hôy''
| হই ''hoi''
| হও12 ''hôo''
| হয়12 ''hôy''
|-
! style="text-align:left" | Assamese ''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''
| {{wikt-lang|as|হোৱা}} {{Transliteration|as|hüa}}
| হওঁ ''hoü̃''
| হোৱা ''hüa''
| হয় ''hoy''
| হওঁ ''hoü̃''
| হোৱা ''hüa''
| হয় ''hoy''
|}

:1 Archaic, poetical; used only with the pronoun 'thou'.
:2 In Flemish dialects.
:3 In the [[bokmål]] written standard.
:4 In the [[nynorsk]] written standard. ''vera'' and ''vere'' are both alternate forms.
:5 Archaic
:6 Attic.
:7 'eínai' is only used as a noun ("being, existence").
:8 Ptc: {{wikt-lang|sq|qenë}}.
:9 In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively.
:10 Existential: هست (hæst) has another meaning. Usage of (''æ'') is considered to be colloquial, now. See, [[Indo-European copula]]
:11 With the [[Singular they]] 3rd person pronoun.
:12 Bengali verbs are further conjugated according to [[T–V distinction|formality]]. There are three verb forms for 2nd person pronouns: হও (''hôo'', familiar), হোস (''hoś'', very familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite). Also two forms for 3rd person pronouns: হয় (''hôy'', familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite). Plural verb forms are exact same as singular.
:13 Valencian.
:14 Western varieties only.

== Conjugation classes ==
=== Pama-Nyungan languages ===
One common feature of [[Pama–Nyungan languages]], the largest family of [[Australian Aboriginal languages]], is the notion of conjugation classes, which are a set of groups into which each lexical verb falls. They determine how a verb is conjugated for [[Tense–aspect–mood]]. The classes can but do not universally correspond to the transitivity or valency of the verb in question. Generally, of the two to six conjugation classes in a Pama-Nyungan language, two classes are open with a large membership and allow for new coinages, and the remainder are closed and of limited membership.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Westerlund, Torbjörn|title=A grammatical sketch of Ngarla (Ngayarta, Pama-Nyungan)|year=2015|isbn=978-1-922185-15-0|location=Anu, A.C.T.|oclc=903244888}}</ref>

==== Wati ====
In [[Wati languages]], verbs generally fall into four classes:

* '''l''' class
* '''∅''' class
* '''n''' class
* '''ng''' class<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dixon, R. M. W.|title=The Languages of Australia|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-71971-4|location=Cambridge|oclc=889953941}}</ref>

They are labelled by using common morphological components of verb endings in each respective class in infinitival forms. In [[Wanman language|the Wanman language]] these each correspond to '''''la'', ''ya'', ''rra'',''' and '''''wa''''' verbs respectively.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example Verb Conjugations in [[Warnman]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Warnman. Part one, Sketch grammar. |date=2003 |publisher=Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre |others=Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre. |isbn=1-875946-01-2 |location=South Hedland, W.A. |oclc=271859132}}</ref>
!Class
!Past
!Present
!Future
!Imperative
!Past Continuous
!Habitual
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''LA'''
| -rna
| -npa/-rni
| -nku
| -la
| -rninya
|la
|-
|''waka-rna''
|''waka-rni''
|''waka-nku''
|''waka-la''
|''waka-rninya''
|''waka-la''
|-
|speared
|is spearing
|will spear
|spear it!
|used to spear
|spears
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''YA'''
| -nya
| -manyi
| -ku
| -∅/-ya
| -minya
| -∅/-ya
|-
|''wanti-nya''
|''wanti-manyi''
|''wanti-ku''
|''wanti-ya''
|''wanti-minya''
|''wanti-ya''
|-
|stayed
|is staying
|will stay
|stay!
|used to stay
|stays
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''RRA'''
| -na
| -npa
| -nku
| -rra
| -ninya
| -rra
|-
|''ya-na''
|''ya-npa''
|''ya-nku''
|''ya-rra''
|''ya-ninya''
|''ya-rra''
|-
|went
|is going
|will go
|go!
|used to go
|goes
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''WA'''
| -nya
| -nganyi
| -ngku
| -wa
| -nganyinya
| -wa
|-
|''pi-nya''
|''pi-nganyi''
|''pi-ngku''
|''pi-wa''
|''pi-nganyinya''
|''pi-wa''
|-
|hit
|is hitting
|will hit
|hit it!
|used to hit
|hits
|}

See also a similar table of verb classes and conjugations in Pitjantjatjara, a [[Wati language]] wherein the correlating verb classes are presented below also by their imperative verbal endings '''-la, -∅, -ra''' and '''-wa''' respectively
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Example Verb Conjugations in [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eckert |first=Paul |title=Wangka wir̲u: a handbook for the Pitjantjatjara language learner |date=1988 |publisher=University of South Australia /South Australian College of Advanced Education |others=Hudson, Joyce., South Australian College of Advanced Education. Aboriginal Studies and Teacher Education Centre, Summer Institute of Linguistics. |isbn=0-86803-230-1 |location=Underdale, S. Aust. |oclc=27569554}}</ref>
!Class
!Past
!Present
!Future
!Imperative
!Past Continuous
!Habitual
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''LA'''
| -nu
| -ni
| -lku
| -la
| -ningi
| -lpai
|-
|''kati-nu''
|''kati-ni''
|''kati-leu''
|''kati-la''
|''kati-ningi''
|''kati-lpai''
|-
|took
|is taking
|will take
|take it!
|used to take
|takes
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''<big>∅</big>'''
| -ngu
| -nyi
| -ku
| -∅
| -ngi
| -pai
|-
|''tawa-ngu''
|''tawa-nyi''
|''tawa-ku''
|''tawa-'''∅'''''
|''tawa-ngi''
|''tawa-pai''
|-
|dug
|is digging
|will dig
|dig!
|used to dig
|digs
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''RA'''
| -nu
| -nangi
| -nkuku
| -ra
| -nangi
| -nkupai
|-
|''a-nu''
|''a-nangi''
|''a-nkuku''
|a-ra
|''a-nangi''
|''a-nkupai''
|-
|went
|is going
|will go
|go!
|used to go
|goes
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''WA'''
| -ngu
| -nganyi
| -nguku
| -wa
| -ngangi
| -ngkupai
|-
|''pu-ngu''
|''pu-nganyi''
|''pu-nguku''
|''pu-wa''
|''pu-ngangi''
|''pu-ngkupai''
|-
|hit
|is hitting
|will hit
|hit it!
|used to hit
|hits
|}

==== Ngayarta ====
[[Ngarla language|Ngarla]], a member of the [[Ngayarda languages|Ngayarda]] sub-family of languages has a binary conjugation system labelled:

* '''l''' class
* '''∅''' class

In the case of Ngarla, there is a notably strong correlation between conjugation class and transitivity, with transitive/ditransitive verbs falling in the '''l'''-class and intransitive/semi-transitive verbs in the '''∅-'''class.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Example Verb Conjugations in [[Ngarla language|Ngarla]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Westerlund |first=Torbjörn |date=2017-07-03 |title=Verb Classification in Ngarla (Ngayarta, Pama-Nyungan) |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=328–355 |doi=10.1080/07268602.2017.1298396 |issn=0726-8602 |s2cid=65180912}}</ref>
!Class
!Present
!Remote Past
!Past
!Past Continuous
!Habitual
!Future
!Speculative
!Purposive
!Optative
!Present Contrafactual
!Past Contrafactual
!Anticipatory
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''L'''
|<nowiki>-rri</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-rnta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-rnu</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yinyu</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yirnta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-n</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-mpi</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-lu</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-nmara</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-rrima</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-nmarnta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-rnamarta</nowiki>
|-
|''jaa-rri''
|''jaa-rnta''
|''jaa-rnu''
|''jaa-yinyu''
|''jaa-yirnta''
|''jaa-n''
|''jaa-mpi''
|''jaa-lu''
|''jaa-nmara''
|''jaa-rrima''
|''jaa-nmarnta''
|''jaa-rnmarta''
|-
|is chopping
|chopped (long ago)
|chopped
|used to chop
|chops
|will chop
|could have chopped
|in order to chop
|ought to chop
|were ''x'' chopping
|had ''x'' chopped
|should ''x'' chop
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''<big>∅</big>'''
|<nowiki>-yan</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-rnta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-nyu</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yanu</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yanta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-Ø</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-mpi</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-kura</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-mara</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-yanma</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-marnta</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-nyamarta</nowiki>
|-
|''warni-yan''
|''warni-rnta''
|''warni-nyu''
|''warni-yanu''
|''warni-yanta''
|''warni-Ø''
|''warni-rnpi''
|''warni-kura''
|''warni-mara''
|''warni-yanma''
|''warni-marnta''
|''warni-nyamarta''
|-
|is falling
|fell (long ago)
|fell
|used to fall
|falls
|will fall
|could have fallen
|in order to fall
|ought to fall
|were ''x'' falling
|had ''x'' fallen
|should ''x'' fall
|}

These classes even extend to how verbs are nominalized as instruments with the '''l-'''class verb including the addition of an ''/l/'' before the nominalizing suffix and the blank class remaining blank:

'''l-class example:'''

{{Interlinear|Kunyjarta-lu mara ku-rnu parnu-nga warnta pirri-lpunyjarri, kurni-rnu kunyjarta kurri|Woman-ERG hand CAUS-PST 3SG-GEN stick dig-INS throw-PST woman teenager|‘(The) woman caused her digging stick to be in (the) hand (i.e. picked up her digging stick), (and) threw (it) at (the) girl.’}}

'''∅-class example<ref name=":0" />'''

{{Interlinear|Jarrari-punyjarri waa-n ngajapa pinurru ngaya nyali ja-lu|light-INS give-FUT 1SG.LOC fire 1SG.NOM light CAUS-PURP|‘(A) match (lit. something to light with) give on (i.e. to) me, (a) fire I intend to light.’}}

==== Yidiny ====
[[Yidiny language|Yidiny]] has a ternary verb class system with two open classes and one closed class (~20 members). Verbs are classified as:

* '''-n''' class (open, intransitive/semi-transitive)
* '''-l''' class (open, transitive/ditransitive)
* '''-r''' class (closed, intransitive)

{| class="wikitable"
|+
Example Verb Conjugations in [[Yidiny language|Yidiny]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Language description informed by theory |date=2014 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |others=Pensalfini, Rob., Turpin, Myfany., Guillemin, Diana. |isbn=978-90-272-7091-7 |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |pages=157 |oclc=868284094}}</ref>
!Class
!imperative
!Present/Future
!Past
!Purposive
!Apprehensive
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''N'''
| -n
| -ng
| -nyu
| -na
| -ntyi
|-
|''nyina-n''
|''nyina-ng''
|''nyina-nyu''
|''nyina-na''
|''nyina-ntyi''
|-
|sit!
|is sitting / will sit
|sat
|in order to sit
|lest ''x'' sit
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''<big>L</big>'''
|<big>-∅</big>
| -l
| -lnyu
| -lna
| -ltyi
|-
|''patya-<big>∅</big>''
|''patya-l''
|''patya-lnyu''
|''patya-lna''
|''patya-ltyi''
|-
|bite it!
|is biting / will bite
|bit
|in order to bite
|lest ''x'' bite
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''R'''
| -rr
| -r
| -rnyu
| -rna
| -rtyi
|-
|''pakya-rr''
|''pakya-r''
|''pakya-rnyu''
|''-pakya-rna''
|''pakya-rtyi''
|-
|feel sore!
|is feeling / will feel sore
|felt sore
|in order to feel sore
|lest ''x'' feel sore
|}

==See also==

*[[Agreement (linguistics)]]
*[[Declension]] (nouns, adjectives, ''etc.'')
*[[Inflection]]
*[[Redundancy (linguistics)]]
*[[Screeve]]
*[[Strong inflection]]
*[[Verb]]
*[[Verb argument]]
*[[Volition (linguistics)]]
*[[Weak inflection]]

=== Conjugations by language ===
*[[:Category:Grammatical conjugation]]
*[[Indo-European copula]]
*[https://archivium.biz/strumenti/Coniugazione-Verbi.html Archivium: Italian verbs conjugator, for regular and irregular verbs]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Grammatical conjugation| ]]
[[Category:Grammatical number]]
[[Category:Linguistics terminology]]

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Grammatical conjugation