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Traditional medicine

2022-04-25T17:15:07Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with '{{short description|Formalized folk medicine}} Traditional medicine in a market in [[Antananarivo, Madagas...'

{{short description|Formalized folk medicine}}
[[File:Market Pharmacy Tana MS5179.jpg|250px|thumb|Traditional medicine in a market in [[Antananarivo]], [[Madagascar]]]]
[[File:Botanica.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Botánica]]s such as this one in [[Jamaica Plain]], [[Boston]], cater to the [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]] community and sell folk medicine alongside statues of [[saint]]s, [[candle]]s decorated with [[prayer]]s, [[lucky bamboo]], and other items.]]
{{Alternative medicine sidebar |traditional}}

'''Traditional medicine''' (also known as '''[[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]]''' or '''folk medicine''') comprises medical aspects of [[traditional knowledge]] that developed over generations within the [[folk belief]]s of various societies before the era of modern [[medicine]]. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) defines traditional medicine as "the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness".<ref name="WHO">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/definitions/en/|title=Traditional Medicine: Definitions|date=2008-12-01|access-date=2014-04-20|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> Traditional medicine is often contrasted with [[Evidence-based medicine|scientific medicine]].

In some [[Asia]]n and [[Africa]]n countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their [[primary health care]] needs. When adopted outside its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often considered a form of [[alternative medicine]].<ref name = WHO/> Practices known as traditional medicines include [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|traditional European medicine]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[traditional Korean medicine]], [[traditional African medicine]], [[Ayurveda]], [[Siddha medicine]], [[Unani]], [[ancient Iranian medicine]], [[traditional Iranian medicine]], [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|medieval Islamic medicine]], [[Muti]], and [[Ifá]]. Scientific disciplines that study traditional medicine include [[herbalism]], [[ethnomedicine]], [[ethnobotany]], and [[medical anthropology]].

The WHO notes, however, that "inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or dangerous effects" and that "[[further research is needed]] to ascertain the efficacy and safety" of such practices and [[medicinal plants]] used by traditional medicine systems.<ref name = WHO/> As a result, the WHO has implemented a nine-year strategy to "support Member States in developing proactive policies and implementing action plans that will strengthen the role traditional medicine plays in keeping populations healthy."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/medicines/publications/traditional/trm_strategy14_23/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140113165644/http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/traditional/trm_strategy14_23/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 13, 2014|title=WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014-2023|date=December 2013|website=The World Health Organization}}</ref>

==Usage and history==

=== Classical history ===
{{further|Medicine in ancient Greece|Medicine in ancient Rome}}
In the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient [[Sumer]]ians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In [[Ancient Egyptian medicine]], the [[Ebers papyrus]] from c. 1552 BC records a list of folk remedies and magical medical practices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ebers' Papyrus|url=http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/443.html|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> The [[Old Testament]] also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to [[Kashrut]].

Many herbs and minerals used in [[Ayurveda]] were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]] during the 1st millennium BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Girish Dwivedi|first=Shridhar Dwivedi|year=2007|title=History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]]|url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf|access-date=2008-10-08|archive-date=2008-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first [[Chinese herbology|Chinese herbal]] book was the ''[[Shennong|Shennong Bencao Jing]]'', compiled during the [[Han Dynasty]] but dating back to a much earlier date, which was later augmented as the ''[[Yaoxing Lun]]'' (''Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs'') during the [[Tang Dynasty]]. Early recognised Greek compilers of existing and current herbal knowledge include [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoras and his followers]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Aristotle]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Dioscorides]] and [[Galen]].

Roman sources included [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' and [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Celsus]]'s ''[[De Medicina]]''.<ref name="Kay1996">{{cite book|last=Kay|first=MA|year=1996|title=Healing with plants in the American and Mexican West|isbn=978-0-8165-1646-9|publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780186516465/page/19 19–20]|location=Tucson|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780186516465/page/19}}</ref> [[Pedanius Dioscorides]] drew on and corrected earlier authors for his ''[[De Materia Medica]]'', adding much new material; the work was translated into several languages, and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] names were added to it over the centuries.<ref name="Blunt1994">{{cite book |author1=Raphael, Sandra |author2=Blunt, Wilfrid |title=The Illustrated herbal|publisher=Frances Lincoln|location=London|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7112-0914-5}}</ref> Latin manuscripts of ''De Materia Medica'' were combined with a Latin herbal by [[Pseudo-Apuleius|Apuleius Platonicus]] (''Herbarium Apuleii Platonici'') and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon [[codex]] ''Cotton Vitellius C.III''. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sīnā, 980–1037), the Persian [[Rhazes]] (Rāzi, 865–925) and the Jewish [[Maimonides]].<ref name = Kay1996/>

Some [[fossil]]s have been used in traditional medicine since antiquity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Geer |first1=Alexandra |last2=Dermitzakis |first2=Michael |date=2010 |title=Fossils in pharmacy: from "snake eggs" to "Saint's bones"; an overview |url=http://www.hellenjgeosci.geol.uoa.gr/45/van%20der%20Geer%20&%20Dermitzakis.pdf |journal=[[Hellenic Journal of Geosciences]] |volume=45 |pages=323–332 }}</ref>

===Medieval and later===
{{further|Medicine in medieval Islam|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}
Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the [[Bedouin]]s and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] medical traditions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Slikkerveer, L. J.|title=Plural medical systems in the Horn of Africa: the legacy of "Sheikh" Hippocrates|publisher=Kegan Paul International|location=London|year=1990|isbn=978-0-7103-0203-8}}</ref> Spanish medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492.<ref>{{cite book |last1=García Sánchez|first1=E|last2=Carabaza Bravo|first2=JM|last3=Hernández Bermejo|first3=JE|last4=Ramírez|first4=AJ|year=1990|isbn=978-84-00-07727-3|editor=e Morales Ruiz Matas CA|title=Ciencias de la naturaleza en Al-Andalus : textos y estudios|language=es|chapter=Árboles y arbustos en los textos agrícolas andalusíes (I)|publisher=[[Spanish National Research Council|Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]]}}</ref> Islamic physicians and [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution|Muslim botanists]] such as [[al-Dinawari]]<ref name="Fahd-815">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Fahd|first1=Toufic|title=Botany and agriculture|page=815|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]|editor1-last=Rashed|editor1-first=Roshdi|editor2-last=Morelon|editor2-first=Régis|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-02063-3}}</ref> and [[Ibn al-Baitar]]<ref name="Diane">Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", ''OISE Papers'', in ''STSE Education'', Vol. 3.</ref> significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicenna's ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which was an early [[pharmacopoeia]] and introduced [[clinical trial]]s.<ref name="Tschanz">{{cite journal | author = Tschanz David W | year = 2003 | title = Arab Roots of European Medicine | journal = Heart Views | volume = 4 | page = 2 }}</ref><ref name="Eldredge">{{cite journal | author = Eldredge Jonathan D | year = 2003 | title = The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship | journal = Health Information and Libraries Journal | volume = 20 | pages = 34–44 [36] | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2532.20.s1.7.x| pmid = 12757434 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Bloom">{{cite journal | author = Bloom Bernard S., Retbi Aurelia, Dahan Sandrine, Jonsson Egon | year = 2000 | title = Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine | journal = International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 13–21 [19] | doi=10.1017/s0266462300016123| pmid = 10815350 | s2cid = 30959480 }}</ref> The ''Canon'' was [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]] in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The [[Unani]] system of traditional medicine is also based on the ''Canon''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heller |first1=M. |last2=Edelstein |first2=P. |last3=Mayer |first3=M. |title=Traditional medicine in Asia |year=2001 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=9789290222248 |page=31 |url=http://origin.searo.who.int/entity/medicines/documents/traditional_medicines_in_asia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731165632/http://origin.searo.who.int/entity/medicines/documents/traditional_medicines_in_asia.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |access-date=24 April 2020 }}</ref>

Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by [[Hieronymus Bock]] whose herbal, published in 1546, was called ''Kreuter Buch''. The book was translated into [[Dutch language|Dutch]] as ''Pemptades'' by [[Rembert Dodoens]] (1517–1585), and from Dutch into [[English language|English]] by [[Carolus Clusius]], (1526–1609), published by [[Henry Lyte (botanist)|Henry Lyte]] in 1578 as ''A Nievve Herball''.  This became [[John Gerard]]'s (1545–1612) ''Herball or General Historie of Plantes''.<ref name = Kay1996/><ref name = Blunt1994/> Each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions.

Women's folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts.<ref name = Kay1996/> Forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and [[emollient]]s mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe.<ref name = Blunt1994/> The [[Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony)|Puritans]] took Gerard's work to the [[United States]] where it influenced American Indigenous medicine.<ref name = Kay1996/>

[[Francisco Hernández de Toledo|Francisco Hernández]], physician to [[Philip II of Spain]] spent the years 1571–1577 gathering information in [[Mexico]] and then wrote ''Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus'', many versions of which have been published including one by [[Francisco Ximénez]]. Both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted [[Aztec]] ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as "warm", "cold", and "moist", but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ortiz de Montellano|first=B|title=Empirical Aztec medicine|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|year=1975|volume=188|pages=215–20|pmid=1090996|issue=4185|doi=10.1126/science.1090996}}</ref> [[Juan de Esteyneffer]]'s ''Florilegio medicinal de todas las enfermedas'' compiled European texts and added 35 Mexican plants.

Martín de la Cruz wrote an herbal in [[Nahuatl]] which was translated into [[Latin]] by [[Juan Badiano]] as ''[[Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis]]'' or ''Codex Barberini, Latin 241'' and given to King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Carlos V]] of Spain in 1552.<ref name="Heinrich2005">{{cite book |last1=Heinrich|first1=M|last2=Pieroni|first2=A|last3=Bremner|first3=P|year=2005|chapter=Plants as medicines|editor1=Prance G |editor2=Nesbitt M|isbn=978-0-415-92746-8|title=The Cultural history of plants|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=205–238}}</ref> It was apparently written in haste<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/libellus-de-medicinalibus-indorum-herbis-librito-de-las-yerbas-medicinales-de-los|title=Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Librito de las yerbas medicinales de los indios) o Códice Badiano|last=Lozoya|first=Xavier|date=2016|website=Arqueología Mexicana}}</ref> and influenced by the European occupation of the previous 30 years. Fray [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]'s used [[ethnographic]] methods to compile his codices that then became the ''Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España'', published in 1793.<ref name = Heinrich2005/> Castore Durante published his ''Herbario Nuovo'' in 1585 describing medicinal plants from Europe and the East and [[West Indies]]. It was translated into German in 1609 and Italian editions were published for the next century.

===Colonial America===
In 17th and 18th-century America, traditional folk healers, frequently women, used herbal remedies, [[Cupping therapy|cupping]] and [[Leeching (medical)|leeching]].<ref>Rosalyn Fraad Baxandall, Linda Gordon, Susan Reverb, America's Working Women: A Documentary History, 1600 to the Present, W. W. Norton & Company, 1995, p. 50</ref> [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] traditional herbal medicine introduced cures for malaria, dysentery, scurvy, non-venereal syphilis, and goiter problems.<ref>Madsen, Deborah L. The Routledge Companion to Native American Literature, Routledge, 2015</ref> Many of these herbal and folk remedies continued on through the 19th and into the 20th century,<ref>Swerdlow JL. Medicine Changes: late 19th to early 20th century. Nature's Medicine: Plants that Heal. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society; 2000. pp. 158–91.</ref> with some plant medicines forming the basis for modern pharmacology.<ref>Eugenia M. Fulcher, Robert M. Fulcher, Cathy Dubeansky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qs_sAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Pharmacology: Principles and Applications']', Soto Elsevier Health Sciences, 2014, p. 5 ''</ref>

===Modern usage===
The prevalence of folk medicine in certain areas of the world varies according to cultural norms.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-9566.ep11340307 | volume=13 | title=The 'eclipse' of folk medicine in western society. | year=1991 | journal=Sociology of Health and Illness | pages=20–38 | author=Bakx Keith| doi-access=free }}</ref> Some modern medicine is based on plant [[phytochemical]]s that had been used in folk medicine.<ref>[http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/2092/ Gilani, A.H., (2005) Role of Medicinal Plants in Modern Medicine. Malaysian Journal of Science, 24 (1). pp. 1-5."] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120805042151/http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/2092/ |date=2012-08-05 }} {{ISSN|1394-3065}}</ref> Researchers state that many of the alternative treatments are "statistically indistinguishable from [[Placebo|placebo treatments]]".<ref>''[[The Economist]]'', "[https://www.economist.com/node/18710090 Alternative Medicine: Think yourself better]", 21 May 2011, pp. 83–84.</ref>

== Knowledge transmission and creation ==
Indigenous medicine is generally transmitted [[Oral tradition|orally]] through a community, family and individuals until "collected". Within a given culture, elements of indigenous medicine knowledge may be diffusely known by many, or may be gathered and applied by those in a specific role of healer such as a [[Shamanism|shaman]] or [[Midwifery|midwife]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Acharya|first=D|author2=Anshu S|year=2008|title=Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices|publisher=Aavishkar Publishers|location=[[Jaipur]]|isbn=978-81-7910-252-7}}</ref> Three factors legitimize the role of the healer – their own beliefs, the success of their actions and the beliefs of the community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(00)91989-5.pdf|title=ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE: NIGERIA The role of traditional medicine|last=Maurice Mwu, Eric Gbodossou|date=December 2000|website=The Lancet}}</ref> When the claims of indigenous medicine become rejected by a culture, generally three types of adherents still use it – those born and socialized in it who become permanent believers, temporary believers who turn to it in crisis times, and those who only believe in specific aspects, not in all of it.<ref>{{cite book|author=Laguerre, Michel S.|title=Afro-Caribbean folk medicine|publisher=Bergin & Garvey|location=New York|year=1987|isbn=978-0-89789-113-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/afrocaribbeanfol0000lagu}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=August 2008}}

== Definition and terminology ==
Traditional medicine may sometimes be considered as distinct from folk medicine, and the considered to include formalized aspects of folk medicine. Under this definition folk medicine are longstanding remedies passed on and practiced by lay people. Folk medicine consists of the [[healing]] practices and ideas of body [[physiology]] and [[health]] preservation known to some in a culture, transmitted informally as general knowledge, and practiced or applied by anyone in the culture having prior experience.<ref>Acharya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu (2008): Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices, Aavishkar Publishers Distributor, Jaipur- India. {{ISBN|978-81-7910-252-7}}. pp 440.</ref>

=== Folk medicine ===
[[File:Curandera performing a limpieza.jpg|thumb|[[Curandera]] performing a ''limpieza'' in Cuenca, Ecuador]]
Many countries have practices described as folk medicine which may coexist with formalized, science-based, and institutionalized systems of medical practice represented by conventional [[medicine]].<ref name="who2018">{{cite web|title=Traditional, complementary and integrative medicine|url=https://www.who.int/traditional-complementary-integrative-medicine/about/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014235826/http://www.who.int/traditional-complementary-integrative-medicine/about/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 14, 2017|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=7 May 2018|date=2018}}</ref> Examples of folk medicine traditions are [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[Iranian traditional medicine]], [[traditional Korean medicine]], [[Medicine in medieval Islam|Arabic indigenous medicine]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] traditional medicine, Japanese [[Kampō]] medicine, traditional Aboriginal bush medicine, [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] [[Lāʻau lapaʻau]], and [[Georgian folk medicine]], among others.<ref name="who2013">{{cite web|title=WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014-2023|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/92455/9789241506090_eng.pdf?sequence=1|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=7 May 2018|date=2013}}</ref>

====Australian bush medicine====
{{main|Bush medicine}}
Generally, bush medicine used by [[Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people]] in [[Australia]] is made from plant materials, such as bark, leaves and seeds, although animal products may be used as well.<ref name="aao">{{cite web |url=http://www.aboriginalartonline.com/culture/medicine.php |title=Traditional Aboriginal Bush Medicine |publisher=Aboriginal Art Online |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref> A major component of traditional medicine is [[herbal medicine]], which is the use of natural plant substances to treat or prevent illness.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Select Your Library - Credo Reference|url = http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/columency/herbal_medicine/0|website = search.credoreference.com|access-date = 2015-04-17}}</ref>

==== Native American medicine ====
{{Expand section|date=April 2020}}
American Native and [[Traditional Alaska Native medicine|Alaska Native medicine]] are traditional forms of healing that have been around for thousands of years. There are many [[Native American ethnobotany|ethnobotany]] plants involved in traditional medicine for Native Americans and some are still used today. When it comes to Native American traditional medicine, the ideas surrounding health and illness within the culture are virtually inseparable from the ideas of religion and spirituality.<ref name=":12" /> Healers within indigenous communities go by many names ranging from medicine man or woman to herbalist or even shaman and are considered spiritual or religious leaders within their respective tribes.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Johnston |first=Susan L. |date=2002 |title=Native American Traditional and Alternative Medicine |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000271620258300113 |journal=The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |language=en |volume=583 |issue=1 |pages=195–213 |doi=10.1177/000271620258300113 |issn=0002-7162}}</ref> When it comes to healing, tribal healers would look at a plant's characteristics to determine its efficacy for the treatment of an illness.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Shally-Jensen |first=Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1086616314 |title=Alternative healing in American history : an encyclopedia from acupuncture to yoga |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4408-6033-1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=1086616314}}</ref> Specific plant characteristics such as plant shape, smell, color, and taste could aid in determining how the plant could be used as a remedy. <ref name=":02" /> The Meskwaki tribe found they could use the juice from ''[[Arum maculatum]]'' for snakebites.<ref name=":02" /> This was inferred from the milky appearance of the juice from the plant which is said to resemble snake venom, and the plant's shape resembled the head of a snake.<ref name=":02" /> Native Americans used [[foxglove]] herb as a treatment for an illness they referred to as dropsy or edema, which is fluid buildup typically in the lower legs, and its common cause is heart failure.<ref name=":02" /> In modern medicine, foxglove extract is still used under the name digitalis, and its purpose is to moderate the heart rate.<ref name=":02" /> Native Americans were successful with some medical practices, such as treating fevers, gastrointestinal conditions, skin rashes, setting bones, as well as birthing babies, and aiding mothers in healing.<ref name=":02" /> A study conducted within an [[Indian Health Service|IHS]] hospital that allows Navajo healers to visit patients found that the hospital had an 80 percent success rate in getting comatose patients back to consciousness, which is higher than the rate of present-day biomedical management hospitals.<ref name=":12" /> The tribe Anthemideae used the plant family ''[[Asteraceae]]'' for orthopedic aids and pulmonary aids, specifically the plant's ''Achillea'' and ''Artemisia''.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Kachura |first=Alexandra |last2=Harris |first2=Cory S. |date=2021-08-27 |title=An ethnobotanical meta-analysis of North American medicinal Asteraceae1 |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/full/10.1139/cjb-2021-0079 |journal=Botany |language=en |doi=10.1139/cjb-2021-0079}}</ref> A study conducted amongst 14 different tribes within North America found that ''Asteraceae'' was the most widely used plant family for its medicinal properties.<ref name=":22" />

==== Nattuvaidyam ====
Nattuvaidyam was a set of indigenous medical practices that existed in India before the advent of allopathic or western medicine.<ref>{{Cite web|last=K P|first=Girija|date=2016|title=Sites of knowledge situating select indigenous knowledge systems and modern education|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/148255|access-date=7 April 2021|website=Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET|hdl=10603/148255}}</ref> These practices had different sets of principles and ideas of the body, health and disease. There were overlaps and borrowing of ideas, medicinal compounds used and techniques within these practices.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wujastyk|first1=Dagmar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3XBu-vpXgoC|title=Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms|last2=Smith|first2=Frederick M.|publisher=SUNY Press|date=9 September 2013|pages=1–8|isbn=9780791478165}}</ref> Some of these practices had written texts in vernacular languages like Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, etc. while others were handed down orally through various mnemonic devices. Ayurveda was one kind of nattuvaidyam practised in south India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=K P|first=Girija|date=2016|title=Refiguring of Ayurveda as Classical Tradition|journal=Pragmata: Journal of Human Sciences|volume=3|pages=43–62}}</ref> The others were kalarichikitsa (related to bone setting and musculature),<ref>{{Cite news|last=TNN|date=22 Jul 2019|title=Those availing kalari marma chikitsa on the rise|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/those-availing-kalari-marma-chikitsa-on-the-rise/articleshow/70321567.cms|access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref> marmachikitsa (vital spot massaging), ottamoolivaidyam (single dose medicine or single time medication),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Correspondent|date=5 June 2016|title=Ottamooli (single ingredient) cure for lifestyle diseases...|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/lifestyle/health/ottamooli-single-ingredient-cure-for-lifestyle-diseases.html|access-date=9 April 2021|website=Onmanorama}}</ref> chintamanivaidyam and so on. When the medical system was revamped in twentieth century India, many of the practices and techniques specific to some of these diverse nattuvaidyam were included in Ayurveda.

===Home remedies===
A '''home remedy''' (sometimes also referred to as a '''granny cure''') is a treatment to cure a [[disease]] or ailment that employs certain spices, [[herbs]], vegetables, or other common items. Home remedies may or may not have [[medicinal properties]] that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, as they are typically passed along by laypersons (which has been facilitated in recent years by the [[Internet]]). Many are merely used as a result of [[tradition]] or [[Habituation|habit]] or because they are effective in inducing the [[placebo effect]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/placebo-effect-a-cure-in-the-mind/|title=Placebo Effect: A Cure in the Mind|work=Scientific American|date=February–March 2009}}</ref>

One of the more popular examples of a home remedy is the use of [[chicken soup]] to treat [[Respiratory system|respiratory]] [[infection]]s such as a cold or mild [[flu]]. Other examples of home remedies include [[duct tape]] to help with setting broken bones; duct tape or superglue to treat [[plantar wart]]s; and [[Kogel mogel]] to treat sore throat. In earlier times, mothers were entrusted with all but serious remedies. Historic [[cookbook]]s are frequently full of remedies for [[dyspepsia]], fevers, and female complaints.<ref>[[Catherine Beecher|Catherine Esther Beecher]] [https://archive.org/details/missbeechershou00beecgoog/page/n341  Mrs. Beecher's Housekeeper and Healthkeeper] 1874. Retrieved on 2007-11-05.</ref> Components of the [[aloe vera]] plant are used to treat skin disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4506744|year=2015|last1=Sidgwick|first1=G. P|title=A comprehensive evidence-based review on the role of topicals and dressings in the management of skin scarring|journal=Archives of Dermatological Research|volume=307|issue=6|pages=461–477|last2=McGeorge|first2=D|last3=Bayat|first3=A|doi=10.1007/s00403-015-1572-0|pmid=26044054}}</ref> Many European [[List of liqueurs|liqueurs]] or [[Apéritif and digestif|digestifs]] were originally sold as medicinal remedies. In Chinese folk medicine, medicinal [[congee]]s (long-cooked rice soups with herbs), foods, and soups are part of treatment practices.<ref>''Prince Wen Hui's Cook'' Bob Flaws and Honora Wolf 1985</ref>

==Criticism==

===Safety concerns===
Although 130 countries have regulations on folk medicines, there are risks associated with the use of them (i.e. [[zoonosis]], mainly as some traditional medicines still use animal-based substances<ref>[https://www.ifpri.org/blog/africas-growing-risk-diseases-spread-animals-people Africa’s growing risk of diseases that spread from animals to people]</ref><ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12801499/ Use of animal products in traditional Chinese medicine: environmental impact and health hazards]</ref>). It is often assumed that because supposed medicines are natural that they are safe, but numerous precautions are associated with using herbal remedies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js7916e/2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524072333/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js7916e/2.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 24, 2009|title=National Policy on Traditional Medicine and Regulation of Herbal Medicines - Report of a WHO Global Survey|publisher=World Health Organization|date=April 2016}}</ref>

===Use of endangered species===
[[File:Slow_loris_-_dried_01.JPG|right|thumb|Sometimes traditional medicines include parts of endangered species, such as the [[slow loris]] in Southeast Asia.]]
Endangered animals, such as the [[slow loris]], are sometimes killed to make traditional medicines.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Starr | first1 = C. | last2 = Nekaris | first2 = K. A. I. | last3 = Streicher | first3 = U. | last4 = Leung | first4 = L. K. -P. | title = Field surveys of the Vulnerable pygmy slow loris ''Nycticebus pygmaeus'' using local knowledge in Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia | doi = 10.1017/S0030605310001316 | journal = Oryx | volume = 45| issue = 1| pages = 135–142| year = 2011 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Shark]] [[fin]]s have also been used in traditional medicine, and although their effectiveness has not been proven, it is hurting shark populations and their ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/06/24/traditional.treatment/index.html|title=Traditional medicines continue to thrive globally - CNN.com|website=www.cnn.com|access-date=2016-04-25}}</ref>

The illegal [[ivory trade]] can partially be traced back to buyers of [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. Demand for ivory is a huge factor in the poaching of endangered species such as rhinos and elephants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Yufang |last2=Clark |first2=Susan G. |title=Elephant ivory trade in China: Trends and drivers |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1 December 2014 |volume=180 |pages=23–30 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.09.020 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320714003371 |issn=0006-3207}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ayurveda]]
* [[Bioprospecting]]
* [[Folk healer]]
* [[Herbal medicine]]
* [[Medicinal plants]]
* [[Native American ethnobotany]]
* [[Old wives' tale]]
* [[Pharmacognosy]]
* [[Traditional African medicine]]
* [[Traditional Chinese medicine]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|traditional medicine|folk medicine|indigenous medicine}}

*{{commons category-inline|Traditional medicine|lcfirst=yes}}

{{Traditional Medicine}}
{{Medicine}}
{{Indigenous rights footer}}
{{Indigenous peoples by continent}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Traditional medicine| ]]
[[Category:Concepts in alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Medical anthropology|*]]

Traditional Chinese medicine

2022-04-25T17:13:35Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with '{{Short description|Traditional medicine in China}} {{Redirect|Chinese Medicine|the practice of medicine in modern China|Medicine in China}} {{Use dmy dates|date...'

{{Short description|Traditional medicine in China}}
{{Redirect|Chinese Medicine|the practice of medicine in modern China|Medicine in China}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Traditional Chinese Medicine
| image = [[File:ChineseMedicine-HK.JPG|200px]]
| caption = Traditional Chinese medicines/dried goods shop in Kowloon, Hong Kong
| t = 中醫
| s = 中医
| l = "Chinese medicine"
| p = Zhōngyī
| w = Chung1-i1
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|-|yi|1}}
| tl = Tiong-i
| j = Zung1 ji1
| y = Jūng yī
| c =
| ci =
| altname =
| order = st
}}
{{Alternative medical systems}}
{{Chinese folk religion}}

'''Traditional Chinese Medicine''' ('''TCM''') is an [[alternative medicine|alternative medical practice]] drawn from [[traditional medicine]] in China. It has been described as "fraught with [[pseudoscience]]", and the majority of its treatments as having no logical [[mechanism of action]].<ref name="Eigenschink Dearing Dablander et al 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Eigenschink |first1=Michael |last2=Dearing |first2=Lukas |last3=Dablander |first3=Tom E. |last4=Maier |first4=Julian |last5=Sitte |first5=Harald H. |title=A critical examination of the main premises of Traditional Chinese Medicine |journal=Wiener klinische Wochenschrift |date=May 2020 |volume=132 |issue=9–10 |pages=260–273 |doi=10.1007/s00508-020-01625-w |pmid=32198544 |pmc=7253514 }}</ref><ref name="swallow" />

Medicine in traditional China encompassed a range of sometimes competing health and healing practices, [[folk beliefs]], [[Scholar-official|literati]] theory and [[Confucianism|Confucian philosophy]], [[Chinese herbology|herbal remedies]], [[Chinese food therapy|food]], diet, and exercise, medical specializations, and schools of thought.{{sfnb|Andrews|2013b|pp=10-17}} In the early twentieth century, Chinese cultural and political modernizers worked to eliminate traditional practices as backward and unscientific. Traditional practitioners then selected elements of philosophy and practice and organized them into what they called "Chinese Medicine" (''Zhongyi'').{{sfnb|Lei|2014|pp= 97-120}} In the 1950s, the Chinese government sponsored the integration of Chinese and Western medicine,{{sfnb|Taylor|2005|pp=30-36}} and in the [[Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution]] of the 1960s, promoted Chinese medicine as inexpensive and popular.<ref name="Gushi 2019" />

After the opening of relations between the United States and China after 1972, there was great interest in the West for what was now called Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).{{sfnb|Taylor|2005|pp=138-141}} TCM is said to be based on [[Compendium of Materia Medica]] and [[Huangdi Neijing]] and includes various forms of [[Chinese herbology|herbal medicine]], [[acupuncture]], [[cupping therapy]], [[gua sha]], [[tui na|massage (tui na)]], [[die-da|bonesetter (die-da)]], [[Qigong|exercise (qigong)]], and dietary therapy. TCM is widely used in the [[East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere]]. One of the basic tenets is that the body's [[vital energy]] (''ch'i'' or ''[[qi]]'') is circulating through channels called [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] having branches connected to bodily organs and functions.<ref name="Quackwatch" /> The concept of vital energy is pseudoscientific. Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM reflect its ancient origins and its emphasis on dynamic processes over material structure, similar to the [[humoral theory]] of [[Ancient Greek medicine|Ancient Greece]] and [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Ancient Rome]].<ref name="Novella2012" />

The demand for traditional medicines in China has been a major generator of [[Wildlife smuggling|illegal wildlife smuggling]], linked to the [[poaching|killing and smuggling of endangered animals]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-03-28|title=As China pushes traditional medicine globally, illegal wildlife trade flourishes|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-tcm-idUSKCN1R90D5|access-date=2021-10-20}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Compendium of Materia Medica.png|thumb|The Compendium of Materia Medica is a pharmaceutical text written by [[Li Shizhen]] (1518–1593 CE) during the [[Ming dynasty]] of China. This edition was published in 1593.]]
[[File:hua t08.jpg|thumb|Acupuncture chart from Hua Shou ([[floruit|fl.]] 1340s, [[Yuan dynasty]]). This image from ''Shi si jing fa hui (Expression of the Fourteen Meridians).'' (Tokyo: Suharaya Heisuke kanko, Kyoho gan 1716).]]

Scholars in the history of medicine in China distinguish its doctrines and practice from those of present-day TCM. As [[Ian Johnson (writer)|Ian Johnson]] notes, the term "Traditional Chinese Medicine" was coined by "party propagandists" and first appeared in English in 1955.{{sfnb|Johnson|2021}} [[Nathan Sivin]] criticizes attempts to treat medicine and medical practices in traditional China as if they were a single system. Instead, he says, there were 2,000 years of "medical system in turmoil" and speaks of a "myth of an unchanging medical tradition." He urges that "Traditional medicine translated purely into terms of modern medicine becomes partly nonsensical, partly irrelevant, and partly mistaken; that is also true the other way around, a point easily overlooked." {{sfnb|Sivin|1987|p=198}} TJ Hinrichs observes that people in modern Western societies divide healing practices into biomedicine for the body, psychology for the mind, and religion for the spirit, but these distinctions are inadequate to describe medical concepts among Chinese historically and to a considerable degree today .{{sfnb|Hinrichs|2005|p=3859 }}

The medical anthropologist [[Charles Miller Leslie|Charles Leslie]] writes that Chinese, Greco-Arabic, and Indian [[traditional medicines]] were all grounded in systems of correspondence that aligned the organization of society, the universe, and the human body and other forms of life into an "all-embracing order of things." Each of these traditional systems was organized with such qualities as heat and cold, wet and dry, light and darkness, qualities that also align the seasons, compass directions, and the human cycle of birth, growth, and death. They provided, Leslie continued, a "comprehensive way of conceiving patterns that ran through all of nature," and they "served as a classificatory and mnemonic device to observe health problems and to reflect upon, store, and recover empirical knowledge," but they were also "subject to stultifying theoretical elaboration, self-deception, and [[dogma]]tism."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first= Charles |last= Leslie|article= Medicine |title=Encyclopedia of Asian History |editor-first=Ainslee|editor-last=Embry|volume= 2|pages= 521–522|ref= none}}</ref>

The doctrines of Chinese medicine are rooted in books such as the ''[[Huangdi Neijing|Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon]]'' and the ''[[Shanghan lun|Treatise on Cold Damage]]'', as well as in cosmological notions such as [[yin and yang|yin–yang]] and the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five phases]]. The "Documentation of Chinese materia medica" (CMM) dates back to around 1,100 BCE when only a few dozen drugs were described. By the end of the 16th century, the number of drugs documented had reached close to 1,900. And by the end of the last century, published records of CMM had reached 12,800 drugs."<ref name="ZxukC">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung AY | title = Traditional toxicity documentation of Chinese Materia Medica--an overview | journal = Toxicologic Pathology | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 319–26 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16787890 | doi = 10.1080/01926230600773958 | s2cid = 8301501 }}</ref> Starting in the 1950s, these precepts were standardized in the People's Republic of China, including attempts to integrate them with modern notions of [[anatomy]] and [[pathology]]. In the 1950s, the Chinese government promoted a systematized form of TCM.<ref name="Levinovitz 2013" />

=== Shang dynasty ===
Traces of therapeutic activities in China date from the [[Shang dynasty]] (14th–11th centuries BCE).<ref name="Unschuld 1985">{{Cite book| vauthors = Unschuld PU |title=Medicine in China: A History of Ideas|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn = 978-0-520-05023-5}}</ref> Though the Shang did not have a concept of "medicine" as distinct from other health practices, their [[oracle|oracular]] inscriptions on [[oracle bone|bones]] and tortoise shells refer to illnesses that affected the Shang royal family: eye disorders, toothaches, bloated abdomen, and such.<ref name="1hwgd">{{Cite book | veditors = Peng B, (({{lang|zh|彭邦炯}})) |title = Jiaguwen yixue ziliao: shiwen kaobian yu yanjiu |script-title=zh:甲骨文医学资料: 释文考辨与研究 |trans-title=Medical data in the oracle bones: translations, philological analysis, and research |year=2008 |publisher=Renmin weisheng chubanshe |location=Beijing |isbn = 978-7-117-09270-8}}</ref> Shang elites usually attributed them to curses sent by their ancestors. There is currently no evidence that the Shang nobility used herbal remedies.<ref name="Unschuld 1985" />

Stone and bone needles found in ancient tombs led [[Joseph Needham]] to speculate that acupuncture might have been carried out in the Shang dynasty.<ref name="Needham 2002">{{Cite book | vauthors = Lu GD, Needham J |title=Celestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-0-700-71458-2}}</ref><ref name="Harper 1998">{{Cite book | vauthors = Harper D |title = Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts |year=1998 |publisher=Kegan Paul International|location=London and New York |isbn = 978-0-7103-0582-4}}</ref> This being said, most historians now make a distinction between medical [[lancing (surgical procedure)|lancing]] (or [[bloodletting]]) and acupuncture in the narrower sense of using metal needles to attempt to treat illnesses by stimulating [[Acupuncture points|points]] along [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|circulation channels]] ("meridians") in accordance with beliefs related to the circulation of "Qi".<ref name="Needham 2002" /><ref name="Harper 1998" /><ref name="RN4Yh">{{cite journal | vauthors = Epler DC | title = Bloodletting in early Chinese medicine and its relation to the origin of acupuncture | journal = Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 3 | pages = 337–67 | year = 1980 | pmid = 6998524 }}</ref> The earliest evidence for acupuncture in this sense dates to the second or first century BCE.<ref name="Unschuld 1985" /><ref name="Needham 2002" /><ref name="Harper 1998" /><ref name="dO7YW">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Liao Y, (({{lang|zh|廖育群}})) |year=1991 |title=Qin Han zhi ji zhenjiu liaofa lilun de jianli |script-title=zh:秦漢之際鍼灸療法理論的建立 |trans-title=The formation of the theory of acumoxa therapy in the Qin and Han periods |journal=Ziran Kexue Yanjiu {{lang|zh|italics=no|自然科學研究}} (Research in the Natural Sciences)|volume=10 |pages=272–79}}</ref>

=== Han dynasty ===
The ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon ([[Huangdi Neijing|Huangdi Nei Jing]])'', the oldest received work of Chinese medical theory, was compiled during the [[Han dynasty]] around the first century BCE on the basis of shorter texts from different medical lineages.<ref name="Needham 2002" /><ref name="Harper 1998" /><ref name="Sivin 1993">{{Cite book | vauthors = Sivin N |chapter=Huang-ti nei-ching |script-chapter=zh:黃帝內經 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlychinesetext00loew/page/n209 196]–215 |title=Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/earlychinesetext00loew |url-access=limited |year=1993|publisher=Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley|location=Los Angeles and Berkeley | veditors = Loewe M |isbn = 978-1-55729-043-4}}</ref> Written in the form of dialogues between the legendary [[Yellow Emperor]] and his ministers, it offers explanations on the relation between humans, their environment, and the [[cosmos]], on the contents of the body, on human vitality and pathology, on the symptoms of illness, and on how to make diagnostic and therapeutic decisions in light of all these factors.<ref name="Sivin 1993" /> Unlike earlier texts like ''[[Wushi'er bingfang|Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments]]'', which was excavated in the 1970s from the [[Mawangdui|Mawangdui tomb]] that had been sealed in 168 BCE, the ''Inner Canon'' rejected the influence of spirits and the use of magic.<ref name="Harper 1998" /> It was also one of the first books in which the cosmological doctrines of Yinyang and the Five Phases were brought to a mature synthesis.<ref name="Sivin 1993" />

The ''Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses (Shang Han Lun)'' was collated by [[Zhang Zhongjing]] sometime between 196 and 220 CE; at the end of the Han dynasty.{{sfnb|Liu|2019}} Focusing on drug prescriptions rather than acupuncture,<ref name="Sivin 1987">{{Cite book | vauthors = Sivin N |title=Traditional Medicine in Contemporary China|year=1987|publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan|location=Ann Arbor |isbn = 978-0-89264-074-4}}</ref><ref name="Ergil 2009">{{Cite book | vauthors = Ergil MC, Ergil KV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdZ1rFKW-LEC |title=Pocket Atlas of Chinese Medicine |year=2009 |publisher=Thieme |location=Stuttgart |isbn=978-3-13-141611-7 |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320191445/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdZ1rFKW-LEC |archive-date=20 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> it was the first medical work to combine Yinyang and the Five Phases with drug therapy.<ref name="Unschuld 1985" /> This [[Formulary (pharmacy)|formulary]] was also the earliest public Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful "patterns" (''zheng'' {{lang|zh|證}}) that could serve as targets for therapy. Having gone through numerous changes over time, the formulary now circulates as two distinct books: the ''[[Shang Han Lun|Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders]]'' and the ''[[Jingui Yaolue|Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket]]'', which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="ij1Wl">{{Cite book | vauthors = Goldschmidt A |title = The Evolution of Chinese Medicine: Song Dynasty, 960–1200 |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn = 978-0-415-42655-8}}</ref>

[[Nan Jing (Chinese medicine)|Nanjing]] or "Classic of Difficult Issues," originally called "The Yellow Emperor Eighty-one Nan Jing", ascribed to [[Bian Que]] in the [[eastern Han dynasty]]. This book was compiled in the form of question-and-answer explanations. A total of 81 questions have been discussed. Therefore, it is also called "Eighty-One Nan".<ref name="Zhongyibaodian 2019">{{Cite web|url=http://zhongyibaodian.com/archives/198.html|script-title=zh:《难经》在线阅读_【中医宝典】|website=zhongyibaodian.com|access-date=14 July 2019|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714105158/http://zhongyibaodian.com/archives/198.html|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The book is based on basic theory and has also analyzed some disease certificates. Questions one to twenty-two is about pulse study, questions twenty-three to twenty-nine is about meridian study, questions thirty to forty-seven is related to urgent illnesses, questions forty-eight to sixty-one is related to serious diseases, questions sixty-two to sixty-eight is related to acupuncture points, and questions sixty-nine to eighty-one is related to the needlepoint methods.<ref name="Zhongyibaodian 2019" />

The book is credited as developing its own path, while also inheriting the theories from Huangdi Neijing. The content includes physiology, pathology, diagnosis, treatment contents, and a more essential and specific discussion of pulse diagnosis.<ref name="Zhongyibaodian 2019" /> It has become one of the four classics for Chinese medicine practitioners to learn from and has impacted the medical development in China.<ref name="Zhongyibaodian 2019" />

''[[Shennong Ben Cao Jing]]'' is one of the earliest written medical books in China. Written during the Eastern Han Dynasty between 200 and 250 CE, it was the combined effort of practitioners in the Qin and Han Dynasties who summarized, collected and compiled the results of pharmacological experience during their time periods. It was the first systematic summary of Chinese herbal medicine.<ref name="Douban 2007">{{Cite book|url=https://book.douban.com/subject/2248401/|script-title=zh:神农本草经|last={{lang|zh|顾观光}}|date=August 2007|publisher={{lang|zh|哈尔滨出版社}}|isbn=9787806999752|title=Archived copy|access-date=14 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714105158/https://book.douban.com/subject/2248401/|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Most of the pharmacological theories and compatibility rules and the proposed "seven emotions and harmony" principle have played a role in the practice of medicine for thousands of years.<ref name="Douban 2007" /> Therefore, it has been a textbook for medical workers in modern China.<ref name="Douban 2007" /> The full text of ''Shennong Ben Cao Jing'' in English can be found online.<ref name="ShenNongBenCaoLing">[https://archive.org/stream/ShenNongBenCaoLingTheDivineFarmersMateriaMedica/ShenNong%20Ben%20Cao%20ling%28The%20Divine%20Farmers%20Materia%20Medica%29_djvu.txt Shen Nong Ben Cao Ling (The Divine Farmers Materia Medica)] archive.org</ref>

=== Post-Han dynasty ===
In the centuries that followed, several shorter books tried to summarize or systematize the contents of the ''Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon''. The ''Canon of Problems'' (probably second century CE) tried to reconcile divergent doctrines from the ''Inner Canon'' and developed a complete medical system centered on needling therapy.<ref name="Sivin 1987" /> The ''AB Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibustion'' (''Zhenjiu jiayi jing'' {{lang|zh|針灸甲乙經}}, compiled by [[Huangfu Mi]] sometime between 256 and 282 CE) assembled a consistent body of doctrines concerning acupuncture;<ref name="Sivin 1987" /> whereas the ''Canon of the Pulse'' (''Maijing'' {{lang|zh|脈經}}; ca. 280) presented itself as a "comprehensive handbook of diagnostics and therapy."<ref name="Sivin 1987" />

Around 900-1000 AD, Chinese were the first to develop a form of vaccination, known as [[variolation]] or [[inoculation]], to prevent [[smallpox]]. Chinese physicians had realised that when healthy people were exposed to smallpox scab tissue, they had a smaller chance of being infected by the disease later on. The common methods of inoculation at the time was through crushing smallpox scabs into powder and breathing it through the nose.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bushak|first=Lecia|date=2016-03-21|title=A Brief History Of Vaccines: From Medieval Chinese 'Variolation' To Modern Vaccination|url=https://www.medicaldaily.com/history-vaccines-variolation-378738|access-date=2021-04-16|website=Medical Daily|language=en}}</ref>

Prominent medical scholars of the post-Han period included [[Tao Hongjing]] (456-536), [[Sun Simiao]] of the Sui and Tang dynasties, [[Zhang Jiegu]] (c. 1151–1234), and [[Li Shizhen]] (1518-1593). 

===People's Republic ===
In 1950, [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) chairman [[Mao Zedong]] announced support of Traditional Chinese Medicine, but he did not personally believe in and did not use it.<ref name="Levinovitz 2013" /> In 1952, the president of the [[Chinese Medical Association]] said that, "This One Medicine, will possess a basis in modern natural sciences, will have absorbed the ancient and the new, the Chinese and the foreign, all medical achievements—and will be China's New Medicine!"<ref name="Levinovitz 2013">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2013/10/traditional_chinese_medicine_origins_mao_invented_it_but_didn_t_believe.html|title=Chairman Mao Invented Traditional Chinese Medicine | vauthors = Levinovitz A |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=22 October 2013|access-date=7 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307114753/http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/medical_examiner/2013/10/traditional_chinese_medicine_origins_mao_invented_it_but_didn_t_believe.html|archive-date=7 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976) the CCP and the government emphasized modernity, cultural identity and China's social and economic reconstruction and contrasted them to the colonial and feudal past. The government established a grassroots health care system as a step in the search for a new national identity and tried to revitalize traditional medicine and made large investments in traditional medicine to try to develop affordable medical care and public health facilities.<ref name="Gushi 2019">{{Cite web|url=https://gushi.tw/chinese-medicine-invented/|script-title=zh:中醫的發明和國族認同有關係？文化大革命對「傳統中醫學」的影響 {{!}} 故事|date=7 April 2019|website=gushi.tw|language=zh-TW|access-date=14 July 2019|title=Gushi.tw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714235827/https://gushi.tw/chinese-medicine-invented/|archive-date=14 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ministry of Health directed health care throughout China and established primary care units. Chinese physicians trained in Western medicine were required to learn traditional medicine, while traditional healers received training in modern methods. This strategy aimed to integrate modern medical concepts and methods and revitalize appropriate aspects of traditional medicine. Therefore, traditional Chinese medicine was re-created in response to Western medicine.<ref name="Gushi 2019" />

In 1968, the CCP supported a new system of health care delivery for rural areas. Villages were assigned a [[barefoot doctor]] (a medical staff with basic medical skills and knowledge to deal with minor illnesses) responsible for basic medical care. The medical staff combined the values of traditional China with modern methods to provide health and medical care to poor farmers in remote rural areas. The barefoot doctors became a symbol of the Cultural Revolution, for the introduction of modern medicine into villages where traditional Chinese medicine services were used.<ref name="Gushi 2019" />

In the second decade of the twenty-first century, [[Chinese Communist Party]] general secretary [[Xi Jinping]] strongly supported TCM, calling it a "gem." As of May 2011, in order to promote TCM worldwide, China had signed TCM partnership agreements with over 70 countries.<ref name="Cheung 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Cheung |first1=Felix |title=TCM: Made in China |journal=Nature |date=December 2011 |volume=480 |issue=7378 |pages=S82–S83 |doi=10.1038/480S82a |pmid=22190085 |bibcode=2011Natur.480S..82C |s2cid=600909 }}</ref> His government pushed to increase its use and the number of TCM-trained doctors and announced that students of TCM would no longer be required to pass examinations in Western medicine. Chinese scientists and researchers, however, expressed concern that TCM training and therapies would receive equal support with Western medicine. They also criticized a reduction in government testing and regulation of the production of TCMs, some of which were toxic. Government censors have removed Internet posts that question TCM.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |title=China to roll back regulations for traditional medicine despite safety concerns |journal=Nature |date=November 2017 |volume=551 |issue=7682 |pages=552–553 |doi=10.1038/nature.2017.23038 |pmid=29189784 |bibcode=2017Natur.551..552C |s2cid=4464138 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Hong Kong ===
At the beginning of [[Hong Kong]]'s opening up, Western medicine was not yet popular, and Western medicine doctors were mostly foreigners; local residents mostly relied on Chinese medicine practitioners. In 1841, the British government of Hong Kong issued an announcement pledging to govern Hong Kong residents in accordance with all the original rituals, customs and private legal property rights.<ref name="gD1Zl">{{Cite book|script-title=zh:香港與中國: 歷史文獻資料彙編, 第1集|publisher={{lang|zh|廣角鏡出版社}}|year=1981|isbn=978-9622260160|location=Hong Kong|pages=164}}</ref> As traditional Chinese medicine had always been used in China, the use of traditional Chinese medicine was not regulated.<ref name="L06zw">{{cite journal |last1=Ho |first1=Polly L H |title=Agenda-Setting for the Regulation of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Hong Kong |journal=Asian Journal of Public Administration |date=December 2002 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=257–286 |doi=10.1080/02598272.2002.10800403 |s2cid=155221420 }}</ref>

The establishment in 1870 of the [[Tung Wah Hospital]] was the first use of Chinese medicine for the treatment in Chinese hospitals providing free medical services.<ref name="RqWjK">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tungwah.org.hk/en/about/about-us/|title=About Us|website=Tung Wah Group of Hospitals|access-date=1 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304201455/http://www.tungwah.org.hk/en/about/about-us/|archive-date=4 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> As the promotion of Western medicine by the British government started from 1940,<ref name="Dudovskiy">{{cite web|url=https://research-methodology.net/historical-evolution-of-chinese-healthcare-system-a-brief-overview/|website=Business Research Methodology|title=Historical evolution of Chinese Healthcare System| vauthors = Dudovskiy J |date=24 March 2014|access-date=July 6, 2020}}</ref> Western medicine started being popular among Hong Kong population. In 1959, Hong Kong had researched the use of traditional Chinese medicine to replace Western medicine.<ref name="x1e9j">{{Cite news|url=https://mmis.hkpl.gov.hk/coverpage/-/coverpage/view?_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_hsf=%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94&p_r_p_-1078056564_c=QF757YsWv5%2FH7zGe%2FKF%2BFOLucU8fZKiu&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_o=0&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_actual_q=%28%20verbatim_dc.collection%3A%28%22Old%5C%20HK%5C%20Newspapers%22%29%20%29%20AND+%28%20%28%20allTermsMandatory%3A%28true%29%20OR+all_dc.title%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.creator%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.contributor%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.subject%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+fulltext%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.description%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20%29%20%29&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_sort_order=desc&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_sort_field=score&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_log=Y&tabs1=FILE_DOWNLOAD|script-title=zh:粵共研究中藥替代西藥用途|date=13 May 1959|work=Wah Kiu Yat Po|access-date=1 March 2019|language=zh|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042837/https://mmis.hkpl.gov.hk/coverpage/-/coverpage/view?_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_hsf=%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94&p_r_p_-1078056564_c=QF757YsWv5%2FH7zGe%2FKF%2BFOLucU8fZKiu&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_o=0&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_actual_q=%28%20verbatim_dc.collection%3A%28%22Old%5C%20HK%5C%20Newspapers%22%29%20%29%20AND+%28%20%28%20allTermsMandatory%3A%28true%29%20OR+all_dc.title%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.creator%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.contributor%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.subject%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+fulltext%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20OR+all_dc.description%3A%28%E4%B8%AD%E8%97%A5%E7%94%A8%E9%80%94%29%20%29%20%29&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_sort_order=desc&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_sort_field=score&_coverpage_WAR_mmisportalportlet_log=Y&tabs1=FILE_DOWNLOAD|archive-date=6 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=March 2019}}

==Critique==
The effectiveness of Chinese medicine remains poorly researched and supported, and most of its treatments have no logical [[mechanism of action]].<ref name="swallow" /><ref name="Shang-2007" /> A ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' editorial described TCM as "fraught with [[pseudoscience]]".<ref name="swallow" /> According to standards of [[science-based medicine]], there is no scientific basis for traditional Chinese concepts such as ''qi'', meridians, and acupuncture points.{{efn |name= "SinghErnst2008" |Singh & Ernst (2008) stated, "Scientists are still unable to find a shred of evidence to support the existence of meridians or Ch'i",<ref name="bIPgX">{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page = 72}}</ref> "The traditional principles of acupuncture are deeply flawed, as there is no evidence at all to demonstrate the existence of Ch'i or meridians"<ref name="FJS08">{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page = 107}}</ref> and "Acupuncture points and meridians are not a reality, but merely the product of an ancient Chinese philosophy".<ref name="5y6YH">{{harvnb|Singh & Ernst|2008|page= 387}}</ref>}} TCM theory and practice have no basis in [[scientific knowledge|modern science]], and there is disagreement among TCM practitioners on what diagnosis and treatments should be used for any given person.<ref name="Quackwatch" />

A 2012 review of [[cost-effectiveness]] research for TCM found that studies had low [[levels of evidence]], with no beneficial outcomes.<ref name="Zhang2012" /> Pharmaceutical research on the potential for creating new drugs from traditional remedies has few successful results.<ref name="swallow" /> Proponents suggest that research has so far missed key features of the art of TCM, such as unknown interactions between various ingredients and complex interactive biological systems.<ref name="swallow" /> One of the basic tenets of TCM is that the body's [[vital energy]] (''ch'i'' or ''[[qi]]'') is circulating through channels called [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] having branches connected to bodily organs and functions.<ref name="Quackwatch" /> The concept of vital energy is pseudoscientific. Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM reflect its ancient origins and its emphasis on dynamic processes over material structure, similar to [[Mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] [[humoral theory]].<ref name="Novella2012" />

TCM has also been controversial within China. In 2006, the Chinese philosopher [[Zhang Gongyao]] triggered a national debate with an article entitled "Farewell to Traditional Chinese Medicine", arguing that TCM was a pseudoscience that should be abolished in public healthcare and academia. The Chinese government however, took the stance that TCM is a science and continued to encourage its development.<ref name="qiu">{{cite journal | vauthors = Qiu J | title = China plans to modernize traditional medicine | journal = Nature | volume = 446 | issue = 7136 | pages = 590–1 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17410143 | doi = 10.1038/446590a | quote = Zhang argued that TCM is a pseudoscience and should not be part of public healthcare and research | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2007Natur.446..590Q }}</ref>

There are concerns over a number of potentially toxic plants, animal parts, and mineral Chinese compounds,<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> as well as the facilitation of disease. Trafficked and farm-raised animals used in TCM are a source of several fatal [[Zoonosis|zoonotic diseases]].<ref name="ZVvJo">{{cite journal|vauthors=Liu Q, Cao L, Zhu XQ|date=August 2014|title=Major emerging and re-emerging zoonoses in China: a matter of global health and socioeconomic development for 1.3 billion|journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=25|pages=65–72|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2014.04.003|pmc=7110807|pmid=24858904|doi-access=free}}</ref> The probable bat-to-human [[severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|COVID-19]] infection may have been among people processing bat carcasses and [[guano]] in the production of TCM.<ref name="5M8c6">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wassenaar TM, Zou Y|date=May 2020|title=2019_nCoV/SARS-CoV-2: rapid classification of betacoronaviruses and identification of Traditional Chinese Medicine as potential origin of zoonotic coronaviruses|journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology|volume=70|issue=5|pages=342–348|doi=10.1111/lam.13285|pmc=7165814|pmid=32060933}}</ref>

There are additional concerns over the illegal trade and transport of endangered species including rhinoceroses and tigers, and the welfare of specially farmed animals, including bears.<ref name="pHc8M">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Traditional Chinese Medicine and Endangered Animals|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://advocacy.britannica.com/blog/advocacy/2007/10/traditional-chinese-medicine-and-endangered-animals/|access-date=1 October 2016|date=22 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005052622/http://advocacy.britannica.com/blog/advocacy/2007/10/traditional-chinese-medicine-and-endangered-animals/|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2019, the [[World Health Organization]] included Traditional Chinese Medicine in a global diagnostic compendium, drawing criticism from scientists. A WHO spokesman said it was "not an endorsement of the scientific validity of any Traditional Medicine practice or the efficacy of any Traditional Medicine intervention."<ref>{{cite journal |title=The World Health Organization's decision about traditional Chinese medicine could backfire |journal=Nature |date=5 June 2019 |volume=570 |issue=7759 |pages=5 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01726-1 |pmid=31165792 |bibcode=2019Natur.570Q...5. |s2cid=174809790 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-health-organization-gives-the-nod-to-traditional-chinese-medicine-bad-idea/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.fo/20200406145913/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-health-organization-gives-the-nod-to-traditional-chinese-medicine-bad-idea/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hunt |first1=Katie |title=Chinese medicine gains WHO acceptance but it has many critics |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/24/health/traditional-chinese-medicine-who-controversy-intl/index.html |access-date=21 April 2022 |work=[[CNN]] |date=26 May 2019}}</ref>

==Philosophical background==
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a broad range of medicine practices sharing common concepts which have been developed in China and are based on a tradition of more than 2,000 years, including various forms of [[Chinese herbology|herbal medicine]], acupuncture, massage ({{lang|zh-Latn|tui na}}), exercise ({{lang|zh-Latn|qigong}}), and dietary therapy.<ref name="TCMNCCIH">Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, [http://nccih.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/chinesemed.htm Traditional Chinese Medicine: An Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626223845/https://nccih.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/chinesemed.htm |date=26 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="uOuvz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bannon D |author-link=David "Race" Bannon |title=Balancing the Yang and Yin: Development and Contributions of Chinese Medicine |journal=Asian Pacific Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=2 |year=1994 |pages=22–37}}</ref> It is primarily used as a complementary alternative medicine approach.<ref name="TCMNCCIH" /> TCM is widely used in China and it is also used in the West.<ref name="TCMNCCIH" /> Its philosophy is based on [[School of Yin Yang|Yinyangism]] (i.e., the combination of Five Phases theory with Yin–Yang theory),<ref name="Zou Yan">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan|title=Zou Yan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=1 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426150251/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan|archive-date=26 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> which was later absorbed by [[Daoism]].<ref name="IiZhf">Liu, Zheng-Cai (1999): [https://books.google.com/books?id=UNUiHP7MPJMC&pg=PA39&dq=liu+1999+daoism+yin+yang&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false "A Study of Daoist Acupuncture & Moxibustion"] Blue Poppy Press, first edition. {{ISBN|978-1-891845-08-6}}</ref> Philosophical texts influenced TCM, mostly by being grounded in the same theories of ''qi, yin-yang'' and ''wuxing'' and microcosm-macrocosm analogies.<ref name="629O1">{{Citation| vauthors = Raphals L |title=Chinese Philosophy and Chinese Medicine|year=2017|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/chinese-phil-medicine/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| veditors = Zalta EN |edition=Fall 2017|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190318040920/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/chinese-phil-medicine/|archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|right|200px|Yin and yang symbol for balance. In traditional Chinese Medicine, good health is believed to be achieved by various balances, including a balance between yin and yang.]]

===Yin and yang===
{{Main|Yin and yang}}

Yin and yang are ancient Chinese concepts which can be traced back to the [[Shang dynasty]]<ref name="Men 2010">Men, J. & Guo, L. (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=KxoVAXt09F8C&pg=PA60&dq=tcm+yin+yang&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20yin%20yang&f=false "A General Introduction to Traditional Chinese Medicine"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320171929/https://books.google.com/books?id=KxoVAXt09F8C&pg=PA60&dq=tcm+yin+yang&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20yin%20yang&f=false |date=20 March 2017}} Science Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4200-9173-1}}</ref> (1600–1100 BCE). They represent two abstract and complementary aspects that every phenomenon in the universe can be divided into.<ref name="Men 2010" /> Primordial analogies for these aspects are the sun-facing (yang) and the shady (yin) side of a hill.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Two other commonly used representational allegories of yin and yang are water and fire.<ref name="Men 2010" /> In the [[Yin and yang|yin–yang theory]], detailed attributions are made regarding the yin or yang character of things:

{| class="wikitable"
! Phenomenon || Yin || Yang
|-
! Celestial bodies<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
| moon || sun
|-
! Gender<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
| female || male
|-
! Location<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
| inside || outside
|-
! Temperature<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
| cold || hot
|-
! Direction<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
| downward || upward
|-
! Degree of humidity
| damp/moist || dry
|}

The concept of yin and yang is also applicable to the human body; for example, the upper part of the body and the back are assigned to yang, while the lower part of the body is believed to have the yin character.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Yin and yang characterization also extends to the various body functions, and – more importantly – to disease symptoms (e.g., cold and heat sensations are assumed to be yin and yang symptoms, respectively).<ref name="Wiseman 1996">{{harvp|Wiseman|Ellis|1996}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref> Thus, yin and yang of the body are seen as phenomena whose lack (or over-abundance) comes with characteristic symptom combinations:
* Yin vacuity (also termed "vacuity-heat"): heat sensations, possible sweating at night, insomnia, dry pharynx, dry mouth, dark urine, and a "fine" and rapid pulse.<ref name="Kaptchuck 2000">Kaptchuck, Ted J. (2000): [https://books.google.com/books?id=6BiGl562OgEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+web+that+has+no+weaver&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false "The Web That Has No Weaver"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320170500/https://books.google.com/books?id=6BiGl562OgEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+web+that+has+no+weaver&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=20 March 2017}} 2nd edition. Contemporary Books. {{ISBN|978-0-8092-2840-9}}</ref>
* Yang vacuity ("vacuity-cold"): aversion to cold, cold limbs, bright white complexion, long voidings of clear urine, diarrhea, pale and enlarged tongue, and a slightly weak, slow and fine pulse.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

TCM also identifies drugs believed to treat these specific symptom combinations, i.e., to reinforce yin and yang.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
[[File:Wuxing en.svg|thumb|right|200px|Interactions of Wu Xing]]

{| class="wikitable"
! Phenomenon || Wood || Fire || Earth || Metal || Water
|-
! Direction<ref name="Aung 2007" />
| East || South || Centre || West || North
|-
! Colour<ref name="Deng 1999" />
| green/violet || red/purple || yellow/pink || white || black
|-
! Climate<ref name="Aung 2007" />
| wind || heat || damp || dryness || cold
|-
! Taste<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
| sour || bitter || sweet || acrid || salty
|-
! Zang Organ<ref name="Maciocia 1989">Maciocia, Giovanni, (1989): The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists; Churchill Livingstone; {{ISBN|978-0-443-03980-5}}, p. 26</ref>
| Liver || Heart || Spleen || Lung || Kidney
|-
! Fu Organ<ref name="Maciocia 1989" />
| Gallbladder || Small intestine || Stomach || Large intestine || Bladder
|-
! Sense organ<ref name="Deng 1999" />
| eye || tongue || mouth || nose || ears
|-
! Facial part<ref name="Deng 1999" />
| above bridge of nose || between eyes, lower part || bridge of nose || between eyes, middle part || cheeks (below cheekbone)
|-
! Eye part<ref name="Deng 1999">Deng, T. (1999): [https://books.google.com/books?id=wONlwtKkUmcC&pg=PA185&dq=tcm+six+evils&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false "Practical diagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine"]. Elsevier. 5th reprint, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-443-04582-0}}</ref>
| iris || inner/outer corner of the eye || upper and lower lid || sclera || pupil
|}

Strict rules are identified to apply to the relationships between the Five Phases in terms of sequence, of acting on each other, of counteraction, etc.<ref name="Aung 2007">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007}}{{page needed|date=October 2019}}</ref> All these aspects of Five Phases theory constitute the basis of the [[Zang-fu|zàng-fǔ]] concept, and thus have great influence regarding the TCM model of the body.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Five Phase theory is also applied in diagnosis and therapy.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />

Correspondences between the body and the universe have historically not only been seen in terms of the Five Elements, but also of the "Great Numbers" ({{zh|labels=no|c=大數 |p=dà shū}})<ref name="Matuk 2006" /> For example, the number of acu-points has at times been seen to be 365, corresponding with the number of days in a year; and the number of main meridians–12–has been seen as corresponding with the number of rivers flowing through the [[History of China|ancient Chinese empire]].<ref name="Matuk 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Matuk |first1=Camillia |title=Seeing the Body: The Divergence of Ancient Chinese and Western Medical Illustration |journal=The Journal of Biocommunication |date=2006 |volume=32 |issue=1 |citeseerx=10.1.1.592.1410 |s2cid=6336033 |url=https://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/docs/publications/6074956944509ac426aaa6.pdf }}</ref><ref name="SDAM">''"There are 365 days in the year, while humans have 365 joints [or acu-points]... There are 12 channel rivers across the land, while humans have 12 channel"'', A Study of Daoist Acupuncture & Moxibustion, Cheng-Tsai Liu, Liu Zheng-Cai, Ka Hua, p. 40, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UNUiHP7MPJMC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22%22traditional+chinese+medicine%22+%2212+rivers%22+acupuncture+%22365+days%22&source=bl&ots=rsClvQps3o&sig=-DGpUyl70Yd4YtHE87RauAe_Q1U&hl=en&ei=OrJcTcaZOoqcsQO9u5nhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=12%20rivers&f=false] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930234748/http://books.google.com/books?id=UNUiHP7MPJMC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%22%22traditional+chinese+medicine%22+%2212+rivers%22+acupuncture+%22365+days%22&source=bl&ots=rsClvQps3o&sig=-DGpUyl70Yd4YtHE87RauAe_Q1U&hl=en&ei=OrJcTcaZOoqcsQO9u5nhCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=12%20rivers&f=false |date=30 September 2014}}</ref>

==Model of the body==
{{Main|TCM model of the body}}

[[File:ChineseMedecine.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridians]]

TCM "holds that the body's [[vital energy]] (''chi'' or ''qi'') circulates through channels, called ''[[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]]'', that have branches connected to bodily organs and functions."<ref name="Quackwatch" /> Its view of the human body is only marginally concerned with anatomical structures, but focuses primarily on the body's ''functions''<ref name="Matuk 2006"/><ref name="Ross 1984" /> (such as digestion, breathing, temperature maintenance, etc.):

These functions are aggregated and then associated with a primary functional entity – for instance, nourishment of the tissues and maintenance of their moisture are seen as connected functions, and the entity postulated to be responsible for these functions is xuě (blood).<ref name="Ross 1984" /> These functional entities thus constitute ''concepts'' rather than something with biochemical or anatomical properties.<ref name="HxfYB">Ross, Jeremy (1984). [https://books.google.com/books?id=t23zKB1FSVYC&pg=PA6&dq=Chinese+medicine+is+completely+different;+it+emphasizes+function.+Little&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=Chinese%20medicine%20is%20completely%20different%3B%20it%20emphasizes%20function.%20Little&f=false "Zang Fu, the organ systems of traditional Chinese medicine"] Elsevier. First edition 1984. {{ISBN|978-0-443-03482-4}} pp. 12–13. "For example, [the term] Xue is used rather than Blood, since the latter implies the blood of Western medicine, with its precise parameters of biochemistry and histology. Although Xue and blood share some common attributes, fundamentally, Xue is a different concept."</ref>

The primary functional entities used by traditional Chinese medicine are qì, xuě, the five zàng organs, the six fǔ organs, and the meridians which extend through the organ systems.<ref name="Aung, S.K.H. 2007 p. 19">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007|p=19}}</ref> These are all theoretically interconnected: each zàng organ is paired with a fǔ organ, which are nourished by the blood and concentrate qi for a particular function, with meridians being extensions of those functional systems throughout the body.

Concepts of the body and of disease used in TCM are pseudoscientific, similar to [[Mediterranean race|Mediterranean]] [[humoral theory]].<ref name="Novella2012">{{cite web|title=What Is Traditional Chinese Medicine?| vauthors = Novella S |work=Science-based Medicine|url=http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine/|date=25 January 2012|access-date=14 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415070141/http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine/|archive-date=15 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> TCM's model of the body is characterized as full of pseudoscience.<ref name="Jin2005">{{cite book |vauthors = Jin Z |title=Global Technological Change: From Hard Technology to Soft Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V7SsFqkHaC4C&pg=PT36 |year=2005 |publisher=Intellect Books |isbn=978-1-84150-124-6 |page=36 |quote=The vacuum created by China's failure to adequately support a disciplined scientific approach to traditional Chinese medicine has been filled by pseudoscience |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320185919/https://books.google.com/books?id=V7SsFqkHaC4C&pg=PT36 |archive-date=20 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some practitioners no longer consider yin and yang and the idea of an energy flow to apply.<ref name="vnonJ">{{cite encyclopedia | vauthors = Williams WF | title = Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy | isbn = 978-1135955229 | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy|Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience]] | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2013 | pages = 3–4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vH1EAgAAQBAJ | access-date = 18 February 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160821080422/https://books.google.com/books?id=vH1EAgAAQBAJ | archive-date = 21 August 2016 | url-status = live}}</ref> Scientific investigation has not found any [[histology|histological]] or [[physiology|physiological]] evidence for traditional Chinese concepts such as ''qi'', meridians, and acupuncture points.{{efn|name= "SinghErnst2008"}} It is a generally held belief within the acupuncture community that acupuncture points and meridians structures are special conduits for electrical signals but no research has established any consistent anatomical structure or function for either acupuncture points or meridians.{{efn|name="SinghErnst2008"}}<ref name="Ahn2008">{{cite journal |last1=Ahn |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Colbert |first2=Agatha P. |last3=Anderson |first3=Belinda J. |last4=Martinsen |first4=Ørjan G. |last5=Hammerschlag |first5=Richard |last6=Cina |first6=Steve |last7=Wayne |first7=Peter M. |last8=Langevin |first8=Helene M. |title=Electrical properties of acupuncture points and meridians: A systematic review |journal=Bioelectromagnetics |date=May 2008 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.1002/bem.20403 |pmid=18240287 }}</ref> The scientific evidence for the anatomical existence of either meridians or acupuncture points is not compelling.<ref name="JTAsx">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ernst E | title = Acupuncture--a critical analysis | journal = Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 259 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–37 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16420542 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2005.01584.x | s2cid = 22052509 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Stephen Barrett]] of [[Quackwatch]] writes that, "TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses. Even if they could agree, the TCM theories are so nebulous that no amount of scientific study will enable TCM to offer rational care."<ref name="Quackwatch">{{Cite web |url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/acu.html | vauthors = Barrett S |author-link=Stephen Barrett |title=Be Wary of Acupuncture, Qigong, and 'Chinese Medicine' | date = 12 January 2011 |access-date=11 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602104856/https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/acu.html |archive-date=2 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Qi===
{{Main|Qi}}

TCM distinguishes many kinds of qi ({{zh |p = qì |s = 气 |t = 氣|c=|labels=no}}).<ref name="Aung & Chen" /> In a general sense, qi is something that is defined by five "cardinal functions":<ref name="Aung & Chen">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007|pp=11–12}}. "{{lang|zh|氣的生理功能...(一)推動作用...(二)溫煦作用...(三)防御作用...(四)固攝作用...(五)氣化作用}}" [Physiological functions of qi: 1.) Function of actuation ... 2.) Function of warming ... 3.) Function of defense ... 4.) Function of containment ... 5.) Function of transformation ...]</ref><ref name="BUJWu">as seen at {{cite web |url = http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |script-title = zh:氣 |author = 郭卜樂 |date = 24 October 2009 |access-date = 2 December 2010 |language = zh |trans-title = Qi |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108191112/http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |archive-date = 8 January 2009 |url-status = dead}}</ref>
# Actuation ({{zh |t = 推動 |s = 推动 |p = tuīdòng|c=|labels=no}}) – of all physical processes in the body, especially the circulation of all body fluids such as blood in their vessels. This includes actuation of the functions of the zang-fu organs and meridians.
# Warming ({{zh |t = 溫煦 |p = wēnxù|c=|s=温煦|labels=no}}) – the body, especially the limbs.
# Defense ({{zh |c = 防御 |p = fángyù|s=|t=|labels=no}}) – against [[#Six Excesses|Exogenous Pathogenic Factors]]
# Containment ({{zh |t = 固攝 |s = 固摄 |p = gùshè|c=|labels=no}}) – of body fluids, i.e., keeping blood, sweat, urine, semen, etc. from leakage or excessive emission.
# Transformation ({{zh |t = 氣化 |s = 气化 |p = qìhuà|c=|labels=no}}) – of food, drink, and breath into qi, [[#Xue|xue]] (blood), and [[#Bodily fluids (Jinye)|jinye]] ("fluids"), and/or transformation of all of the latter into each other.
Vacuity of qi will be characterized especially by pale complexion, lassitude of spirit, lack of strength, spontaneous sweating, laziness to speak, non-digestion of food, shortness of breath (especially on exertion), and a pale and enlarged tongue.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

Qi is believed to be partially generated from food and drink, and partially from air (by breathing). Another considerable part of it is inherited from the parents and will be consumed in the course of life.

TCM uses special terms for qi running inside of the blood vessels and for qi that is distributed in the skin, muscles, and tissues between them. The former is called yíng-qì ({{zh |s = 营气 |t = 營氣|c=|p=|labels=no}}); its function is to complement xuè and its nature has a strong yin aspect (although qi in general is considered to be yang).<ref name="Elizabeth Reninger">{{cite web |url=http://taoism.about.com/od/qi/a/Qi_Forms.htm |title=Qi (Chi): Various Forms Used in Qigong & Chinese Medicine – How Are The Major Forms Of Qi Created Within The Body? | vauthors = Reninger E |access-date=6 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707075119/http://taoism.about.com/od/qi/a/Qi_Forms.htm |archive-date=7 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The latter is called weì-qì ({{zh |t = 衛氣 |s = 卫气|c=|p=|labels=no}}); its main function is defence and it has pronounced yang nature.<ref name="Elizabeth Reninger" />

Qi is said to circulate in the meridians. Just as the qi held by each of the zang-fu organs, this is considered to be part of the 'principal' qi ({{zh |t = 元氣 |s = 元气 |p = yuánqì|c=|labels=no}}) of the body<ref name="HUCB4">"{{lang|zh|...元氣生成後，通過三焦而流行分布於全身，內至髒腑，外達腠理肌膚...}} [After yuan-qi is created, it disperses over the whole body, to the zang-fu in the interior, to the skin and the space beneath it on the exterior...] as seen in {{cite web |url = http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |script-title = zh:氣 |author = 郭卜樂 |date = 24 October 2009 |access-date = 6 December 2010 |language = zh |trans-title = Qi |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108191112/http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |archive-date = 8 January 2009 |url-status = dead}}</ref> (also called {{zh |s = 真气 |p = zhēn qì|c=|t=真氣|labels=no}}, ''true'' qi, or {{zh |s = 原气 |p = yuán qì|c=|t=原氣|labels=no}}, ''original'' qi).<ref name="0QFSU">"{{lang|zh|1、元氣元氣又稱為"原氣"、"真氣"，為人體最基本、最重要的氣，...}}" [1. Yuan-qi is also known as "yuan-qi" and "zhēn qì", is the body's most fundamental and most important (kind of) qi ...] as seen at {{cite web |url = http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |script-title = zh:氣 |author = 郭卜樂 |date = 24 October 2009 |access-date = 6 December 2010 |language = zh |trans-title = Qi |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108191112/http://www.zgxl.net/sljk/imgbody/zyrt/qi.htm |archive-date = 8 January 2009 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Xue===
In contrast to the majority of other functional entities, xuè ({{lang|zh|血}}, "blood") is correlated with a physical form – the red liquid running in the blood vessels.<ref name="Blood from a TCM Perspective">{{cite web|url=http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/principles/blood.html|title=Blood from a TCM Perspective|publisher=Shen-Nong Limited|access-date=4 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716053655/http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/principles/blood.html|archive-date=16 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Its concept is, nevertheless, defined by its functions: nourishing all parts and tissues of the body, safeguarding an adequate degree of moisture, and sustaining and soothing both consciousness and sleep.<ref name="Blood from a TCM Perspective" />

Typical symptoms of a lack of xuě (usually termed "blood vacuity" [{{zh|c=血虚 |p=xuě xū|labels=no}}]) are described as: Pale-white or withered-yellow complexion, dizziness, flowery vision, palpitations, insomnia, numbness of the extremities; pale tongue; "fine" pulse.<ref name="cudGr">{{harvp|Wiseman|Ellis|1996|p=147}}</ref>

===Jinye===
Closely related to xuě are the jīnyè ({{lang|zh|津液}}, usually translated as "body fluids"), and just like xuě they are considered to be yin in nature, and defined first and foremost by the functions of nurturing and moisturizing the different structures of the body.<ref name="sacredlotus">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacredlotus.com/theory/substances/jinye.cfm |title=Body Fluids (Yin Ye) |publisher=2001–2010 by Sacred Lotus Arts |access-date=9 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127132141/http://sacredlotus.com/theory/substances/jinye.cfm |archive-date=27 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Their other functions are to harmonize yin and yang, and to help with the secretion of waste products.<ref name="NJxjg">"{{lang|zh|三、津液的功能 ...（三）调节阴阳 ...（四）排泄废物 ..."}} [3.) Functions of the Jinye: ... 3.3.)Harmonizing yin and yang ... 3.4.)Secretion of waste products ...] As seen at: {{cite web |url=http://www.zysj.com.cn/lilunshuji/jichulilun/44-4-4.html |script-title=zh:《中医基础理论》第四章精、气、血、津液. 第四节津液 |access-date=9 December 2010 |language=zh |trans-title=Basics of TCM theory. Chapter 4: Essence, qi, blood, jinye. Section 4: jinye |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113053828/http://www.zysj.com.cn/lilunshuji/jichulilun/44-4-4.html |archive-date=13 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Jīnyè are ultimately extracted from food and drink, and constitute the raw material for the production of xuě; conversely, xuě can also be transformed into jīnyè.<ref name="sacredlotus" /> Their palpable manifestations are all bodily fluids: [[tears]], [[sputum]], [[Salivary gland|saliva]], [[gastric acid]], [[Synovial fluid|joint fluid]], [[Perspiration|sweat]], [[urine]], etc.<ref name="XOqR0">"{{lang|zh|津液包括各脏腑组织的正常体液和正常的分泌物，胃液、肠液、唾液、关节液等。习惯上也包括代谢产物中的尿、汗、泪等。}}" [The (term) jinye comprises all physiological bodily fluids of the zang-fu and tissues, and physiological secretions, gastric juice, intestinal juice, saliva, joint fluid, etc. Customarily, this also includes metabolic products like urine, sweat, tears, etc.] As seen at: {{cite web |url=http://www.zysj.com.cn/lilunshuji/jichulilun/44-4-4.html |script-title=zh:《中医基础理论》第四章精、气、血、津液. 第四节津液 |access-date=9 December 2010 |language=zh |trans-title=Basics of TCM theory. Chapter 4: Essence, qi, blood, jinye. Section 4: jinye |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113053828/http://www.zysj.com.cn/lilunshuji/jichulilun/44-4-4.html |archive-date=13 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Zang-fu===
{{Main|Zang-fu}}
The '''zàng-fǔ''' ({{zh|labels=no|s=脏腑|t=臟腑}}) constitute the centre piece of TCM's systematization of bodily functions. Bearing the names of organs, they are, however, only secondarily tied to (rudimentary) anatomical assumptions (the fǔ a little more, the zàng much less).<ref name="hJoCV">{{cite web |url=http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/118Kaleidoscope4651.html |title=Cultural China–Chinese Medicine–Basic Zang Fu Theory |access-date=8 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314201959/http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/118Kaleidoscope4651.html |archive-date=14 March 2011}}</ref> As they are primarily defined by their functions,<ref name="Kaptchuck 2000" /><ref name="Ross 1984" /> they are not equivalent to the anatomical organs–to highlight this fact, their names are usually capitalized.

The term zàng ({{lang|zh|臟}}) refers to the five entities considered to be yin in nature–[[Heart (Chinese medicine)|Heart]], [[Liver (Chinese medicine)|Liver]], [[Spleen (Chinese medicine)|Spleen]], [[Lung (Chinese medicine)|Lung]], [[Kidney (Chinese medicine)|Kidney]]–, while fǔ ({{lang|zh|腑}}) refers to the six yang organs–[[Small intestine (Chinese medicine)|Small Intestine]], [[Large intestine (Chinese medicine)|Large Intestine]], [[Gallbladder (Chinese medicine)|Gallbladder]], [[Urinary bladder (Chinese medicine)|Urinary Bladder]], [[Stomach (Chinese medicine)|Stomach]] and [[San Jiao|Sānjiaō]].<ref name="mUWDG">by citation from the [[Huangdi Neijing]]'s Suwen: "{{lang|zh|言人身臟腑中陰陽，則臟者為陰，腑者為陽。}}" [Within the human body's zang-fu, there's yin and yang; the zang are yin, the fu are yang]. As seen at: {{cite web |url=http://www.yixuesheng.com/lunwen/zhongyi/zyjc/201001/5090.html |script-title=zh:略論臟腑表裏關係 |date=22 January 2010 |access-date=13 December 2010 |language=zh |trans-title=outline on the relationships between the zang-fu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718141705/http://www.yixuesheng.com/lunwen/zhongyi/zyjc/201001/5090.html |archive-date=18 July 2011}}</ref>

The zàng's essential functions consist in production and storage of qì and xuě; they are said to regulate digestion, breathing, water metabolism, the musculoskeletal system, the skin, the sense organs, aging, emotional processes, and mental activity, among other structures and processes.<ref name="gPrNi">{{cite web |url=http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/118Kaleidoscope4651.html |title=Cultural China–Chinese Medicine–Basic Zang Fu Theory |access-date=26 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314201959/http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/118Kaleidoscope4651.html |archive-date=14 March 2011}}</ref> The fǔ organs' main purpose is merely to transmit and digest ({{zh|c=傳化 |labels=no|p=chuán-huà}})<ref name="wh23b">"{{lang|zh|六腑：膽、胃、小腸、大腸、膀胱、三焦；"傳化物質"。}} [The Six Fu: gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, bladder, sanjiao; "transmit and digest"] as seen at {{cite web |url=http://www.notedyy.com/news/html/?341.html |script-title=zh:中醫基礎理論-髒腑學說 |date=11 June 2010 |access-date=14 December 2010 |language=zh |trans-title=Basics of TCM theory–The zangfu concept |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714200403/http://www.notedyy.com/news/html/?341.html |archive-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> substances such as waste and food.

Since their concept was developed on the basis of Wǔ Xíng philosophy, each zàng is paired with a fǔ, and each zàng-fǔ pair is assigned to one of five elemental qualities (i.e., the Five Elements or Five Phases).<ref name="K2pRO">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007|pp= 15–16}}</ref> These correspondences are stipulated as:
* Fire ({{lang|zh|火}}) = Heart ({{zh|c=心|labels=no|p=xīn}}) and Small Intestine ({{zh|c=小腸|labels=no|p=xiaǒcháng}}) (and, secondarily, Sānjiaō [{{lang|zh|三焦}}, "Triple Burner"] and Pericardium [{{zh|c=心包|p=xīnbaò|labels=no}}])
* Earth ({{lang|zh|土}}) = Spleen ({{zh|c=脾 |labels=no|p=pí}}) and Stomach ({{zh|c=胃 |labels=no|p=weì}})
* Metal ({{lang|zh|金}}) = Lung ({{zh|c=肺 |labels=no|p=feì}}) and Large Intestine ({{zh|c=大腸 |labels=no|p=dàcháng}})
* Water ({{lang|zh|水}}) = Kidney ({{zh|c=腎 |labels=no|p=shèn}}) and Bladder ({{zh|c=膀胱|labels=no|p=pángguāng}})
* Wood ({{lang|zh|木}}) = Liver ({{zh|c=肝 |labels=no|p=gān}}) and Gallbladder ({{zh|c=膽|labels=no|p=dān}})

The zàng-fǔ are also connected to the [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)#Twelve standard meridians|twelve standard meridians]]–each yang meridian is attached to a fǔ organ, and five of the yin meridians are attached to a zàng.<ref name="4IoBNy" /> As there are only five zàng but six yin meridians, the sixth is assigned to the [[Pericardium (Chinese medicine)|Pericardium]], a peculiar entity almost similar to the Heart zàng.<ref name="4IoBNy">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007|p=16}}</ref>

===Jing-luo===
[[File:Acupuncture chart 300px.jpg|thumb|Acupuncture chart from the [[Ming dynasty]] (c. 1368–1644)|200px]]
{{Main|Meridian (Chinese medicine)}}

The meridians ({{lang|zh|经络}}, {{zh|labels=no|p=jīng-luò}}) are believed to be channels running from the zàng-fǔ in the interior ({{lang|zh|里}}, {{zh|labels=no|p=lǐ}}) of the body to the limbs and joints ("the surface" [{{lang|zh|表}}, {{zh|labels=no|p=biaǒ}}]), transporting qi and xuĕ.<ref name="GLbap">{{lang|zh|"经络是运行全身气血，联络脏腑肢节，沟通表里上下内外，...}}" [The jingluo transport qi and blood through the whole body, connecting the zang-fu with limbs and joints, connecting interior with surface, up with down, inside with outside ...] as seen at {{cite web |url=http://www.diyifanwen.com/kaoshizhuanti/fuxizhidao1/0781614101641980_497.htm |script-title=zh:中医基础理论辅导：经络概念及经络学说的形成: 经络学说的形成 |access-date=13 January 2011 |language=zh |trans-title=guide to basic TCM theory: the jing-luo concept and the emergence of jing-luo theory: the emergence of jing-luo theory |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710135054/http://www.diyifanwen.com/kaoshizhuanti/fuxizhidao1/0781614101641980_497.htm |archive-date=10 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aFnoX">{{harvp|Aung|Chen|2007|p=20}}</ref> TCM identifies 12 "regular" and 8 "extraordinary" meridians;<ref name="Aung, S.K.H. 2007 p. 19" /> the Chinese terms being {{lang|zh|十二经脉}} ({{zh|labels=no|p=shí-èr jīngmài}}, lit. "the Twelve Vessels") and {{lang|zh|奇经八脉}} ({{zh|labels=no|p=qí jīng bā mài}}) respectively.<ref name="xdLlk">"{{lang|zh|（三）十二经脉 ...（四）奇经八脉 ..."}} [(3.) The Twelve Vessels ... (4.) The Extraordinary Eight Vessels ...] as seen at {{cite web |url=http://www.pharmnet.com.cn/tcm/knowledge/detail/100044.html |script-title=zh:经络学 |access-date=22 February 2011 |language=zh |trans-title=meridian theory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110121328/http://www.pharmnet.com.cn/tcm/knowledge/detail/100044.html |archive-date=10 November 2016}}</ref> There's also a number of less customary channels branching from the "regular" meridians.<ref name="Aung, S.K.H. 2007 p. 19" />

== Gender in traditional medicine ==
''Fuke ''({{zh |t =婦科 |s =妇科|p = Fuke|c=|labels=no}}) is the Chinese term for women's medicine, (known as [[gynecology]] and [[obstetrics]] in modern medicine). However, there are few or no ancient works on it except for Fu Qing-zhu's ''Fu Qing Zhu Nu Ke'' (Fu Qing-zhu's ''Gynecology'').<ref name="PyYtM">{{Cite book|title=Fu Qing-zhu's gynecology| vauthors = Fu S |date=1995 |publisher=Blue Poppy Press|isbn=093618535X|oclc=46812372}}</ref> In traditional China, as in many other cultures, the health and medicine of female bodies was less understood than that of male bodies. Women's bodies were often secondary to male bodies, since women were thought of as the weaker, sicklier sex.<ref name="yzdrXFB">Furth, Charlotte. ''A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China's Medical History, 960–1665''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/HEB.04218.0001.001 hdl.handle.net]</ref>

In clinical encounters, women and men were treated differently. Diagnosing women was not as simple as diagnosing men. First, when a woman fell ill, an appropriate adult man was to call the doctor and remain present during the examination, for the woman could not be left alone with the doctor.<ref name="nzFZzH">{{Cite book|title=A flourishing yin: gender in Chinaʼs medical history| vauthors = Furth C |publisher=University of California Press|year=1999|isbn=0520208293|pages=245, 250, 255|oclc=955120174}}</ref> The physician would discuss the female's problems and diagnosis only through the male. However, in certain cases, when a woman dealt with complications of pregnancy or birth, older women assumed the role of the formal authority. Men in these situations would not have much power to interfere.<ref name="54E8O5" /> Second, women were often silent about their issues with doctors due to the societal expectation of female modesty when a male figure was in the room.<ref name="nzFZzH" /> Third, patriarchal society also caused doctors to call women and children patients "the anonymous category of family members (''Jia Ren'') or household (''Ju Jia'')"<ref name="nzFZzH" /> in their journals. This anonymity and lack of conversation between the doctor and woman patient led to the inquiry diagnosis of the Four Diagnostic Methods<ref name="jBODo">{{Cite book|title=Diagnostic of Traditional Chinese Medicine – A newly compiled practical English-Chinese library of Traditional Chinese medicine| vauthors = Wang LF |publisher=Shanghai university of TCM press|year=2002|isbn=7810106805}}</ref> being the most challenging. Doctors used a medical doll known as a [[Doctor's lady]], on which female patients could indicate the location of their symptoms.<ref name="Byouo">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtgVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 | title=You and Your Doctor: A Guide to a Healing Relationship, with Physicians' Insights | publisher=McFarland & Company | vauthors = Heller T | year=2012 | pages=66| isbn=9780786462933}}</ref>

Cheng Maoxian (b. 1581), who practiced medicine in Yangzhou, described the difficulties doctors had with the norm of female modesty. One of his case studies was that of Fan Jisuo's teenage daughter, who could not be diagnosed because she was unwilling to speak about her symptoms, since the illness involved discharge from her intimate areas.<ref name="54E8O5">{{cite book|title=A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China's Medical History| vauthors = Furth C |date=March 1999|isbn=9780520208292}}</ref> As Cheng describes, there were four standard methods of diagnosis—looking, asking, listening and smelling and touching (for pulse-taking). To maintain some form of modesty, women would often stay hidden behind curtains and screens. The doctor was allowed to touch enough of her body to complete his examination, often just the pulse taking. This would lead to situations where the symptoms and the doctor's diagnosis did not agree and the doctor would have to ask to view more of the patient.<ref name="VtvP4C">{{cite book|title=A Flourishing Yin: Gender in China's Medical History: 960–1665| vauthors = Furth C |date=March 1999|isbn=9780520208292|page=248}}</ref>

These social and cultural beliefs were often barriers to learning more about female health, with women themselves often being the most formidable barrier. Women were often uncomfortable talking about their illnesses, especially in front of the male chaperones that attended medical examinations.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> Women would choose to omit certain symptoms as a means of upholding their chastity and honor. One such example is the case in which a teenage girl was unable to be diagnosed because she failed to mention her symptom of vaginal discharge.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> Silence was their way of maintaining control in these situations, but it often came at the expense of their health and the advancement of female health and medicine. This silence and control were most obviously seen when the health problem was related to the core of Ming ''fuke'', or the sexual body.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> It was often in these diagnostic settings that women would choose silence. In addition, there would be a conflict between patient and doctor on the probability of her diagnosis. For example, a woman who thought herself to be past the point of child-bearing age, might not believe a doctor who diagnoses her as pregnant.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> This only resulted in more conflict.

=== Yin Yang and gender ===
Yin and Yang were critical to the understanding of women's bodies, but understood only in conjunction with male bodies.<ref name="uHbrTu">{{cite journal |last1=Farquhar |first1=Judith |title=Objects, Processes, and Female Infertility in Chinese Medicine |journal=Medical Anthropology Quarterly |date=1991 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=370–399 |doi=10.1525/maq.1991.5.4.02a00040 |jstor=649292 }}</ref> Yin and yang ruled the body, the body being a microcosm of the universe and the earth. In addition, gender in the body was understood as homologous, the two genders operating in synchronization.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> Gender was presumed to influence the movement of energy and a well-trained physician would be expected to read the pulse and be able to identify two dozen or more energy flows.<ref name="GFgKi">{{Cite book|title=Canon of the Pulse (Maijing)}}</ref> Yin and yang concepts were applied to the feminine and masculine aspects of all bodies, implying that the differences between men and women begin at the level of this energy flow. According to ''Bequeathed Writings of Master Chu'' the male's yang pulse movement follows an ascending path in "compliance [with cosmic direction] so that the cycle of circulation in the body and the Vital Gate are felt...The female's yin pulse movement follows a defending path against the direction of cosmic influences, so that the nadir and the Gate of Life are felt at the inch position of the left hand".<ref name="Z7q7v">{{Cite book|title=Bequeathed Writings of Master Chu}}</ref> In sum, classical medicine marked yin and yang as high and low on bodies which in turn would be labeled normal or abnormal and gendered either male or female.<ref name="54E8O5" />

Bodily functions could be categorized through systems, not organs. In many drawings and diagrams, the twelve channels and their visceral systems were organized by yin and yang, an organization that was identical in female and male bodies. Female and male bodies were no different on the plane of yin and yang. Their gendered differences were not acknowledged in diagrams of the human body. Medical journals were filled with illustrations of male bodies or androgynous bodies that did not display gendered characteristics.<ref name="dsK5E">Wu, Yi-Li, and {{lang|zh|吳一立}}. "The Gendered Medical Iconography of the Golden Mirror, Yuzuan Yizong Jinjian {{lang|zh|御纂醫宗金鑑}}, 1742." In ''Imagining Chinese Medicine'', edited by Lo Vivienne, {{lang|zh|羅維前}}, Barrett Penelope, Dear David, Di Lu, {{lang|zh|蘆笛}}, Reynolds Lois, Yang Dolly, and {{lang|zh|楊德秀}}, 111–32. LEIDEN; BOSTON: Brill, 2018. {{jstor|10.1163/j.ctvbqs6ph.12}}.</ref>

As in other cultures, fertility and menstruation dominate female health concerns.<ref name="yzdrXFB" /> Since male and female bodies were governed by the same forces, traditional Chinese medicine did not recognize the womb as the place of reproduction. The abdominal cavity presented pathologies that were similar in both men and women, which included tumors, growths, hernias, and swellings of the genitals. The "master system," as Charlotte Furth calls it, is the kidney visceral system, which governed reproductive functions. Therefore, it was not the anatomical structures that allowed for pregnancy, but the difference in processes that allowed for the affliction of pregnancy to occur.<ref name="yzdrXFB" />

=== Pregnancy ===
Traditional Chinese medicine's dealings with pregnancy are documented from at least the seventeenth century. According to Charlotte Furth, "a pregnancy (in the seventeenth century) as a known bodily experience emerged [...] out of the liminality of menstrual irregularity, as uneasy digestion, and a sense of fullness".<ref name="nzFZzH" /> These symptoms were common among other illness as well, so the diagnosis of pregnancy often came late in the term. The ''Canon of the Pulse'', which described the use of pulse in diagnosis, stated that pregnancy was "a condition marked by symptoms of the disorder in one whose pulse is normal" or "where the pulse and symptoms do not agree".<ref name="BddYV">{{Citation|chapter=Diagnosis for Pulse-Taking and Pulse Subtlety|date=March 2019|pages=69–77|publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC|isbn=9789813273573|doi=10.1142/9789813273580_0017|title=The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine – Essential Questions|s2cid=241372790}}</ref> Women were often silent about suspected pregnancy, which led to many men not knowing that their wife or daughter was pregnant until complications arrived. Complications through the misdiagnosis and the woman's reluctance to speak often led to medically induced abortions. Dr.Cheng, Furth wrote, "was unapologetic about endangering a fetus when pregnancy risked a mother's well being".<ref name="nzFZzH" /> The method of abortion was the ingestion of certain herbs and foods. Disappointment at the loss of the fetus often led to family discord.<ref name="nzFZzH" />

=== Postpartum ===
If the baby and mother survived the term of the pregnancy, childbirth was then the next step. The tools provided for birth were: towels to catch the blood, a container for the placenta, a pregnancy sash to support the belly, and an infant swaddling wrap.<ref name="BTqQT">{{Cite book|title=Shinzoku kibun.| vauthors = Nakagawa T, Sun B, Muramatsu K |publisher=Tōkyō: Heibonsha.|year=1966}}</ref> With these tools, the baby was born, cleaned, and swaddled; however, the mother was then immediately the focus of the doctor to replenish her ''qi.''<ref name="nzFZzH" /> In his writings, Dr.Cheng places a large amount of emphasis on the Four Diagnostic methods to deal with postpartum issues and instructs all physicians to "not neglect any [of the four methods]".<ref name="nzFZzH" /> The process of birthing was thought to deplete a woman's blood level and ''qi'' so the most common treatments for postpartum were food (commonly garlic and ginseng), medicine, and rest.<ref name="QDRbHW">Cheng Maoxian. ''Yi'an'' (casebook). Dated 1633, but Xue Qinghu (1991) states that the original was printed in 1644</ref> This process was followed up by a month check-in with the physician, a practice known as ''zuo yuezi''.<ref name="aeNQF">{{cite journal |last1=Pillsbury |first1=Barbara L.K. |title='Doing the month': Confinement and convalescence of Chinese women after childbirth |journal=Social Science & Medicine. Part B: Medical Anthropology |date=January 1978 |volume=12 |issue=1B |pages=11–22 |doi=10.1016/0160-7987(78)90003-0 |pmid=565536 }}</ref>

=== Infertility ===
Infertility, not very well understood, posed serious social and cultural repercussions. The seventh-century scholar [[Sun Simiao]] is often quoted: "those who have prescriptions for women's distinctiveness take their differences of pregnancy, childbirth and [internal] bursting injuries as their basis."<ref name="uHbrTu" /> Even in contemporary ''fu ke'' placing emphasis on reproductive functions, rather than the entire health of the woman, suggests that the main function of ''fu ke'' is to produce children.

Once again, the kidney visceral system governs the "source ''Qi,''" which governs the reproductive systems in both sexes. This source ''Qi'' was thought to "be slowly depleted through sexual activity, menstruation and childbirth."<ref name="uHbrTu" /> It was also understood that the depletion of source Qi could result from the movement of an external pathology that moved through the outer visceral systems before causing more permanent damage to the home of source Qi, the kidney system. In addition, the view that only very serious ailments ended in the damage of this system means that those who had trouble with their reproductive systems or fertility were seriously ill.

According to traditional Chinese medical texts, infertility can be summarized into different syndrome types. These were spleen and kidney depletion (yang depletion), liver and kidney depletion (yin depletion), blood depletion, phlegm damp, liver oppression, and damp heat. This is important because, while most other issues were complex in Chinese medical physiology, women's fertility issues were simple. Most syndrome types revolved around menstruation, or lack thereof. The patient was entrusted with recording not only the frequency, but also the "volume, color, consistency, and odor of menstrual flow."<ref name="uHbrTu" /> This placed responsibility of symptom recording on the patient, and was compounded by the earlier discussed issue of female chastity and honor. This meant that diagnosing female infertility was difficult, because the only symptoms that were recorded and monitored by the physician were the pulse and color of the tongue.<ref name="uHbrTu" />

== Concept of disease ==
In general, disease is perceived as a disharmony (or imbalance) in the functions or interactions of yin, yang, qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians etc. and/or of the interaction between the human body and the environment.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Therapy is based on which "pattern of disharmony" can be identified.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Flaws 1996" /> Thus, "pattern discrimination" is the most important step in TCM diagnosis.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Flaws 1996" /> It is also known to be the most difficult aspect of practicing TCM.<ref name="Flaws 1990" />

To determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners will examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing or the sound of the voice.<ref name="xhEsP">"Tongue Diagnosis in Chinese Medicine", Giovanni Maciocia, Eastland Press; Revised edition (June 1995)</ref><ref name="Maciocia">{{Cite book | vauthors = Maciocia G |title=The Foundations of Chinese Medicine|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|year=1989}}</ref> For example, depending on tongue and pulse conditions, a TCM practitioner might diagnose bleeding from the mouth and nose as: "Liver fire rushes upwards and scorches the Lung, injuring the blood vessels and giving rise to reckless pouring of blood from the mouth and nose."<ref name="Deadman">{{cite journal |last1=Deadman |first1=Peter |last2=Al-Khafaji |first2=Mazin |title=Some Acupuncture Points Which Treat Disorders of Blood |journal=Journal of Chinese Medicine |date=September 1994 |issue=46 |pages=21–29 |url=https://www.journalofchinesemedicine.com/some-acupuncture-points-which-treat-disorders-of-blood.html }}</ref> He might then go on to prescribe [[#Traditional categorization|treatments]] designed to clear heat or supplement the Lung.

===Disease entities===
In TCM, a disease has two aspects: "bìng" and "zhèng".<ref name="Clavey 1995">Clavey, Steven (1995): [https://books.google.com/books?id=2RQMLGcFe6kC&pg=PR30&dq=tcm+ba+gang+diagnosis&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20ba%20gang%20diagnosis&f=false "Fluid physiology and pathology in traditional Chinese medicine"]. Elsevier. 2nd edition, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-443-07194-2}}</ref> The former is often translated as "disease entity",<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> "disease category",<ref name="Flaws 1990" /> "illness",<ref name="Clavey 1995" /> or simply "diagnosis".<ref name="Clavey 1995" /> The latter, and more important one, is usually translated as "pattern"<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Flaws 1990" /> (or sometimes also as "syndrome"<ref name="Clavey 1995" />). For example, the disease entity of a common cold might present with a pattern of [[#Six Excesses|wind-cold]] in one person, and with the pattern of [[#Six Excesses|wind-heat]] in another.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />

From a scientific point of view, most of the disease entities ({{zh|c=病|labels=no|p=bìng}}) listed by TCM constitute symptoms.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Examples include headache, cough, abdominal pain, constipation etc.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vickers AJ, Linde K | title = Acupuncture for chronic pain | journal = JAMA | volume = 311 | issue = 9 | pages = 955–6 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24595780 | pmc = 4036643 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2013.285478 }}</ref>

Since therapy will not be chosen according to the disease entity but according to the pattern, two people with the same disease entity but different patterns will receive different therapy.<ref name="Flaws 1996" /> Vice versa, people with similar patterns might receive similar therapy even if their disease entities are different. This is called ''yì bìng tóng zhì, tóng bìng yì zhì'' ({{zh|p=|c=异病同治，同病异治|s=|t=|l=different diseases, same treatment; same disease, different treatments|labels=no}}).<ref name="Flaws 1996" />

===Patterns===
In TCM, "pattern" ({{zh|c=证|labels=no|p=zhèng}}) refers to a "pattern of disharmony" or "functional disturbance" within the functional entities of which the TCM model of the body is composed.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> There are disharmony patterns of qi, xuě, the body fluids, the zàng-fǔ, and the [[#Jing-luo|meridians]].<ref name="Clavey 1995" /> They are ultimately defined by their symptoms and signs (i.e., for example, pulse and tongue findings).<ref name="Flaws 1996" />

In clinical practice, the identified pattern usually involves a combination of affected entities<ref name="Flaws 1990">Flaws, Bob (1990): [https://books.google.com/books?id=hID3SfkAuzUC&pg=PA5&dq=tcm+ba+gang+diagnosis&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20ba%20gang%20diagnosis&f=false "Sticking to the Point"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320195338/https://books.google.com/books?id=hID3SfkAuzUC&pg=PA5&dq=tcm+ba+gang+diagnosis&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20ba%20gang%20diagnosis&f=false |date=20 March 2017}} Blue Poppy Press. 10th Printing, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-936185-17-0}}</ref> (compare with [[#Typical examples of patterns|typical examples of patterns]]). The concrete pattern identified should account for ''all'' the symptoms a person has.<ref name="Flaws 1996">Flaws, B. & Finney, D. (1996): [https://books.google.com/books?id=iJT3mz20yHoC&pg=PA1&dq=tcm+pattern&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20pattern&f=false "A handbook of TCM patterns & their treatments"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320165212/https://books.google.com/books?id=iJT3mz20yHoC&pg=PA1&dq=tcm+pattern&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=tcm%20pattern&f=false |date=20 March 2017}} Blue Poppy Press. 6th Printing 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-936185-70-5}}</ref>

====Six Excesses====
The Six Excesses ({{zh|labels=no|c=六淫|p=liù yín}},<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> sometimes also translated as "Pathogenic Factors",<ref name="1U3dN">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbThUt45ZXgC&q=tcm+six&pg=PA159|title=Foundations for integrative musculoskeletal medicine: an east-west approach|author=Marcus & Kuchera|publisher=North Atlantic Books|year=2004|access-date=22 March 2011|isbn=978-1-55643-540-9}} p. 159</ref> or "Six Pernicious Influences";<ref name="Ross 1984" /> with the alternative term of {{zh|c=六邪|labels=no|p=liù xié}}, – "Six Evils" or "Six Devils")<ref name="Ross 1984" /> are allegorical terms used to describe disharmony patterns displaying certain typical symptoms.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> These symptoms resemble the effects of six climatic factors.<ref name="Ross 1984" /> In the allegory, these symptoms can occur because one or more of those climatic factors (called {{zh|c=六气|labels=no|p=liù qì}}, "the six qi")<ref name="Deng 1999" /> were able to invade the body surface and to proceed to the interior.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> This is sometimes used to draw causal relationships (i.e., prior exposure to wind/cold/etc. is identified as the cause of a disease),<ref name="Deng 1999" /> while other authors explicitly deny a direct cause-effect relationship between weather conditions and disease,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Ross 1984" /> pointing out that the Six Excesses are primarily descriptions of a certain combination of symptoms<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> translated into a pattern of disharmony.<ref name="Ross 1984" /> It is undisputed, though, that the Six Excesses can manifest inside the body without an external cause.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> In this case, they might be denoted "internal", e.g., "internal wind"<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> or "internal fire (or heat)".<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

The Six Excesses and their characteristic clinical signs are:
# Wind ({{zh|c=风|labels=no|p=fēng}}): rapid onset of symptoms, wandering location of symptoms, itching, nasal congestion, "floating" pulse;<ref name="Deng 1999" /> tremor, paralysis, convulsion.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
# Cold ({{zh|c=寒|labels=no|p=hán}}): cold sensations, aversion to cold, relief of symptoms by warmth, watery/clear excreta, severe pain, abdominal pain, contracture/hypertonicity of muscles, (slimy) white tongue fur, "deep"/"hidden" or "string-like" pulse,<ref name="jvz68">{{harvp|Wiseman|Ellis|1996|pp=80, 142}}</ref> or slow pulse.<ref name="Ross 1984" />
# Fire/Heat ({{zh|c=火|labels=no|p=huǒ}}): aversion to heat, high fever, thirst, concentrated urine, red face, red tongue, yellow tongue fur, rapid pulse.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> (Fire and heat are basically seen to be the same)<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
# Dampness ({{zh|c=湿|labels=no|p=shī}}): sensation of heaviness, sensation of fullness, symptoms of Spleen dysfunction, greasy tongue fur, "slippery" pulse.<ref name="Ross 1984" />
# Dryness ({{zh|c=燥|labels=no|p=zào}}): dry cough, dry mouth, dry throat, dry lips, nosebleeds, dry skin, dry stools.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
# Summerheat ({{zh|c=暑|labels=no|p=shǔ}}): either heat or mixed damp-heat symptoms.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
Six-Excesses-patterns can consist of only one or a combination of Excesses (e.g., wind-cold, wind-damp-heat).<ref name="Deng 1999" /> They can also transform from one into another.<ref name="Deng 1999" />

====Typical examples of patterns====
For each of the functional entities (qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians etc.), typical disharmony patterns are recognized; for example: qi vacuity and qi stagnation in the case of qi;<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> blood vacuity, blood stasis, and blood heat in the case of xuĕ;<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Spleen qi vacuity, Spleen yang vacuity, Spleen qi vacuity with down-bearing qi, Spleen qi vacuity with lack of blood containment, cold-damp invasion of the Spleen, damp-heat invasion of Spleen and Stomach in case of the Spleen zàng;<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> wind/cold/damp invasion in the case of the meridians.<ref name="Flaws 1996" />

TCM gives detailed prescriptions of these patterns regarding their typical symptoms, mostly including characteristic tongue and/or pulse findings.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /><ref name="Flaws 1996" /> For example:
* "Upflaming Liver fire" ({{zh|c=肝火上炎|labels=no|p=gānhuǒ shàng yán}}): Headache, red face, reddened eyes, dry mouth, nosebleeds, constipation, dry or hard stools, profuse menstruation, sudden [[tinnitus]] or deafness, vomiting of sour or bitter fluids, expectoration of blood, [[irascibility]], impatience; red tongue with dry yellow fur; slippery and string-like pulse.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

====Eight principles of diagnosis====
The process of determining which actual pattern is on hand is called {{lang|zh|辩证}} ({{zh|labels=no|p=biàn zhèng}}, usually translated as "pattern diagnosis",<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> "pattern identification"<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> or "pattern discrimination"<ref name="Flaws 1990" />). Generally, the first and most important step in pattern diagnosis is an evaluation of the present signs and symptoms on the basis of the "Eight Principles" ({{zh|c=八纲 |labels=no|p=bā gāng}}).<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> These eight principles refer to four pairs of fundamental qualities of a disease: exterior/interior, heat/cold, vacuity/repletion, and yin/yang.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Out of these, heat/cold and vacuity/repletion have the biggest clinical importance.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> The yin/yang quality, on the other side, has the smallest importance and is somewhat seen aside from the other three pairs, since it merely presents a general and vague conclusion regarding what other qualities are found.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> In detail, the Eight Principles refer to the following:
* ''Yin and yang'' are universal aspects all things can be classified under, this includes diseases in general as well as the Eight Principles' first three couples.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> For example, cold is identified to be a yin aspect, while heat is attributed to yang.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Since descriptions of patterns in terms of yin and yang lack complexity and clinical practicality, though, patterns are usually not labeled this way anymore.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Exceptions are vacuity-cold and repletion-heat patterns, who are sometimes referred to as "yin patterns" and "yang patterns" respectively.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
* ''Exterior'' ({{zh|c=表|labels=no|p=biǎo}}) refers to a disease manifesting in the superficial layers of the body – skin, hair, flesh, and meridians.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> It is characterized by aversion to cold and/or wind, headache, muscle ache, mild fever, a "floating" pulse, and a normal tongue appearance.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
* ''Interior'' ({{zh|c=里|labels=no|p=lǐ}}) refers to disease manifestation in the zàng-fǔ, or (in a wider sense) to any disease that can not be counted as exterior.<ref name="Deng 1999" /> There are no generalized characteristic symptoms of interior patterns, since they'll be determined by the affected zàng or fǔ entity.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
* ''Cold'' ({{zh|c=寒|labels=no|p=hán}}) is generally characterized by aversion to cold, absence of thirst, and a white tongue fur.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> More detailed characterization depends on whether cold is coupled with vacuity or repletion.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
* ''Heat'' ({{zh|c=热|labels=no|p=rè}}) is characterized by an absence of aversion to cold, a red and painful throat, a dry tongue fur and a rapid and floating pulse if it falls together with an exterior pattern.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> In all other cases, symptoms depend on whether heat is coupled with vacuity or repletion.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
* ''Deficiency'' ({{zh|c=虚|labels=no|p=xū}}), can be further differentiated into deficiency of [[#Qi|qi]], xuě, [[#Yin and yang|yin and yang]], with all their respective characteristic symptoms.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> Yin deficiency can also cause "empty-heat".<ref name="Kaptchuck 2000" />
* ''Excess'' ({{zh|c=实|labels=no|p=shí}}) generally refers to any disease that can't be identified as a deficient pattern, and usually indicates the presence of one of the Six Excesses,<ref name="Deng 1999" /> or a pattern of stagnation (of qi, xuě, etc.).<ref name="hM4aY">Tierra & Tierra 1998, p. 108</ref> In a concurrent exterior pattern, excess is characterized by the absence of sweating.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

After the fundamental nature of a disease in terms of the Eight Principles is determined, the investigation focuses on more specific aspects.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> By evaluating the present signs and symptoms against the background of typical disharmony patterns of the various entities, evidence is collected whether or how specific entities are affected.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> This evaluation can be done
# in respect of the meridians ({{zh|c=经络辩证|labels=no|p=jīngluò biàn zhèng}})<ref name="Flaws 1990" />
# in respect of qi ({{zh|c=气血辩证, |labels=no|p=qì xuè biàn zhèng}})<ref name="Flaws 1990" />
# in respect of xuè ({{zh|c=气血辩证|labels=no|p=qì xuè biàn zhèng}})<ref name="Flaws 1990" />
# in respect of the body fluids ({{zh|c=津液辩证|labels=no|p= jīnyè biàn zhèng}})<ref name="Flaws 1990" />
# in respect of the zàng-fǔ ({{zh|c=脏腑辩证|labels=no|p= zàngfǔ biàn zhèng}})<ref name="Flaws 1990" /> – very similar to this, though less specific, is disharmony pattern description in terms of the Five Elements [{{zh|c=五行辩证|labels=no|p=wǔ xíng biàn zhèng}}]<ref name="Flaws 1996" />)

There are also three special pattern diagnosis systems used in case of febrile and infectious diseases only ("Six Channel system" or "six division pattern" [{{zh|c=六经辩证|labels=no|p=liù jīng biàn zhèng}}]; "Wei Qi Ying Xue system" or "four division pattern" [{{zh|c=卫气营血辩证|labels=no|p=weì qì yíng xuè biàn zhèng}}]; "San Jiao system" or "three burners pattern" [{{zh|c=三焦辩证|labels=no|p=sānjiaō biàn zhèng}}]).<ref name="Flaws 1996" /><ref name="Clavey 1995" />

====Considerations of disease causes====
Although TCM and its concept of disease do not strongly differentiate between cause and effect,<ref name="Ross 1984">Ross, Jeremy (1984) [https://books.google.com/books?id=t23zKB1FSVYC&pg=PA6&dq=Chinese+medicine+is+completely+different;+it+emphasizes+function.+Little&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=Chinese%20medicine%20is%20completely%20different%3B%20it%20emphasizes%20function.%20Little&f=false "Zang Fu, the organ systems of traditional Chinese medicine"] Elsevier. First edition 1984. {{ISBN|978-0-443-03482-4}}</ref> pattern discrimination can include considerations regarding the disease cause; this is called {{lang|zh|病因辩证}} ({{zh|labels=no|p=bìngyīn biàn zhèng}}, "disease-cause pattern discrimination").<ref name="Flaws 1990" />

There are three fundamental categories of disease causes ({{zh|c=三因|labels=no|p=sān yīn}}) recognized:<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
# external causes: these include the Six Excesses and "Pestilential Qi".<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
# internal causes: the "Seven Affects" ({{zh|c=七情|labels=no|p=qī qíng}},<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> sometimes also translated as "Seven Emotions"<ref name="Ross 1984" />) – joy, anger, brooding, sorrow, fear, fright and grief.<ref name="Ross 1984" /> These are believed to be able to cause damage to the functions of the zàng-fú, especially of the Liver.<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />
# non-external-non-internal causes: dietary irregularities (especially: too much raw, cold, spicy, fatty or sweet food; voracious eating; too much alcohol),<ref name="Wiseman 1996" /> fatigue, sexual intemperance, trauma, and parasites ({{zh|c=虫|labels=no|p=chóng}}).<ref name="Wiseman 1996" />

==Diagnostics==
In TCM, there are five major diagnostic methods: inspection, auscultation, olfaction, inquiry, and palpation.<ref name="Cheng 1987">{{cite book | vauthors = Cheng X | title = Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion (1st ed.) | year = 1987 | publisher = Foreign Languages Press | isbn = 978-7-119-00378-8}}</ref> These are grouped into what is known as the "Four pillars" of diagnosis, which are Inspection, Auscultation/ Olfaction, Inquiry, and Palpation ({{lang|zh|望，聞，問，切}}).
* Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge.
* Auscultation refers to listening for particular sounds (such as wheezing).
* Olfaction refers to attending to body odor.
* Inquiry focuses on the "seven inquiries", which involve asking the person about the regularity, severity, or other characteristics of: chills, fever, perspiration, appetite, thirst, taste, defecation, urination, pain, sleep, [[menses]], [[leukorrhea]].
* Palpation which includes feeling the body for tender [[Acupuncture#Qi, meridians and acupuncture points|A-shi points]], and the palpation of the wrist pulses as well as various other pulses, and palpation of the abdomen.

===Tongue and pulse===
Examination of the tongue and the pulse are among the principal diagnostic methods in TCM. Details of the tongue, including shape, size, color, texture, cracks, teeth marks, as well as tongue coating are all considered as part of [[tongue diagnosis]]. Various regions of the tongue's surface are believed to correspond to the zàng-fŭ organs. For example, redness on the tip of the tongue might indicate heat in the Heart, while redness on the sides of the tongue might indicate heat in the Liver.<ref name="zrxs6">{{cite book | vauthors = Maciocia G |title=Tongue Diagnosis in Chinese Medicine |date=2001}}</ref>

Pulse palpation involves measuring the pulse both at a superficial and at a deep level at three different locations on the [[radial artery]] (''Cun, Guan, Chi'', located two fingerbreadths from the wrist crease, one fingerbreadth from the wrist crease, and right at the wrist crease, respectively, usually palpated with the index, middle and ring finger) of each arm, for a total of twelve pulses, all of which are thought to correspond with certain zàng-fŭ. The pulse is examined for several characteristics including rhythm, strength and volume, and described with qualities like "floating, slippery, bolstering-like, feeble, thready and quick"; each of these qualities indicates certain [[#Patterns|disease patterns]]. Learning TCM pulse diagnosis can take several years.<ref name="qMZOY">{{cite book | vauthors = Wright T, Eisenberg D |title=Encounters with Qi: exploring Chinese medicine |publisher=Norton |location=New York |year=1995 |pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DgFA–kVkuZEC&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false 53–54]|isbn=978-0-393-31213-3 }}</ref>

==Herbal medicine==
{{Main|Chinese herbology}}
{{See also|List of traditional Chinese medicines}}
{{more medical citations needed|section|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Traditional Chinese medicine in Xi'an market.jpg|thumb|Assorted dried plant and animal parts used in traditional Chinese medicines, clockwise from top left corner: dried [[Lingzhi mushroom|Lingzhi]] (lit. "spirit mushrooms"), [[ginseng]], [[Siraitia grosvenorii|Luo Han Guo]], turtle shell underbelly ([[plastron]]), and dried curled snakes.]]
[[File:Red ginseng.JPG|thumb|right|Chinese red ginseng roots]]
[[File:Bile bear.jpg|thumb|left|A [[bile bear]] in a "crush cage" on Huizhou Farm, China.<ref name="c555c">{{cite web | title = ENDANGERED AND ABUSED WILD ANIMALS & The USE OF HERBAL ALTERNATIVES TO REPLACE ANIMAL DERIVATIVES | url = http://aapn.org/article/endangered/#Bile%20Bears | publisher = Asian Animal Protection Network | date = 26 July 2012 | access-date = 29 April 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140430013227/http://aapn.org/article/endangered/#Bile%20Bears | archive-date = 30 April 2014 | url-status = live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Seahorse Skeleton Macro 8 - edit.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dried [[seahorse]]s are extensively used in traditional medicine in China and elsewhere.<ref name="Vincent2011" />]]
The term "herbal medicine" is somewhat misleading in that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances in TCM, other, non-botanic substances are used as well: animal, human, and mineral products are also used.<ref name="QSmNc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/MATERIAL/185685.htm|title=The Essentials of Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine|website=china.org.cn|access-date=26 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202039/http://www.china.org.cn/english/MATERIAL/185685.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Thus, the term "medicinal" (instead of herb) may be used,<ref name="1zMoF">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uRdIuISvjo4C&q=wiseman+chinese |title=Introduction to English Terminology of Chinese Medicine | vauthors = Wiseman N, Feng Y |access-date=10 June 2011|isbn= 978-0912111643|date= 2002}}</ref> although there is no scientific evidence that any of these compounds have medicinal effects.<ref name="Eigenschink Dearing Dablander et al 2020"/>

===Raw materials===
There are roughly 13,000 compounds used in China and over 100,000 TCM recipes recorded in the ancient literature.<ref name="Certainprogress">{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=K |last2=Yu |first2=B |title=Certain progress of clinical research on Chinese integrative medicine |journal=Chinese Medical Journal |date=1999 |volume=112 |issue=10 |pages=934–937 |pmid=11717980 |url=https://medcentral.net/doi/abs/10.5555/cmj.0366-6999.112.10.p934.01 }}</ref> Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used.<ref name="Foster 1992">Foster, S. & Yue, C. (1992): [https://books.google.com/books?id=y78zzxTN570C&printsec=frontcover&dq=herbal+emissaries&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false "Herbal emissaries: bringing Chinese herbs to the West"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320172949/https://books.google.com/books?id=y78zzxTN570C&printsec=frontcover&dq=herbal+emissaries&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=20 March 2017}}. Healing Arts Press. {{ISBN|978-0-89281-349-0}}</ref> In the classic ''Handbook of Traditional Drugs'' from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals.<ref name="Foster 1992" />

====Animal substances====
Some animal parts used can be considered rather strange such as cow gallstones,<ref name="Hesketh1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hesketh T, Zhu WX | title = Health in China. Traditional Chinese medicine: one country, two systems | journal = BMJ | volume = 315 | issue = 7100 | pages = 115–7 | date = July 1997 | pmid = 9240055 | pmc = 2127090 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.315.7100.115 }}</ref> hornet nests,<ref name="mnfl6">{{cite web| url = http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/lufengfangproperties.htm| title = Lu Feng Fang, Materia Metrica| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180614121358/http://tcm.health-info.org/Herbology.Materia.Medica/lufengfangproperties.htm| archive-date = 14 June 2018}}</ref> [[leech]]es,<ref name="LAT">{{Cite web |url=http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/leech.php |title=Leech, Acupuncture Today |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105042335/http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/leech.php |archive-date=5 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[scorpion]].<ref name="SAT">{{Cite web |url=http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/scorpion.php |title=Scorpion, Acupuncture Todady |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104235049/http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/scorpion.php |archive-date=4 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Other examples of animal parts include horn of the antelope or buffalo, deer antlers, testicles and [[penis bone]] of the dog, and snake bile.<ref name="Still 2003" /> Some TCM textbooks still recommend preparations containing animal tissues, but there has been little research to justify the claimed clinical efficacy of many TCM animal products.<ref name="Still 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Still J | title = Use of animal products in traditional Chinese medicine: environmental impact and health hazards | journal = Complementary Therapies in Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 118–22 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12801499 | doi = 10.1016/S0965-2299(03)00055-4 }}</ref>

Some compounds can include the parts of endangered species, including tiger bones<ref name="ezyCZ">{{cite book| vauthors = Wiseman N, Feng Y |title=A Practical Dictionary of Chinese Medicine|publisher=Paradigm Publications|edition=2|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FyGk5QnjhAC&pg=PA904|page=904|isbn=978-0912111544|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320195430/https://books.google.com/books?id=_FyGk5QnjhAC&pg=PA904#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=20 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[rhinoceros horn]]<ref name="FTCMRH">''Facts about traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): rhinoceros horn'', Encyclopædia Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/facts/5/1035448/traditional-Chinese-medicine-TCM-as-discussed-in-rhinoceros-mammal Facts about traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): rhinoceros horn, as discussed in rhinoceros (mammal): – Britannica Online Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629095329/http://www.britannica.com/facts/5/1035448/traditional-Chinese-medicine-TCM-as-discussed-in-rhinoceros-mammal |date=29 June 2011}}</ref>
which is used for many ailments (though not as an aphrodisiac as is commonly misunderstood in the West).<ref name="0luMq">{{cite web|title=Poaching for rhino horn|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/rhinoceros-rhino-horn-use-fact-vs-fiction/1178/|website=Save The Rhino|access-date=25 March 2016|date=20 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321143824/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/rhinoceros-rhino-horn-use-fact-vs-fiction/1178/|archive-date=21 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
The black market in rhinoceros horns (driven not just by TCM but also unrelated status-seeking) has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years.<ref name="RH">{{cite news |title=Rhino horn: All myth, no medicine |first1=Rhishja |last1=Larson |date=July 2010 |url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2010/07/07/rhino_horn_and_traditional_chinese_medicine_facts/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411123924/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2010/07/07/rhino_horn_and_traditional_chinese_medicine_facts/ |archive-date=11 April 2015 }}</ref>
Concerns have also arisen over the use of [[pangolin]] scales,<ref name="70aUc">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/26549963|title='Shocking' scale of pangolin smuggling revealed| vauthors = Davies E | date=13 March 2014|work=Nature News|publisher=BBC|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018062653/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/26549963|archive-date=18 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> turtle [[plastron]],<ref name="guiban">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Chen TH, Chang HC, Lue KY |journal= Chelonian Conservation and Biology|volume= 8|issue=1|pages=11–18|year= 2009|doi= 10.2744/CCB-0747.1 |title=Unregulated Trade in Turtle Shells for Chinese Traditional Medicine in East and Southeast Asia: The Case of Taiwan |s2cid= 86821249}}</ref> seahorses,<ref name="Pbs.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/seahorse/vincent.html |title=NOVA Online | Amanda Vincent |publisher=PBS |access-date=7 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091209055422/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/seahorse/vincent.html |archive-date=9 December 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Gill plate trade|gill plates]] of [[mobula]] and [[manta ray]]s.<ref name="Rc0qN">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2013/03/201332715299451455.html|title=Diminishing ray of hope| vauthors = Chou CT |date=2 April 2013|work=101 East|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=6 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502175216/http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2013/03/201332715299451455.html|archive-date=2 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Poachers hunt restricted or endangered species to supply the black market with TCM products.<ref name="Weirum">{{Cite web |vauthors = Weirum BK |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/11/11/TR10T8RBN.DTL |title=Will traditional Chinese medicine mean the end of the wild tiger? |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=11 November 2007 |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201170930/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2007%2F11%2F11%2FTR10T8RBN.DTL |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Newscientist.com">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3376 |title=Rhino rescue plan decimates Asian antelopes |work=New Scientist |access-date=17 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517124015/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3376 |archive-date=17 May 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> There is no scientific evidence of efficacy for tiger medicines.<ref name="Weirum" /> Concern over China considering to legalize the trade in tiger parts prompted the 171-nation [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES) to endorse a decision opposing the resurgence of trade in tigers.<ref name="Weirum" /> Fewer than 30,000 [[saiga antelope]]s remain, which are exported to China for use in traditional fever therapies.<ref name="Newscientist.com" /> Organized gangs illegally export the horn of the antelopes to China.<ref name="Newscientist.com" /> The pressures on [[seahorse]]s (''Hippocampus'' spp.) used in traditional medicine is enormous; tens of millions of animals are unsustainably caught annually.<ref name="Vincent2011" /> Many species of [[syngnathid]] are currently part of the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] or national equivalents.<ref name="Vincent2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vincent AC, Foster SJ, Koldewey HJ | title = Conservation and management of seahorses and other Syngnathidae | journal = Journal of Fish Biology | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | pages = 1681–724 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21651523 | doi = 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03003.x | s2cid = 37920910 }}</ref>

Since TCM recognizes [[bear bile]] as a treatment compound, more than 12,000 [[asiatic black bears]] are held in bear farms. The bile is extracted through a permanent hole in the abdomen leading to the [[gall bladder]], which can cause severe pain. This can lead to bears trying to kill themselves. As of 2012, approximately 10,000 bears are farmed in China for their bile.<ref name="Xia Sheng" /> This practice has spurred public outcry across the country.<ref name="Xia Sheng" /> The bile is collected from live bears via a surgical procedure.<ref name="Xia Sheng">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sheng X, Zhang H, Weng Q | title = Traditional Chinese medicine: China's bear farms prompt public outcry | journal = Nature | volume = 484 | issue = 7395 | pages = 455 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22538598 | doi = 10.1038/484455c | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2012Natur.484R.455S }}</ref> As of March 2020 bear bile as ingredient of ''Tan Re Qing'' injection remains on the list of remedies recommended for treatment of "severe cases" of COVID-19 by National Health Commission of China and the National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine.<ref name="7CLiE">{{Cite web|title=We've been accused of peddling 'fake news' – so here are the facts about China's recommended use of bear bile - EIA|url=https://eia-international.org/news/weve-been-accused-of-peddling-fake-news-so-here-are-the-facts-about-chinas-recommended-use-of-bear-bile/|website=eia-international.org|language=en|access-date=2020-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516155613/https://eia-international.org/news/weve-been-accused-of-peddling-fake-news-so-here-are-the-facts-about-chinas-recommended-use-of-bear-bile/|archive-date=16 May 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[deer penis]] is believed to have therapeutic benefits according to traditional Chinese medicine. Tiger parts from poached animals include [[tiger penis]], believed to improve virility, and tiger eyes.<ref name="Harding">{{cite news | vauthors = Harding A |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5371500.stm |title=Beijing's penis emporium |work=BBC News |date=23 September 2006 |access-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420070528/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5371500.stm |archive-date=20 April 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The illegal trade for tiger parts in China has driven the species to near-extinction because of its popularity in traditional medicine.<ref name="JLrVS">{{cite book | vauthors = van Uhm DP |title=The Illegal Wildlife Trade: Inside the World of Poachers, Smugglers and Traders (Studies of Organized Crime) |series=Studies of Organized Crime |date=2016 |volume=15 |publisher=New York: Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42129-2 |isbn=978-3-319-42128-5 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319421285}}</ref><ref name="Harding" /> Laws protecting even [[critically endangered]] species such as the [[Sumatran tiger]] fail to stop the display and sale of these items in open markets.<ref name="2008 report from TRAFFIC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.traffic.org/home/2008/2/13/tiger-tiger-future-not-so-bright.html |title=2008 report from TRAFFIC |access-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122105541/http://www.traffic.org/home/2008/2/13/tiger-tiger-future-not-so-bright.html |archive-date=22 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shark fin soup]] is traditionally regarded in Chinese medicine as beneficial for health in East Asia, and its status as an elite dish has led to huge demand with the increase of affluence in China, devastating shark populations.<ref name="Sfgate.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/g/archive/2003/01/20/urbananimal.DTL |title=Shark Fin Soup: An Eco-Catastrophe? |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=20 January 2003 |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614142217/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fg%2Farchive%2F2003%2F01%2F20%2Furbananimal.DTL |archive-date=14 June 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The shark fins have been a part of traditional Chinese medicine for centuries.<ref name="VBTdV">{{Cite web| vauthors = Radford B |date=9 July 2011|title=Sharks Fin Soup Bans Don't Stop Strong Demand|url=https://www.livescience.com/14964-sharks-fin-soup-bans-stop-strong-demand.html|access-date=2020-09-07|website=livescience.com|language=en}}</ref> Shark finning is banned in many countries, but the trade is thriving in Hong Kong and China, where the fins are part of shark fin soup, a dish considered a delicacy, and used in some types of traditional Chinese medicine.<ref name="NaomiNg2013">{{cite web | url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/09/world/asia/china-ban-shark-fin/index.html | title=China bans shark fin dishes at official banquets | website=[[CNN]] | date=9 December 2013 | access-date=27 March 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501103823/http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/09/world/asia/china-ban-shark-fin/index.html | archive-date=1 May 2014 | url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[tortoise]] ([[freshwater turtle]], ''guiban'') and turtle ([[Chinese softshell turtle]], ''biejia'') species used in traditional Chinese medicine are raised on farms, while restrictions are made on the accumulation and export of other endangered species.<ref name="dharma4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turtles.htm|title=Endangered Species Issues Affecting Turtles And Tortoises Used in Chinese Medicine| vauthors = Dharmananda S |access-date=10 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004124346/http://www.itmonline.org/arts/turtles.htm|archive-date=4 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> However, issues concerning the [[overexploitation]] of Asian turtles in China have not been completely solved.<ref name="dharma4" /> Australian scientists have developed methods to identify medicines containing DNA traces of endangered species.<ref name="REKkt">[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-04-13/dna-may-help-weed-out-toxic-chinese-medicine/3949356 DNA may weed out toxic Chinese medicine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413211547/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-04-13/dna-may-help-weed-out-toxic-chinese-medicine/3949356 |date=13 April 2012}} – By Carolyn Herbert – Australian Broadcasting Corporation – Retrieved 14 April 2012.</ref> Finally, although not an endangered species, sharp rises in exports of donkeys and donkey hide from Africa to China to make the traditional remedy ''ejiao'' have prompted export restrictions by some African countries.<ref name="0VO1T">{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-donkeys-buying-kill-africa-ejiao-medicine-hide-burkina-faso-niger-donkey-shortage-a7339181.html |title=China's quest to buy up global supply of donkeys halted by African nations |work=The Independent |date=30 September 2016 |access-date=17 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003171037/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-donkeys-buying-kill-africa-ejiao-medicine-hide-burkina-faso-niger-donkey-shortage-a7339181.html |archive-date=3 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Human body parts====
{{Main|Traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body}}
[[File:Ziheche.jpg|thumb|right|Dried [[Placenta|human placenta]] (Ziheche ({{lang|zh|紫河车}}) is used in traditional Chinese medicine.<ref name="Tierra" />]]
Traditional Chinese medicine also includes some human parts: the classic [[Materia medica]] ([[Bencao Gangmu]]) describes (also criticizes) the use of 35 human body parts and [[excreta]] in medicines, including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, organs, but most are no longer in use.<ref name="HDCM">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/0-306-46867-0_7 |chapter='Human Drugs' in Chinese Medicine and the Confucian View: An Interpretive Study |title=Confucian Bioethics |year=1999 |last1=Nie |first1=Jing-Bao |pages=167–206 |isbn=978-0-7923-5723-0 }}</ref><ref name="HBNC">THE HUMAN BODY AS A NEW COMMODITY, Tsuyoshi Awaya, The Review of Tokuyama, June 1999</ref><ref name="CBSH">Commodifying bodies, Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Loïc J. D. Wacquant, 2002</ref>

Human placenta has been used an ingredient in certain traditional Chinese medicines,<ref name="News-Medical.Net">{{Cite news |url=http://www.news-medical.net/print_article.asp?id=1333 |title=Traditional Chinese medicine contains human placenta |publisher=News-Medical.Net |date=8 May 2004 |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116073621/http://www.news-medical.net/print_article.asp?id=1333 |archive-date=16 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> including using dried human placenta, known as "Ziheche", to treat infertility, impotence and other conditions.<ref name="Tierra">{{Cite book | vauthors = Tierra L, Tierra M |title=Chinese traditional herbal medicine |publisher=Lotus Light Pub |location=Twin Lakes, WI |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-914955-32-0 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm6QTqNt3JEC&pg=PT225#v=onepage&q&f=false 225]}}</ref> The consumption of the human placenta is a potential source of infection.<ref name="News-Medical.Net" />

===Traditional categorization===
The traditional categorizations and classifications that can still be found today are:
* The classification according to the [[Chinese herbology#Four Natures|Four Natures]] ({{zh|labels=no|c=四气|p=sì qì}}): hot, warm, cool, or cold (or, neutral in terms of temperature)<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> and hot and warm herbs are used to treat [[#Eight principles of diagnosis|cold]] diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat heat diseases.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
* The classification according to the [[Chinese herbology#The Five Tastes|Five Flavors]], ({{zh|labels=no|c=五味 |p=wǔ wèi}}, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes): acrid, sweet, bitter, sour, and salty.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a "bland" flavor).<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the [[#Five Phases theory|Five Phases]].<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> A flavor implies certain properties and therapeutic actions of a substance; e.g., saltiness drains downward and softens hard masses, while sweetness is supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
* The classification according to the meridian – more precisely, the zàng-fu organ including its associated meridian – which can be expected to be primarily affected by a given compound.<ref name="Ergil 2009" />
* The categorization according to the specific function mainly include: exterior-releasing<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or exterior-resolving,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> heat-clearing,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> downward-draining,<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or precipitating<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> wind-damp-dispelling,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> dampness-transforming,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or dampness-percolating,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> interior-warming,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> qi-regulating<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or qi-rectifying,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> dispersing food accumulation<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or food-dispersing,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> worm-expelling,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> stopping bleeding<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or blood-[[wikt:stanching|stanching]],<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> quickening the Blood and dispelling [[stasis (medicine)|stasis]]<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or blood-quickening,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> transforming phlegm, stopping coughing and calming wheezing<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or phlegm-transforming and cough- and panting-suppressing,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Spirit-quieting,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> calming the liver and expelling wind<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> or liver-calming and wind-extinguishing<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> orifice-opening<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> supplementing<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002" /> which includes qi-supplementing, blood-nourishing, yin-enriching, and yang-fortifying,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> astriction-promoting<ref name="Xu 2002" /> or securing and astringing,<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> vomiting-inducing,<ref name="Xu 2002" /> and substances for external application.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Xu 2002">Xu, L. & Wang, W. (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=36dhuXGm3OgC&pg=PA1&dq=traditional+chinese+medicine+herb&hl=zh-CN#v=onepage&q=traditional%20chinese%20medicine%20herb&f=false "Chinese materia medica: combinations and applications"] Donica Publishing Ltd. 1st edition. {{ISBN|978-1-901149-02-9}}</ref>

===Efficacy===
{{Asof|2007}} there were not enough good-quality trials of herbal therapies to allow their effectiveness to be determined.<ref name="Shang-2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shang A, Huwiler K, Nartey L, Jüni P, Egger M | title = Placebo-controlled trials of Chinese herbal medicine and conventional medicine comparative study | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 1086–92 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17602184 | doi = 10.1093/ije/dym119 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A high percentage of relevant studies on traditional Chinese medicine are in Chinese databases. Fifty percent of systematic reviews on TCM did not search Chinese databases, which could lead to a bias in the results.<ref name="DhORr">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu XY, Tang JL, Mao C, Yuan JQ, Qin Y, Chung VC | title = Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of traditional chinese medicine must search chinese databases to reduce language bias | journal = Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume = 2013 | pages = 812179 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24223063 | pmc = 3816048 | doi = 10.1155/2013/812179 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Many systematic reviews of TCM interventions published in Chinese journals are incomplete, some contained errors or were misleading.<ref name="TUZvn">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ma B, Guo J, Qi G, Li H, Peng J, Zhang Y, Ding Y, Yang K | display-authors = 6 | title = Epidemiology, quality and reporting characteristics of systematic reviews of traditional Chinese medicine interventions published in Chinese journals | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = e20185 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21633698 | pmc = 3102106 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0020185 | veditors = Hartling L | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...620185M | doi-access = free }}</ref> The herbs recommended by traditional Chinese practitioners in the US are unregulated.<ref name="HumberAlmeder2013">{{cite book| vauthors = Humber JM, Almeder RF |title=Alternative Medicine and Ethics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehWzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|date=9 March 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4757-2774-6|pages=10–|access-date=18 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821092847/https://books.google.com/books?id=ehWzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* A 2013 review found the data too weak to support use of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) for [[benign prostatic hyperplasia]].<ref name="FyK0S">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ma CH, Lin WL, Lui SL, Cai XY, Wong VT, Ziea E, Zhang ZJ | title = Efficacy and safety of Chinese herbal medicine for benign prostatic hyperplasia: systematic review of randomized controlled trials | journal = Asian Journal of Andrology | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 471–82 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23728585 | pmc = 3739225 | doi = 10.1038/aja.2012.173 }}</ref>
* A 2013 review found the research on the benefit and safety of CHM for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss is of poor quality and cannot be relied upon to support their use.<ref name="ztPPx">{{cite journal | vauthors = Su CX, Yan LJ, Lewith G, Liu JP | title = Chinese herbal medicine for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss: a systematic review of randomised clinical trials | journal = Clinical Otolaryngology | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 455–73 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24209508 | doi = 10.1111/coa.12198 | s2cid = 35688209 }}</ref>
* A 2013 [[Cochrane review]] found inconclusive evidence that CHM reduces the severity of eczema.<ref name="PS71S">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gu S, Yang AW, Xue CC, Li CG, Pang C, Zhang W, Williams HC | title = Chinese herbal medicine for atopic eczema | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = CD008642 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24018636 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008642.pub2 | url = http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/530887 | veditors = Gu S }}</ref>
* The traditional medicine ginger, which has shown anti-inflammatory properties in laboratory experiments, has been used to treat [[rheumatism]], headache and digestive and respiratory issues, though there is no firm evidence supporting these uses.<ref name="BvceJ">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leonti M, Casu L | title = Traditional medicines and globalization: current and future perspectives in ethnopharmacology | journal = Frontiers in Pharmacology | volume = 4 | pages = 92 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23898296 | pmc = 3722488 | doi = 10.3389/fphar.2013.00092 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* A 2012 Cochrane review found no difference in [[mortality rate]] among 640 SARS patients when Chinese herbs were used alongside Western medicine versus Western medicine exclusively, although they concluded some herbs may have improved symptoms and decreased corticosteroid doses.<ref name="3ab7r">{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu X, Zhang M, He L, Li Y | title = Chinese herbs combined with Western medicine for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 10 | pages = CD004882 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23076910 | pmc = 6993561 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004882.pub3 | veditors = Li Y }}</ref>
* A 2012 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to support the use of TCM for people with adhesive small bowel obstruction.<ref name="BEEp3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Suo T, Gu X, Andersson R, Ma H, Zhang W, Deng W, Zhang B, Cai D, Qin X | display-authors = 6 | title = Oral traditional Chinese medication for adhesive small bowel obstruction | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 5 | issue = 5 | pages = CD008836 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22592734 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008836.pub2 | veditors = Qin X }}</ref>
* A 2011 review found low quality evidence that suggests CHM improves the symptoms of Sjogren's syndrome.<ref name="9SvbV">{{cite journal | vauthors = Luo H, Han M, Liu JP | title = [Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of Chinese herbal medicine in the treatment of Sjogren's syndrome] | journal = Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao = Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 257–74 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21419078 | doi = 10.3736/jcim20110306 }}</ref>
*A 2011 Cochrane review found inconclusive evidence to support the use of TCM herbal medicines for treatment of [[hypercholesterolemia]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Zhao Lan|last2=Liu|first2=Jian Ping|last3=Zhang|first3=Anthony Lin|last4=Wu|first4=Qiong|last5=Ruan|first5=Yao|last6=Lewith|first6=George|last7=Visconte|first7=Denise|date=2011-07-05|editor-last=Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group|title=Chinese herbal medicines for hypercholesterolemia|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=7|pages=CD008305|language=en|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008305.pub2|pmid=21735427|pmc=3402023}}</ref>
* A 2011 Cochrane review did not find improvement in fasting [[C-peptide]] when compared to [[insulin]] treatment for [[Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults|Latent Autoimmune Diabetes]] in adults after 3 months. It is important to highlight that the studies available to be included in this review presented considerable flaws in quality and design.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brophy |first=Sinead |last2=Davies |first2=Helen |last3=Mannan |first3=Sopna |last4=Brunt |first4=Huw |last5=Williams |first5=Rhys |date=2011-09-07 |title=Interventions for latent autoimmune diabetes (LADA) in adults |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006165.pub3 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |doi=10.1002/14651858.cd006165.pub3 |issn=1465-1858 |pmc=6486159 |pmid=21901702}}</ref>
* A 2010 review found TCM seems to be effective for the treatment of fibromyalgia but the findings were of insufficient methodological rigor.<ref name="UqEpQ">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cao H, Liu J, Lewith GT | title = Traditional Chinese Medicine for treatment of fibromyalgia: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | journal = Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 397–409 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20423209 | pmc = 3110829 | doi = 10.1089/acm.2009.0599 }}</ref>
* A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving [[dysmenorrhea|painful menstruation]], but the trials assessed were of such low methodological quality that no conclusion could be drawn about the remedies' suitability as a recommendable treatment option.<ref name="mTlKH">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu X, Proctor M, Bensoussan A, Wu E, Smith CA | title = Chinese herbal medicine for primary dysmenorrhoea | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 2 | pages = CD005288 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18425916 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005288.pub3 | veditors = Zhu X }}</ref>
* [[Turmeric]] has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries to treat various conditions.<ref name="Gautam" /> This includes jaundice and hepatic disorders, rheumatism, anorexia, diabetic wounds, and menstrual complications.<ref name="Gautam" /> Most of its effects have been attributed to [[curcumin]].<ref name="Gautam" /> Research that curcumin shows strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities have instigated mechanism of action studies on the possibility for cancer and inflammatory diseases prevention and treatment.<ref name="Gautam" /> It also exhibits [[immunomodulatory]] effects.<ref name="Gautam">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-46401-5_14 |chapter=Immunomodulation by Curcumin |title=The Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Uses of Curcumin in Health and Disease |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |year=2007 |last1=Gautam |first1=Subhash C. |last2=Gao |first2=Xiaohua |last3=Dulchavsky |first3=Scott |volume=595 |pages=321–341 |pmid=17569218 |isbn=978-0-387-46400-8 }}</ref>
* A 2005 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence for the use of CHM in HIV-infected people and people with [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]].<ref name="PNBAI">{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu JP, Manheimer E, Yang M | title = Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | pages = CD003937 | date = July 2005 | volume = 2010 | pmid = 16034917 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003937.pub2 | pmc = 8759069 | veditors = Liu JP }}</ref>
* A 2010 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to support the use of Traditional Chinese Herbal Products (THCP) in the treatment of [[angina]].<ref name="vfVTP">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhuo Q, Yuan Z, Chen H, Wu T | title = Traditional Chinese herbal products for stable angina | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 5 | pages = CD004468 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20464731 | pmc = 6718232 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd004468.pub2 }}</ref>
* A 2010 Cochrane review found no evidence supporting the use of TCHM for stopping bleeding from [[Hemorrhoid|haemorrhoids]]. There was some weak evidence of pain relief.<ref name="vkl5u">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gan T, Liu YD, Wang Y, Yang J | title = Traditional Chinese Medicine herbs for stopping bleeding from haemorrhoids | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 10 | pages = CD006791 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20927750 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd006791.pub2 }}</ref>

====Drug research====
{{Further|Arsenic trioxide|Artemisinin|Huperzine A|Ephedrine}}
[[File:Artemisia annua(01).jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Artemisia annua]]'', traditionally used to treat fever, has been found to have [[malaria|antimalarial]] properties.<ref name="swallow" />]]
With an eye to the enormous Chinese market, pharmaceutical companies have explored creating new drugs from traditional remedies. The journal ''Nature'' commented that "claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary skepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine."<ref name="swallow">{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Hard to swallow | journal = Nature | volume = 448 | issue = 7150 | pages = 105–6 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17625521 | doi = 10.1038/448106a | quote = Constructive approaches to divining the potential usefulness of traditional therapies are to be welcomed. But it seems problematic to apply a brand new technique, largely untested in the clinic, to test the veracity of traditional Chinese medicine, when the field is so fraught with pseudoscience. In the meantime, claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary skepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine. | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2007Natur.448S.105. }}</ref>

There had been success in the 1970s, however, with the development of the antimalarial drug [[artemisinin]], which is a processed extract of ''[[Artemisia annua]]'', a herb traditionally used as a fever treatment.<ref name="swallow" /><ref name="Su 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller LH, Su X | title = Artemisinin: discovery from the Chinese herbal garden | journal = Cell | volume = 146 | issue = 6 | pages = 855–8 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21907397 | pmc = 3414217 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2011.08.024 }}</ref> ''Artemisia annua'' has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his ''[[Compendium of Materia Medica]]''. Researcher [[Tu Youyou]] discovered that a low-temperature extraction process could isolate an effective antimalarial substance from the plant.<ref name="scimag" /> Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, ''The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments'', written in 340 by [[Ge Hong]], which states that this herb should be steeped in cold water.<ref name="scimag">{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/asia/2011/09/lasker-award-rekindles-debate-over-artemisinins-discovery |title=Lasker Award Rekindles Debate Over Artemisinin's Discovery | Science/AAAS |publisher=News.sciencemag.org |access-date=7 January 2014 |date=29 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104214759/http://news.sciencemag.org/asia/2011/09/lasker-award-rekindles-debate-over-artemisinins-discovery |archive-date=4 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The extracted substance, once subject to detoxification and purification processes, is a usable antimalarial drug<ref name="Su 2011" /> – a 2012 review found that artemisinin-based remedies were the most effective drugs for the treatment of malaria.<ref name="h0dmr">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fairhurst RM, Nayyar GM, Breman JG, Hallett R, Vennerstrom JL, Duong S, Ringwald P, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Dondorp AM | display-authors = 6 | title = Artemisinin-resistant malaria: research challenges, opportunities, and public health implications | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 87 | issue = 2 | pages = 231–241 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22855752 | pmc = 3414557 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0025 }}</ref> For her work on malaria, Tu received the 2015 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. Despite global efforts in combating malaria, it remains a large burden for the population.<ref name="Chrubasik 2010" /> Although [[WHO]] recommends artemisinin-based remedies for treating uncomplicated malaria, but resistance to the drug can no longer be ignored.<ref name="Chrubasik 2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chrubasik C, Jacobson RL | title = The development of artemisinin resistance in malaria: reasons and solutions | journal = Phytotherapy Research | volume = 24 | issue = 7 | pages = 1104–6 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20578122 | doi = 10.1002/ptr.3133 | s2cid = 37901416 }}</ref><ref name="CtwCp">{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2015|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2015/tu/facts/|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422125851/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2015/tu/facts/|archive-date=22 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Also in the 1970s Chinese researcher [[Zhang TingDong]] and colleagues investigated the potential use of the traditionally used substance [[arsenic trioxide]] to treat [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] (APL).<ref name="dfp">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rao Y, Li R, Zhang D | title = A drug from poison: how the therapeutic effect of arsenic trioxide on acute promyelocytic leukemia was discovered | journal = Science China Life Sciences | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 495–502 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23645104 | doi = 10.1007/s11427-013-4487-z | doi-access = free }}</ref> Building on his work, research both in China and the West eventually led to the development of the drug [[Trisenox]], which was approved for leukemia treatment by the FDA in 2000.<ref name="VonXd">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bian Z, Chen S, Cheng C, Wang J, Xiao H, Qin H |doi=10.1016/j.apsb.2011.12.007|title=Developing new drugs from annals of Chinese medicine|year=2012 |journal=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B|volume=2|pages=1–7|name-list-style=vanc|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Huperzine A]], an extract from the herb, ''[[Huperzia serrata]]'', is under preliminary research as a possible therapeutic for Alzheimer's disease, but poor methodological quality of the research restricts conclusions about its effectiveness.<ref name="SfkqU">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang G, Wang Y, Tian J, Liu JP | title = Huperzine A for Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | pages = e74916 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24086396 | pmc = 3781107 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0074916 | veditors = Scherer RW | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...874916Y | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Ephedrine]] in its natural form, known as ''má huáng'' ({{lang|zh|麻黄}}) in TCM, has been documented in China since the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE – 220 CE) as an [[Asthma|antiasthmatic]] and stimulant.<ref name="principles">{{cite book| vauthors= Levy WO, Kalidas K, Miller NS |title=Principles of Addictions and the Law: Applications in Forensic, Mental Health, and Medical Practice|date=26 February 2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-496736-6|pages=307–08}}</ref> In 1885, the chemical synthesis of ephedrine was first accomplished by Japanese [[organic chemist]] [[Nagai Nagayoshi]] based on his research on [[Japanese traditional medicine|Japanese]] and Chinese traditional herbal medicines<ref name="7Oug3">{{cite book| vauthors = Lock |title=East Asian Medicine in Urban Japan: Varieties of Medical Experience|year=1984|publisher= University of California Press; Reprint edition|isbn=978-0-520-05231-4}}</ref>

[[Pien tze huang]] was first documented in the [[Ming dynasty]].

====Cost-effectiveness====
A 2012 systematic review found there is a lack of available [[cost-effectiveness]] evidence in TCM.<ref name="Zhang2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang F, Kong LL, Zhang YY, Li SC | title = Evaluation of impact on health-related quality of life and cost effectiveness of Traditional Chinese Medicine: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials | journal = Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume = 18 | issue = 12 | pages = 1108–20 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 22924383 | doi = 10.1089/acm.2011.0315 }}</ref>

===Safety===
[[File:Calcite-Galena-elm56c.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Galena (lead ore) is part of historical TCM.<ref name="galena" />
Standard American TCM practice considers lead-containing herbs obsolete.<ref name="futoV">{{cite book | vauthors = Bensky D | author-link = Dan Bensky | title = Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica | publisher = [[Eastland Press Inc.]] | edition = 3 | location = Seattle | date = 2004 | page = 1042 | isbn = 978-0-939616-4-28}}</ref>]]
From the earliest records regarding the use of compounds to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese materiae medicae.<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese plants, animal parts and minerals.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> Traditional Chinese herbal remedies are conveniently available from grocery stores in most Chinese neighborhoods; some of these items may contain toxic ingredients, are imported into the U.S. illegally, and are associated with claims of therapeutic benefit without evidence.<ref name="LICHT">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ko RJ, Greenwald MS, Loscutoff SM, Au AM, Appel BR, Kreutzer RA, Haddon WF, Jackson TY, Boo FO, Presicek G | display-authors = 6 | title = Lethal ingestion of Chinese herbal tea containing ch'an su | journal = The Western Journal of Medicine | volume = 164 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–5 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8779214 | pmc = 1303306 }}</ref> For most compounds, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis.<ref name="Shaw-2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shaw D | title = Toxicological risks of Chinese herbs | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 76 | issue = 17 | pages = 2012–8 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21077025 | doi = 10.1055/s-0030-1250533 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in scorpion); in some cases it could not (i.e., in ''[[Curculigo]]'').<ref name="Ergil 2009" /> Traditional herbal medicines can contain extremely toxic chemicals and heavy metals, and naturally occurring toxins, which can cause illness, exacerbate pre-existing poor health or result in death.<ref name="0tADw">{{cite journal | vauthors = Byard RW | title = A review of the potential forensic significance of traditional herbal medicines | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 89–92 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20412155 | doi = 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01252.x | url = http://www.adelaide.edu.au/news/binary5521/Journal.pdf | access-date = 24 October 2017 | url-status = live | s2cid = 205768581 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.627.5612 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170809110132/http://www.adelaide.edu.au/news/binary5521/Journal.pdf | archive-date = 9 August 2017 }}</ref> Botanical misidentification of plants can cause toxic reactions in humans.<ref name="Efferth2011" /> The description of some plants used in TCM has changed, leading to unintended poisoning by using the wrong plants.<ref name="Efferth2011" /> A concern is also contaminated herbal medicines with microorganisms and fungal toxins, including [[aflatoxin]].<ref name="Efferth2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Efferth T, Kaina B | title = Toxicities by herbal medicines with emphasis to traditional Chinese medicine | journal = Current Drug Metabolism | volume = 12 | issue = 10 | pages = 989–96 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 21892916 | doi = 10.2174/138920011798062328 }}</ref> Traditional herbal medicines are sometimes contaminated with toxic heavy metals, including lead, arsenic, mercury and cadmium, which inflict serious health risks to consumers.<ref name="zkc6B">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yuan X, Chapman RL, Wu Z | title = Analytical methods for heavy metals in herbal medicines | journal = Phytochemical Analysis | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 189–98 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21341339 | doi = 10.1002/pca.1287 }}</ref> Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as [[corticosteroid]]s, [[phenylbutazone]], [[phenytoin]], and [[glibenclamide]], has been reported.<ref name="Efferth2011" /><ref name="Ernst2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ernst E | title = Adulteration of Chinese herbal medicines with synthetic drugs: a systematic review | journal = Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 252 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–13 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12190885 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00999.x | type = Systematic Review | s2cid = 29077682 }}{{open access}}</ref>

Substances known to be potentially dangerous include ''[[Aconitum]]'',<ref name="Ergil 2009" /><ref name="Shaw-2012" /> secretions from the [[Asiatic toad]],<ref name="LICHT"/> powdered centipede,<ref name="CAT">{{cite web |url=http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/centipede.php |title=Centipede, Acupuncture Today |publisher=Acupuncturetoday.com |access-date=17 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707082229/http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/centipede.php |archive-date=7 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> the Chinese beetle (''[[Mylabris phalerata]]''),<ref name="IDCD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Namba T, Ma YH, Inagaki K | title = Insect-derived crude drugs in the Chinese Song dynasty | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 24 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 247–85 | date = December 1988 | pmid = 3075674 | doi = 10.1016/0378-8741(88)90157-2 }}</ref> certain fungi,<ref name="2RQlq">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang XP, Yang RM | title = Movement disorders possibly induced by traditional chinese herbs | journal = European Neurology | volume = 50 | issue = 3 | pages = 153–9 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14530621 | doi = 10.1159/000073056 | s2cid = 43878555 }}</ref> ''[[Aristolochia]]'',<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> arsenic sulfide ([[realgar]]),<ref name="Genuis2012" /> mercury sulfide,<ref name="AsaNP">{{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.C. George |title=Mercury and Chinese herbal medicine {{!}} British Columbia Medical Journal |journal=BCMJ |date=November 2004 |volume=46 |issue=9 |pages=442 |url=https://bcmj.org/letters/mercury-and-chinese-herbal-medicine }}</ref> and [[cinnabar]].<ref name="F1lej">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang CF, Hsu CJ, Liu SH, Lin-Shiau SY | title = Exposure to low dose of cinnabar (a naturally occurring mercuric sulfide (HgS)) caused neurotoxicological effects in offspring mice | journal = Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology | volume = 2012 | pages = 254582 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22888198 | pmc = 3408718 | doi = 10.1155/2012/254582 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Asbestos ore ([[Actinolite]], Yang Qi Shi, 阳起石) is used to treat impotence in TCM.<ref name="ERTCM">''Encyclopedic Reference of Traditional Chinese Medicine'', Xinrong Yang, p. 8, [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mwol-baZYMEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Actinolite+toxic+%22traditional+chinese+medicine%22&ots=l_SDqCIZiJ&sig=lkBNJXF4HINqXZg-GG0Sl5Rc6o0#v=onepage&q=actinolite&f=false] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302164242/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mwol-baZYMEC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Actinolite+toxic+%22traditional+chinese+medicine%22&ots=l_SDqCIZiJ&sig=lkBNJXF4HINqXZg-GG0Sl5Rc6o0#v=onepage&q=actinolite&f=false |date=2 March 2016}}</ref> Due to [[galena]]'s ([[litharge]], [[lead(II) oxide]]) high lead content, it is known to be toxic.<ref name="galena">{{Cite web |url=http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/galena.php |title=Galena, Acupuncture Today |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312051005/http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/herbcentral/galena.php |archive-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Lead, mercury, arsenic, copper, cadmium, and thallium have been detected in TCM products sold in the U.S. and China.<ref name="Genuis2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Genuis SJ, Schwalfenberg G, Siy AK, Rodushkin I | title = Toxic element contamination of natural health products and pharmaceutical preparations | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 11 | pages = e49676 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23185404 | pmc = 3504157 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0049676 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...749676G | doi-access = free }}</ref>

To avoid its toxic adverse effects ''[[Xanthium sibiricum]]'' must be processed.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> [[Hepatotoxicity]] has been reported with products containing ''[[Reynoutria multiflora]]'' ([[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] ''Polygonum multiflorum''), [[glycyrrhizin]], ''[[Senecio]]'' and ''[[Symphytum]]''.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> The herbs indicated as being hepatotoxic included ''[[Dictamnus dasycarpus]]'', ''[[Astragalus membranaceous]]'', and ''[[Paeonia lactiflora]]''.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> Contrary to popular belief, ''[[Ganoderma lucidum]]'' mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity.<ref name="LloIl">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gill SK, Rieder MJ | title = Toxicity of a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma lucidum, in children with cancer | journal = The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = e275-85 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18603664 }}</ref> A 2013 review suggested that although the [[Antimalarial medication|antimalarial]] herb ''[[Artemisia annua]]'' may not cause hepatotoxicity, haematotoxicity, or hyperlipidemia, it should be used cautiously during pregnancy due to a potential risk of embryotoxicity at a high dose.<ref name="oSYtW">{{cite journal | vauthors = Abolaji AO, Eteng MU, Ebong PE, Brisibe EA, Dar A, Kabir N, Choudhary MI | title = A safety assessment of the antimalarial herb Artemisia annua during pregnancy in Wistar rats | journal = Phytotherapy Research | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | pages = 647–54 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 22736625 | doi = 10.1002/ptr.4760 | s2cid = 22650085 }}</ref>

However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse or abuse of Chinese medicine.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> For example, the misuse of the dietary supplement ''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]'' (containing ephedrine) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from [[cardiomyopathy]].<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> Products adulterated with pharmaceuticals for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns.<ref name="Shaw-2012" /> Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of [[acute liver failure]] in China.<ref name="nc1f3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao P, Wang C, Liu W, Chen G, Liu X, Wang X, Wang B, Yu L, Sun Y, Liang X, Yang H, Zhang F | display-authors = 6 | title = Causes and outcomes of acute liver failure in China | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = e80991 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24278360 | pmc = 3838343 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0080991 | veditors = Avila MA | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...880991Z | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The harvesting of [[Guano]] from bat caves (''Ye Ming Sha'') brings workers into close contact with these animals, increasing the risk of [[zoonosis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wassenaar |first1=T.M. |last2=Zou |first2=Y. |title=2019_nCoV/SARS‐CoV‐2: rapid classification of betacoronaviruses and identification of Traditional Chinese Medicine as potential origin of zoonotic coronaviruses |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |date=May 2020 |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=342–348 |doi=10.1111/lam.13285 |pmid=32060933 |pmc=7165814 }}</ref> The Chinese virologist [[Shi Zhengli]] has identified dozens of SARS-like [[coronavirus]]es in samples of bat droppings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Wendong |last2=Shi |first2=Zhengli |last3=Yu |first3=Meng |last4=Ren |first4=Wuze |last5=Smith |first5=Craig |last6=Epstein |first6=Jonathan H. |last7=Wang |first7=Hanzhong |last8=Crameri |first8=Gary |last9=Hu |first9=Zhihong |last10=Zhang |first10=Huajun |last11=Zhang |first11=Jianhong |last12=McEachern |first12=Jennifer |last13=Field |first13=Hume |last14=Daszak |first14=Peter |last15=Eaton |first15=Bryan T. |last16=Zhang |first16=Shuyi |last17=Wang |first17=Lin-Fa |title=Bats Are Natural Reservoirs of SARS-Like Coronaviruses |journal=Science |date=28 October 2005 |volume=310 |issue=5748 |pages=676–679 |doi=10.1126/science.1118391 |pmid=16195424 |bibcode=2005Sci...310..676L |s2cid=2971923 }}</ref>

==Acupuncture and moxibustion==
{{Main|Acupuncture|Moxibustion}}
[[File:Acupuncture1-1.jpg|thumb|200px|Needles being inserted into the skin]]
[[File:Ming Bronze Acupuncture Statue.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A bronze acupuncture statue from the Ming Dynasty being displayed inside a museum]]
Acupuncture is the insertion of needles into superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) – usually at acupuncture points (acupoints) – and their subsequent manipulation; this aims at influencing the flow of [[qi]].<ref name="Npn8K">{{cite web |url=http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm |publisher=National Institutes of Health |title=Acupuncture – Consensus Development Conference Statement |date=5 November 1997 |access-date=3 February 2007 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/618ZUP7jI?url=http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to TCM it relieves [[pain]] and treats (and prevents) various diseases.<ref name="Dorlands">{{cite book | vauthors = Novak PD, Dorland NW, Dorland WA |title=Dorland's Pocket Medical Dictionary |publisher=W.B. Saunders |location=Philadelphia |year=1995 |edition= 25th |isbn=978-0-7216-5738-7 |oclc=33123537 |title-link=Dorland's Pocket Medical Dictionary}}</ref> The US FDA classifies single-use acupuncture needles as Class II medical devices, under CFR 21.<ref name="PwhYY">{{cite web|title=CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=880.5580|website=FDA US Food and Drug Administration|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=4 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327071747/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=880.5580|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion – the Chinese characters for acupuncture ({{zh|labels=no|s=针灸|t=針灸|p=zhēnjiǔ}}) literally meaning "acupuncture-moxibustion" – which involves burning [[mugwort]] on or near the skin at an acupuncture point.<ref name="MAT">{{cite web |url=http://acupuncturetoday.com/abc/moxibustion.php |title=Moxibustion, Acupuncture Today |publisher=Acupuncturetoday.com |access-date=17 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811033311/http://acupuncturetoday.com/abc/moxibustion.php |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "available scientific evidence does not support claims that moxibustion is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease".<ref name="acs-moxi">{{cite web |title=Moxibustion |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/moxibustion |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |date=8 March 2011 |access-date=15 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809061732/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/moxibustion |archive-date=9 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[electroacupuncture]], an electric current is applied to the needles once they are inserted, to further stimulate the respective acupuncture points.<ref name="Robertson2006">{{cite book | vauthors = Robertson V, Ward A, Low J, Reed A |title=Electrotherapy explained: principles and practice |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7506-8843-7}}</ref>

A recent historian of Chinese medicine remarked that it is "nicely ironic that the specialty of acupuncture -- arguably the most questionable part of their medical heritage for most Chinese at the start of the twentieth century -- has become the most marketable aspect of Chinese medicine." She found that acupuncture as we know it today has hardly been in existence for sixty years. Moreover, the fine, [[Glossary of botanical terms#filiform|filiform]] needle we think of as the acupuncture needle today was not widely used a century ago. Present day acupuncture was developed in the 1930s and put into wide practice only as late as the 1960s.{{sfnb|Andrews|2013a|pp=237–238}}

===Efficacy===
{{Further|Acupuncture#Efficacy|Acupuncture#Safety}}
A 2013 editorial in the American journal ''[[Anesthesia and Analgesia]]'' stated that acupuncture studies produced inconsistent results, (i.e. acupuncture relieved pain in some conditions but had no effect in other very similar conditions) which suggests the presence of [[Type I and type II errors#Type I error|false positive results]]. These may be caused by factors like biased study design, poor blinding, and the classification of electrified needles (a type of [[Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation|TENS]]) as a form of acupuncture. The inability to find consistent results despite more than 3,000 studies, the editorial continued, suggests that the treatment seems to be a [[placebo effect]] and the existing equivocal positive results are the type of [[statistical noise|noise]] one expects to see after a large number of studies are performed on an inert therapy. The editorial concluded that the best controlled studies showed a clear pattern, in which the outcome does not rely upon needle location or even needle insertion, and since "these variables are those that define acupuncture, the only sensible conclusion is that acupuncture does not work."<ref name="Colquhoun2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Colquhoun D, Novella SP | title = Acupuncture is theatrical placebo | journal = Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume = 116 | issue = 6 | pages = 1360–3 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23709076 | doi = 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31828f2d5e | url = http://www.dcscience.net/Colquhoun-Novella-A&A-2013.pdf | access-date = 3 June 2020 | url-status = live | author2-link = Steven Novella | s2cid = 207135491 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181120055409/http://www.dcscience.net/Colquhoun-Novella-A%26A-2013.pdf | archive-date = 20 November 2018 | author-link = David Colquhoun }}</ref>

According to the US NIH National Cancer Institute, a review of 17,922 patients reported that real acupuncture relieved muscle and joint pain, caused by aromatase inhibitors, much better than sham acupuncture.<ref name="nihnci">{{cite web|last1=U.S. National Institute of Health|title=Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Questions and Answers About Acupuncture|url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/acupuncture-pdq#section/_3|publisher=National Cancer Institute|access-date=4 March 2018|date=11 May 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304172443/https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/acupuncture-pdq#section/_3|archive-date=4 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Regarding cancer patients, The review hypothesized that acupuncture may cause physical responses in nerve cells, the pituitary gland, and the brain – releasing proteins, hormones, and chemicals that are proposed to affect blood pressure, body temperature, immune activity, and endorphin release.<ref name="nihnci" />

A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that the mechanisms of acupuncture "are clinically relevant, but that an important part of these total effects is not due to issues considered to be crucial by most acupuncturists, such as the correct location of points and depth of needling ... [but is] ... associated with more potent placebo or context effects".<ref name="XsseQ">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vickers AJ, Cronin AM, Maschino AC, Lewith G, MacPherson H, Foster NE, Sherman KJ, Witt CM, Linde K | display-authors = 6 | title = Acupuncture for chronic pain: individual patient data meta-analysis | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 172 | issue = 19 | pages = 1444–53 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22965186 | pmc = 3658605 | doi = 10.1001/archinternmed.2012.3654 }}</ref> Commenting on this meta-analysis, both [[Edzard Ernst]] and David Colquhoun said the results were of negligible clinical significance.<ref name="Jha">{{cite news | vauthors = Jha A | title = Acupuncture useful, but overall of little benefit, study shows | url = https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/sep/10/acupuncture-useful-little-benefit-study | newspaper = [[The Guardian]] | date = 10 September 2012 | access-date = 18 December 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170104002226/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/sep/10/acupuncture-useful-little-benefit-study | archive-date = 4 January 2017 | url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Colquhoun">{{cite web |last1=Colquhoun |first1=David |title=Re: Risks of acupuncture range from stray needles to pneumothorax, finds study |website=BMJ |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e6060/rr/603200 |date=17 September 2012 }} Reply to: {{cite journal |last1=Kmietowicz |first1=Z. |title=Risks of acupuncture range from stray needles to pneumothorax, finds study |journal=BMJ |date=7 September 2012 |volume=345 |issue=sep07 2 |pages=e6060 |doi=10.1136/bmj.e6060 |pmid=22960463 |s2cid=32788662 }}</ref>

A 2011 overview of [[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane reviews]] found evidence that suggests acupuncture is effective for some but not all kinds of pain.<ref name="pmid21359919">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee MS, Ernst E | title = Acupuncture for pain: an overview of Cochrane reviews | journal = Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 187–9 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21359919 | doi = 10.1007/s11655-011-0665-7 | s2cid = 21513259 }}</ref> A 2010 systematic review found that there is evidence "that acupuncture provides a short-term clinically relevant effect when compared with a waiting list control or when acupuncture is added to another intervention" in the treatment of chronic low back pain.<ref name="VlCfc">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rubinstein SM, van Middelkoop M, Kuijpers T, Ostelo R, Verhagen AP, de Boer MR, Koes BW, van Tulder MW | display-authors = 6 | title = A systematic review on the effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine for chronic non-specific low-back pain | journal = European Spine Journal | volume = 19 | issue = 8 | pages = 1213–28 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20229280 | pmc = 2989199 | doi = 10.1007/s00586-010-1356-3 }}</ref> Two review articles discussing the effectiveness of acupuncture, from 2008 and 2009, have concluded that there is not enough evidence to conclude that it is effective beyond the placebo effect.<ref name="RetractingNeedleStudies">{{cite book | vauthors = Singh S, Ernst EE | author-link1 = Simon Singh |author-link2=Edzard Ernst | year = 2008 | title =Trick or treatment: The undeniable facts about alternative medicine | isbn = 978-0-393-06661-6 | publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]] | pages = 103–06 | chapter = The Truth about Acupuncture | quote="These initial conclusions have generally been disappointing for acupuncturists: They provide no convincing evidence that real acupuncture is significantly more effective than placebo." (p. 104)| title-link = Trick or Treatment}}</ref><ref name="Madsen2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Madsen MV, Gøtzsche PC, Hróbjartsson A | title = Acupuncture treatment for pain: systematic review of randomised clinical trials with acupuncture, placebo acupuncture, and no acupuncture groups | journal = BMJ | volume = 338 | pages = a3115 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19174438 | pmc = 2769056 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a3115 }}</ref>

Acupuncture is generally safe when administered using Clean Needle Technique (CNT).<ref name="Xu S" /> Although serious [[adverse effects]] are rare, acupuncture is not without risk.<ref name="Xu S">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu S, Wang L, Cooper E, Zhang M, Manheimer E, Berman B, Shen X, Lao L | display-authors = 6 | title = Adverse events of acupuncture: a systematic review of case reports | journal = Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume = 2013 | pages = 581203 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23573135 | pmc = 3616356 | doi = 10.1155/2013/581203 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Severe adverse effects, including very rarely death (5 case reports), have been reported.<ref name="Ernst 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ernst E, Lee MS, Choi TY | title = Acupuncture: does it alleviate pain and are there serious risks? A review of reviews | journal = Pain | volume = 152 | issue = 4 | pages = 755–764 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21440191 | doi = 10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.004 | s2cid = 20205666 }}</ref>

==Tui na==
[[File:Zheng Gu Shui.jpg|thumb|243x243px|An example of a traditional Chinese medicine used in tui na]]
{{Main|Tui na}}
Tui na ({{lang|zh|推拿}}) is a form of massage akin to [[acupressure]] (from which [[shiatsu]] evolved). Asian massage is typically administered with the person fully clothed, without the application of grease or oils.<ref name="tQZf1">{{cite journal| vauthors = Centeno JI |title=Ping Ming Traditional Chinese Medicine|journal=Milliman|date=27 January 2017|volume=520|issue=Stockton|page=23|url=http://www.pingminghealth.com/chinese-medicine/what-is-chinese-medicine/|access-date=1 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124112537/http://www.pingminghealth.com/chinese-medicine/what-is-chinese-medicine/|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Techniques employed may include thumb presses, rubbing, percussion, and assisted stretching.

== Qigong ==
{{Main|Qigong}}
Qìgōng ({{zh|labels=no|s=气功|t=氣功}}) is a TCM system of exercise and meditation that combines regulated breathing, slow movement, and focused awareness, purportedly to cultivate and balance qi.<ref name="Holland">{{cite book | vauthors = Holland A |year=2000 |title=Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine |publisher= North Atlantic Books |isbn=978-1-55643-326-9}}</ref> One branch of qigong is qigong massage, in which the practitioner combines massage techniques with awareness of the acupuncture channels and points.<ref name="2009Silva">{{cite journal | vauthors = Silva LM, Schalock M, Ayres R, Bunse C, Budden S | title = Qigong massage treatment for sensory and self-regulation problems in young children with autism: a randomized controlled trial | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 63 | issue = 4 | pages = 423–32 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19708471 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.63.4.423 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="home">{{cite journal | vauthors = Silva LM, Schalock M, Gabrielsen K | title = Early intervention for autism with a parent-delivered Qigong massage program: a randomized controlled trial | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 550–9 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22026323 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.2011.000661 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Qi is air, breath, energy, or primordial life source that is neither matter or spirit. While Gong is a skillful movement, work, or exercise of the qi.<ref name="KjrTcE">{{Cite book|title=Breathing Spaces| vauthors = Chen N |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=9780231128056|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231128056}}</ref>

===Forms===
* ''Nei gong'': introspective and meditative
* ''Wai gong'': external energy and motion
* ''Dong gong'': dynamic or active
* ''Jing gong'': tranquil or passive<ref name="KjrTcE" />

==Other therapies==
===Cupping===
{{Main|Cupping therapy}}
[[File:Kyutoshin.JPG|thumb|Acupuncture and moxibustion after cupping in Japan]]
Cupping ({{zh|labels=no|c=拔罐|p=báguàn}}) is a type of Chinese massage, consisting of placing several glass "cups" (open spheres) on the body. A match is lit and placed inside the cup and then removed before placing the cup against the skin. As the air in the cup is heated, it expands, and after placing in the skin, cools, creating lower pressure inside the cup that allows the cup to stick to the skin via [[suction]].<ref name="PadyQ">{{cite web | url=http://time.com/4443105/cupping-rio-olympics-michael-phelps/ | title=What is Cupping? Here's What You Need to Know | access-date=7 February 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123162459/http://time.com/4443105/cupping-rio-olympics-michael-phelps/ | archive-date=23 January 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> When combined with massage oil, the cups can be slid around the back, offering "reverse-pressure massage".

===Gua sha===
{{Main|Gua sha}}
[[File:Gua Sha.jpg|thumb|Gua sha]]
'''Gua sha''' ({{zh|labels=no|c=刮痧|p=guāshā}}) is abrading the skin with pieces of smooth jade, bone, animal tusks or horns or smooth stones; until red spots then bruising cover the area to which it is done. It is believed that this treatment is for almost any ailment. The red spots and bruising take three to ten days to heal, there is often some soreness in the area that has been treated.<ref name="1doyG">{{cite web |url = http://www.tcmwell.com/TCMNaturalTherapy/GuashaCupping/GuaSha-Treatment-of-Disease.html |title = GuaSha Treatment of Disease |publisher = Tcmwell.com |access-date = 17 May 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110702102751/http://www.tcmwell.com/TCMNaturalTherapy/GuashaCupping/GuaSha-Treatment-of-Disease.html |archive-date = 2 July 2011 |url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Die-da ===
{{Main|Die-da}}
'''Diē-dá''' ({{lang|zh|跌打}}) or '''Dit Da''', is a traditional Chinese [[bone-setting]] technique, usually practiced by martial artists who know aspects of Chinese medicine that apply to the treatment of [[Physical trauma|trauma]] and injuries such as bone fractures, sprains, and bruises. Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies if serious injury is involved. Such practice of bone-setting ({{zh|labels=no|t=整骨|s=正骨}}) is not common in the West.

=== Chinese food therapy ===
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2021}}
{{Main|Chinese food therapy}}
The concepts ''yin'' and ''yang'' are associated with different classes of foods, and tradition considers it important to consume them in a balanced fashion.

==Regulations==
Many governments have enacted laws to regulate TCM practice.

=== Australia ===
From 1 July 2012 Chinese medicine practitioners must be registered under the national registration and accreditation scheme with the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia and meet the Board's Registration Standards, to practice in Australia.<ref name="dEoSG">{{cite web|url=https://www.chinesemedicineboard.gov.au/Registration.aspx|title=Chinese Medicine Board of Australia – Registration|website=Chinese Medicine Board of Australia|publisher=Chinese Medicine Board of Australia|access-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024040943/https://www.chinesemedicineboard.gov.au/Registration.aspx|archive-date=24 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
TCM is regulated in five provinces in Canada: Alberta, British Columbia,<ref name="efn1q">{{cite web |url=http://www.ctcma.bc.ca/about.asp |title=CTCMA |publisher=College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners and Acupuncturists of British Columbia |access-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014195917/http://www.ctcma.bc.ca/about.asp |archive-date=14 October 2012}}</ref> Ontario,<ref name="LYHr5">{{cite web |url=http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_06t27_e.htm |title=Traditional Chinese Medicine Act, 2006 |work=S.O. 2006, c. 27 |date=24 July 2014 |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523091035/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_06t27_e.htm |archive-date=23 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Quebec, and Newfoundland & Labrador.

=== China (mainland) ===
The People's Republic of China has supported TCM since its founding in 1949<ref name="L4ZSd">{{cite web | vauthors = Berezow A |title=Is China the World Leader in Biomedical Fraud? |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/28/is-china-the-world-leader-in-biomedical-fraud/ |website=Foreign Policy |date=February 28, 2018 |access-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206193208/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/28/is-china-the-world-leader-in-biomedical-fraud/ |archive-date=6 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine]] was created in 1949, which then absorbed existing TCM management in 1986 with major changes in 1998.<ref name="IO4NJ">{{cite web |author1=State Council of the People's Republic of China|script-title=zh:国务院关于成立国家中医管理局的通知（国发〔1986〕79号）|trans-title=State Countil notification on establishing the NATCM (SC [1986] 79) |url=http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2012-07/25/content_6480.htm |date=1986-07-20}}</ref><ref name="FwJ6J">{{cite web |author1=General Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China |script-title=zh:国务院办公厅关于印发国家中医药管理局职能配置内设机构和人员编制规定的通知（国办发〔1998〕95号）|trans-title=State Office notification on provisions for nstitutions and staffing of the NATCM (SO [1998] 95) |url=http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2010-11/18/content_7729.htm |date=1998-06-25}}</ref>

China's National People's Congress Standing Committee passed the country's first law on TCM in 2016, which came into effect on 1 July 2017. The new law standardized TCM certifications by requiring TCM practitioners to (i) pass exams administered by provincial-level TCM authorities, and (ii) obtain recommendations from two certified practitioners. TCM products and services can be advertised only with approval from the local TCM authority.<ref name="WebMD China TCM">{{cite web|title=China passes first law on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)|url=http://webmd.cn/en/china-passes-first-law-traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm/|publisher=WebMD China|date=28 December 2016|access-date=28 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828170102/http://webmd.cn/en/china-passes-first-law-traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm/|archive-date=28 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Hong Kong===
During [[British Hong Kong|British rule]], Chinese medicine practitioners in Hong Kong were not recognized as "medical doctors", which means they could not issue prescription drugs, give injections, etc. However, TCM practitioners could register and operate TCM as "herbalists".<ref>{{cite news|title=香港执业中医的概况|url=http://www.cntv.cn/program/zhyy/topic/health/C12827/20040824/101533.shtml|publisher=央视国际|date=2004-08-24}}</ref> The Chinese Medicine Council of Hong Kong was established in 1999. It regulates the compounds and professional standards for TCM practitioners. All TCM practitioners in Hong Kong are required to register with the council. The eligibility for registration includes a recognised 5-year university degree of TCM, a 30-week minimum supervised clinical internship, and passing the licensing exam.<ref name="Rfm3C">[http://www.cmchk.org.hk/index_en.html The Chinese Medicine Council of Hong Kong] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111100346/http://www.cmchk.org.hk/index_en.html |date=11 January 2014}} Hong Kong Registered the Chinese Medicine Practitioner licensure requirements</ref>

===Macau===
The [[Portuguese Macau]] government seldom interfered in the affairs of Chinese society, including with regard to regulations on the practice of TCM. There were a few TCM pharmacies in Macau during the colonial period. In 1994, the Portuguese Macau government published Decree-Law no. 53/94/M that officially started to regulate the TCM market. After the sovereign handover, the Macau S.A.R. government also published regulations on the practice of TCM.{{Clarify|date=January 2022}} In 2000, [[Macau University of Science and Technology]] and [[Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine]] established the Macau College of Traditional Chinese Medicine to offer a degree course in Chinese medicine.<ref>{{Cite news|title=澳门的高等中医药教育|url=https://eic.tjutcm.edu.cn/info/1005/1140.htm|publisher=世界中医药教育|date=2013-04-19}}</ref>

In Macau, the legitimacy of Chinese medicine is not built upon "miracle making". Instead, it is achieved through a celebration of cultural tradition rejuvenated with discourses of nationalism and modernity, and through the mutual constructions of medical references between doctors and patients.<ref name="somatosphere">{{cite news |last1=Lou|first1=Loretta|url=http://somatosphere.net/2016/beyond-miracles-how-traditional-chinese-medicine-establishes-professional-legitimacy-in-post-colonial-macau.html/ |title=Beyond Miracles: How Traditional Chinese Medicine Establishes Professional Legitimacy in Post-colonial Macau |work=[[somatosphere]] |date=2016-12-09 |access-date=2016-12-09}}</ref>

In 2022, a new law regulating TCM, Law no. 11/2021, came into effect. The same law also repealed Decree-Law no. 53/94/M.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lei n.º 11/2021|url=https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2021/30/lei11.asp|access-date=2022-01-08|website=|language=pt|via=Imprensa Oficial}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Special Report – Traditional Chinese Medicine – Breathing a new life|url=https://www.macaubusiness.com/special-report-traditional-chinese-medicine-breathing-a-new-life/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=|language=en|via=Macau Business}}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
[[File:Chinese traditional medicine.jpg|thumb|The Chinese traditional medicine at one of Chinese traditional medicine shop at Jagalan Road, Surabaya, Indonesia.]]
All traditional medicines, including TCM, are regulated by Indonesian Minister of Health Regulation of 2013 on traditional medicine. Traditional medicine license (''Surat Izin Pengobatan Tradisional'' – SIPT) is granted to the practitioners whose methods are recognized as safe and may benefit health.<ref name="men">{{cite web |url=https://dinkes.belitung.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/kepmenkes-9980d-kepmenkes_1076-pengobatan-tradisional.pdf |title=KEPUTUSAN MENTERI KESEHATAN REPUBLIK INDONESIA }}</ref> The TCM clinics are registered but there is no explicit regulation for it. The only TCM method which is accepted by medical logic and is empirically proofed is acupuncture.<ref name="rgrUG">Cheta Nilawaty dan Rini Kustiati. 13 August 2012. TEMPO, [http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/13/060423155/Belum-Ada-Aturan-Soal-Klinik-Pengobatan-Cina Belum Ada Aturan Soal Klinik Pengobatan Cina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084547/http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/13/060423155/Belum-Ada-Aturan-Soal-Klinik-Pengobatan-Cina |date=19 August 2014}}. {{in lang|id}}</ref> The acupuncturists can get SIPT and participate in health care facilities.<ref name="men" />

===Japan===
[[File:Drug Seirogan.png|thumb|''[[Seirogan]]'', a type of antidiarrhoeal drug in Japan developed based on Kanpo medicine theory]]
{{Main|Kampo|Kampo list}}

=== Malaysia ===
The Traditional and Complementary Medicine Bill was passed by parliament in 2012 establishing the Traditional and Complementary Medicine Council to register and regulate traditional and complementary medicine practitioners, including TCM practitioners as well as other traditional and complementary medicine practitioners such as those in traditional Malay medicine and traditional Indian medicine.<ref name="WaKgb">{{cite web|url=https://www.npra.gov.my/images/Announcement/2015/NRC-2015-day2/TMHS08-P-Ms-TehLiYin-31-07-15.pdf|title=Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM) Act [What Should You Know?]|work=Traditional and Complementary Medicine Division|publisher=Ministry of Health, Malaysia|year=2015|access-date=14 May 2019|page=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514052514/https://www.npra.gov.my/images/Announcement/2015/NRC-2015-day2/TMHS08-P-Ms-TehLiYin-31-07-15.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Netherlands ===
[[File:中 Zhong - Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde logo (Big).jpg|thumb|right|The logo of the Dutch Association of Traditional Chinese Medicine (or ''中 Zhong - Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde''), the largest of the professional organisations that is recognised by private [[health insurance]] companies in the Netherlands.]]

There are no specific regulations in the Netherlands on TCM;<ref name="CAM-Regulations-Netherlands">{{cite web|url= http://cam-regulation.org/en/traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm-netherlands|title= Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in the Netherlands.|date= 31 December 2012|access-date= 12 March 2020|author= CAM Regulation admin|publisher= Norway's National Research Center in Complementary and Alternative Medicine|language= en|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200330000727/http://cam-regulation.org/en/traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm-netherlands|archive-date= 30 March 2020|url-status= live}}</ref> TCM is neither prohibited nor recognised by the [[government of the Netherlands]].<ref name="ETCMAZhongNethetlands">{{cite web|url=https://www.etcma.org/find-a-member/the-netherlands/zhong/|title=Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde (ZHONG) - Dutch Association of Chinese Traditional Medicine.|date=2020|access-date=12 March 2020|work=European Traditional Chinese Medicine Association (ETCMA)|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330000723/https://www.etcma.org/find-a-member/the-netherlands/zhong/|archive-date=30 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Chinese herbology|Chinese herbs as well as Chinese herbal products]] that are used in TCM are classified as foods and [[food supplement]]s, and these Chinese herbs can be imported into the Netherlands as well as marketed as such without any type registration or notification to the government.<ref name="ETCMAZhongNethetlands" />

Despite its status, some private [[health insurance]] companies reimburse a certain amount of annual costs for [[acupuncture]] treatments, this depends on one's insurance policy, as not all insurance policies cover it, and if the acupuncture practitioner is or is not a member of one of the professional organisations that are recognised by private health insurance companies.<ref name="ETCMAZhongNethetlands" /> The recognized professional organizations include the Nederlandse Vereniging voor Acupunctuur (NVA), Nederlandse Artsen Acupunctuur Vereniging (NAAV), ZHONG, (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde), Nederlandse Beroepsvereniging Chinese Geneeswijzen Yi (NBCG Yi), and Wetenschappelijke Artsen Vereniging voor Acupunctuur in Nederland (WAVAN).<ref name="ZorgwijzerTraditionalChineseMedicine">{{cite web|url= https://www.zorgwijzer.nl/vergoeding/acupunctuur|title= Acupunctuur (2020).|date= 2020|access-date= 12 March 2020|work= Zorgwijzer|language= nl|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200312201516/https://www.zorgwijzer.nl/vergoeding/acupunctuur|archive-date= 12 March 2020|url-status= live}}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
Although there are no regulatory standards for the practice of TCM in New Zealand, in the year 1990, acupuncture was included in the Governmental [[Accident Compensation Corporation]] (ACC) Act. This inclusion granted qualified and professionally registered acupuncturists to provide subsidised care and treatment to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors for work or sports related injuries that occurred within and upon the land of New Zealand. The two bodies for the regulation of acupuncture and attainment of ACC treatment provider status in New Zealand are Acupuncture NZ<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.acupuncture.org.nz/|access-date=2020-11-13|website=Acupuncture NZ}}</ref> and The New Zealand Acupuncture Standards Authority.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NZASA - Home|url=https://nzasa.org/|access-date=2020-11-13|website=nzasa.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Accident Compensation Act 2001 No 49 (as at 01 August 2020), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2001/0049/latest/DLM99494.html|access-date=2020-11-13|website=www.legislation.govt.nz}}</ref>

=== Singapore ===
The TCM Practitioners Act was passed by Parliament in 2000 and the TCM Practitioners Board was established in 2001 as a statutory board under the Ministry of Health, to register and regulate TCM practitioners. The requirements for registration include possession of a diploma or degree from a TCM educational institution/university on a gazetted list, either structured TCM clinical training at an approved local TCM educational institution or foreign TCM registration together with supervised TCM clinical attachment/practice at an approved local TCM clinic, and upon meeting these requirements, passing the Singapore TCM Physicians Registration Examination (STRE) conducted by the TCM Practitioners Board.<ref name="pcpTk">{{cite web |title = Registration Requirements for the Registration of TCM Physicians |url = http://www.healthprofessionals.gov.sg/content/hprof/tcmpb/en/leftnav/registration_requirements.html |access-date = 5 April 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120730171245/http://www.healthprofessionals.gov.sg/content/hprof/tcmpb/en/leftnav/registration_requirements.html |archive-date = 30 July 2012 |url-status = live}}</ref>

=== United States ===
As of July 2012, only six states lack legislation to regulate the professional practice of TCM: [[Alabama]], [[Kansas]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Wyoming]]. In 1976, California established an Acupuncture Board and became the first state licensing professional acupuncturists.<ref name="esZx6">{{cite web |url=http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/consumer_guide.shtml |title=Archived copy |access-date=8 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522194421/http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/consumer_guide.shtml |archive-date=22 May 2012}} California Acupuncture Board</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|History}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Compendium of Materia Medica]]
* [[Huangdi Neijing]]
* ''[[American Journal of Chinese Medicine]]''
* [[The body in traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[Capsicum plaster]]
* [[Chinese classic herbal formula]]
* [[Chinese herbology]]
* [[Chinese Ophthalmology]]
* [[Chinese patent medicine]]
* [[Guizhentang Pharmaceutical company]]
* [[Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals]]
* [[HIV/AIDS and traditional Chinese medicine]]
* ''[[Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine]]''
* [[Hua Tuo]]
* [[Li Shizhen]]
* [[List of branches of alternative medicine]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[List of traditional Chinese medicines]]
* [[Medicinal mushrooms]]
* [[Pharmacognosy]]
* [[Public health in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Qingdai]]
* [[Snake farm]]
* [[Sun Simiao]]
* [[Tao Hongjing]]
* [[Traditional Korean medicine]]
* [[Traditional Mongolian medicine]]
* [[Traditional Vietnamese medicine]]
* [[Traditional Tibetan medicine]]
* [[Turtle farm]]
* [[Zhang Jiegu]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last = Andrews |first = Bridie |editor1-last = Hinrichs |editor1-first = T. J. |editor2-first = Linda L. |editor2-last = Barnes |year = 2013a |title = The Republic of China |encyclopedia = Chinese Medicine and Healing: An Illustrated History |publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location = Cambridge, MA |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dtsYe0ZFORcC |isbn = 9780674047372 }}
* {{cite book |last = Andrews |first = Bridie |author-mask=4|url = https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=isbn:0774824328|year = 2013b |title = The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine |publisher = UBC Press |location = Vancouver, BC |isbn = 978-0774824323}}
* {{cite book |vauthors = Aung SK, Chen WP |year=2007 |title = Clinical introduction to medical acupuncture |publisher = Thieme Mecial Publishers |isbn= 978-1-58890-221-4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last = Borowy |editor-first = Iris |year = 2009 |title = Uneasy Encounters: The Politics of Medicine and Health in China, 1900-1937 |publisher = Peter Lang |location = [[Frankfurt am Maim]]; New York, NY |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H9D-Z2fjHUEC |isbn = 9783631578032 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first = T. J. |last = Hinrichs |pages = 3859–3864 |title = Healing and Medicine |chapter = Healing and Medicine in China |volume = 6 |editor-first = Lindsay |editor-last = Jones |location = Detroit, MI |publisher = Macmillan Reference USA |year = 2005 |isbn = |chapter-url = }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last = Hinrichs |editor1-first = T. J. |editor2-first = Linda L. |editor2-last = Barnes |year = 2013 |title = Chinese Medicine and Healing: An Illustrated History |publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, MA |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dtsYe0ZFORcC |isbn = 9780674047372 }}
* {{cite journal |last =Johnson |first = Ian|author-link = Ian Johnson|title =Chinese Medicine in the Covid Wards |journal =New York Review of Books |volume =68 |issue = 17 |pages= |publisher = |location = |date =2021 |language = |url = https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2021/11/04/traditional-chinese-medicine-covid-wards/ |jstor = |issn = |doi = |access-date = }} Review of Liu Lihong ''Classical Chinese Medicine'' (below). Also free online at ''China File'' [https://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/chinese-medicine-covid-wards Chinese Medicine in Covid Wards].
* {{cite book |last = Lei |first= Sean Xianglin |year = 2014 |title = Neither Donkey nor Horse: Medicine in the Struggle over China's Modernity |publisher = University of Chicago |location = Chicago |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wOU_BAAAQBAJ |isbn = 9780226169880}}
* {{cite web |vauthors = Novella S |author-link=Steve Novella |url = http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine/ |title = What Is Traditional Chinese Medicine? |website = Science-Based Medicine |access-date = 14 April 2014 |date = 25 January 2012 }}
* {{cite book |vauthors = Singh S, Ernst E |author1-link = Simon Singh |author2-link = Edzard Ernst |title = Trick or Treatment: Alternative Medicine on Trial |location = London |publisher= Bantam |year= 2008 |isbn= 978-0593061299 |ref = {{harvid|Singh & Ernst|2008}} }}
* {{cite book |last = Taylor |first = Kim |year = 2005 |title = Chinese Medicine in Early Communist China, 1945-63 A Medicine of Revolution |publisher = RoutledgeCurzon |location = London, England; New York, NY |isbn = 041534512X }}
* {{cite book |last = Watt |first = John R. |year = 2014 |title = Saving Lives in Wartime China: How Medical Reformers Built Modern Healthcare Systems Amid War and Epidemics, 1928-1945 |publisher = Brill| location = Boston;Leiden |isbn = 9789004256453}}
* {{cite book |vauthors = Wiseman N, Ellis A |year = 1996 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3SOAjUt53UgC&q=summerheat+tcm&pg=PA199 |title = Fundamentals of Chinese medicine |publisher = Paradigm Publications |isbn = 978-0-912111-44-5 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |vauthors=Baran GR, Kiana MF, Samuel SP |title=Healthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century |publisher=Springer |year=2014 |pages=19–57 |chapter=Chapter 2: Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ? |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2 |isbn=978-1-4614-8540-7}}
* {{cite book |last = Barnes |first= Linda L. |year = 2005 |title = Needles, Herbs, Gods, and Ghosts: China, Healing, and the West to 1848 |publisher = Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, Mass |isbn = 0674018729}} Shows early use of Chinese medicine not always perceived as "Chinese."
* {{cite journal |last =Baum |first = Emily|title =Medicine and Public Health in Twentieth‐Century China: Histories of Modernization and Change |journal =History Compass |volume =18 |issue = 7 |pages =|date =2020 |language = |url = |jstor = |issn = |doi = 10.1111/hic3.12616 |s2cid = 225622823|access-date = }}
* {{cite book |last = Liu |first=Lihong |translator=Weiss, Gabriel |translator2=Henry Buchtel |translator3=Sabine Wilms|year = 2019 |title = Classical Chinese Medicine |publisher = Chinese University of Hong Kong Press; distributed by Columbia University Press| location = Shatin, NT Hong Kong |isbn = 9789882370579}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Lloyd |first1= G. E. R. |author1-link=G. E. R. Lloyd|first2= Nathan |last2= Sivin |author2-link= Nathan Sivin|year = 2002 |title = The Way and the Word: Science and Medicine in Early China and Greece |publisher = Yale University Press| location = New Haven |isbn = 0300092970}}
* McGrew, Roderick. ''Encyclopedia of Medical History'' (1985), brief history on pp. 56–59
* {{cite book | vauthors = Needham J |author-link=Joseph Needham | veditors = Sivin N |editor-link=Nathan Sivin |series=Science and Civilisation in China |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6bEZ8Hp8h5sC |volume=6, ''Biology and Biological Technology'' |title=Part VI: Medicine |isbn=978-0-521-63262-1 |oclc=163502797}}
* {{citation|author-last = Raphals |author-first=Lisa |author-link= Lisa Raphals|chapter= Chinese Philosophy and Chinese Medicine |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-first =Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |chapter-url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/chinese-phil-medicine/ |date=Winter 2020 |publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}
* {{cite book |last = Shelton |first= Tamara Venit |year = 2019 |title = Herbs and Roots: A History of Chinese Doctors in the American Medical Marketplace |publisher = Yale University Press| location = New Haven |isbn = 9780300249408}}
*{{cite book |last = Unschuld |first =Paul|author-link= |translator = |year = 1986 |title = Nan-Ching: The Classic of Difficult Issues |publisher = University of California Press| location = Berkeley |isbn = 9780520053724}}
*{{cite book |last = Unschuld |first= Paul U. |author-mask= 2|translator = |year = 1986a |title = Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics |publisher = University of California Press |location = Berkeley |isbn = 9780520050259}}
*{{cite book |last = Unschuld |first= Paul U. |author-mask= 2|translator = |year = 2000 |title = Medicine in China: Historical Artifacts and Images |publisher = Prestel| location = Munich |isbn = 9783791321493}}
*{{cite book |last = Unschuld |first= Paul U. |author-mask= 2 |translator = Bridie J. Andrews |year = 2018 |title = Traditional Chinese Medicine: Heritage and Adaptation |publisher = Columbia University Press| location = New York |trans-title= Traditionelle chinesische Medizin (2013)|isbn = 9780231175005}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/search?lang=en&channelid=1288 Medicinal Plant Images Database]—School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University {{in lang|zh-hant}}
* [http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/search?channelid=44273 Chinese Medicine Specimen Database]—School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University {{in lang|zh-hant}}
* [http://www.association.quebec.aqtn.ca/files/scientific-literary-review-traditional-chinese-medicine-tcm.pdf ''Literary Review Compilation on Traditional Chinese Medicine''], PDF, 133 pages; compiled by the Association Québécoise des Thérapeutes Naturels (AQTN)

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Intelligent design

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{{Short description|Pseudoscientific argument for the existence of God}}
{{About|a specific pseudoscientific form of [[creationism]]|generic arguments from "intelligent design"|Teleological argument|the movement|Intelligent design movement|other uses of the phrase}}
{{Distinguish|Theistic evolution}}
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{{Intelligent Design}}


'''Intelligent design''' ('''ID''') is a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] argument for the [[existence of God]], presented by its proponents as "an evidence-based [[scientific theory]] about life's origins".<ref name="Numbers 373">[[#Numbers 2006|Numbers 2006]], p. 373; "[ID] captured headlines for its bold attempt to rewrite the basic rules of science and its claim to have found indisputable evidence of a God-like being. Proponents, however, insisted it was 'not a religious-based idea, but instead an evidence-based scientific theory about life's origins – one that challenges strictly materialistic views of evolution.' Although the intellectual roots of the design argument go back centuries, its contemporary incarnation dates from the 1980s"</ref><ref name="Meyer 2005">{{cite news|last=Meyer|first=Stephen C.|url=http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/issuesideas/story.html?id=8f7f51f2-a196-4677-9399-46f4f17b5b61|title=Not by chance|date=December 1, 2005|newspaper=[[National Post]]|access-date=2014-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060501021540/http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/issuesideas/story.html?id=8f7f51f2-a196-4677-9399-46f4f17b5b61|archive-date=May 1, 2006|publisher=[[Canwest|CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc.]]|location=Don Mills, Ontario|author-link=Stephen C. Meyer}}</ref><ref name="Boudry 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Boudry |first1=Maarten |author-link1=Maarten Boudry |last2=Blancke |first2=Stefaan |last3=Braeckman |first3=Johan |author-link3=Johan Braeckman |date=December 2010 |title=Irreducible Incoherence and Intelligent Design: A Look into the Conceptual Toolbox of a Pseudoscience |journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=473–482 |doi=10.1086/656904 |pmid=21243965|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/952482/file/6828579.pdf |hdl=1854/LU-952482 |s2cid=27218269 |hdl-access=free }} Article available from [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/952482 Universiteit Gent]</ref><ref>[[#Pigliucci 2010|Pigliucci 2010]]</ref><ref>[[#Young & Edis 2004|Young & Edis 2004]] pp. 195-196, Section heading: But is it Pseudoscience?</ref> Proponents claim that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as [[natural selection]]."<ref name="DI-topquestions">{{cite web |url=https://www.discovery.org/id/faqs/#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign |author= |title=CSC – Frequently Asked Questions: Questions About Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design? |website=[[Center for Science and Culture]] |publisher=[[Discovery Institute]] |location=Seattle |access-date=2018-07-15}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ideacenter.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/393410a2d36e9b96329c2faff7e2a4df/miscdocs/intelligentdesigntheoryinanutshell.pdf |title=Intelligent Design Theory in a Nutshell |year=2004 |publisher=[[Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center]] |location=Seattle |access-date=2012-06-16}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org/ |title=Intelligent Design |website=[[Intelligent design network]] |location=Shawnee Mission, Kan. |publisher=Intelligent Design network, inc. |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> ID is a form of [[creationism]] that lacks empirical support and offers no testable or tenable hypotheses, and is therefore not science.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /><ref name="consensus" /><ref name="NatureMethods2007">{{cite journal |author= |date=December 2007 |title=An intelligently designed response |journal=[[Nature Methods]] |type=Editorial |volume=4 |issue=12 |page=983 |doi=10.1038/nmeth1207-983 |issn=1548-7091 |ref=Nature Methods 2007|doi-access=free }}</ref> The leading proponents of ID are associated with the [[Discovery Institute]], a Christian, politically conservative [[think tank]] based in the United States.<ref name="DI engine" group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm.html |title=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Trial transcript: Day 6 (October 5), PM Session, Part 1 |website=[[TalkOrigins Archive]] |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |access-date=2012-06-16 |quote=Q. Has the Discovery Institute been a leader in the intelligent design movement? A. Yes, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Q. And are almost all of the individuals who are involved with the intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute? A. All of the leaders are, yes.}} — [[Barbara Forrest]], 2005, testifying in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial.
* [[#Wilgoren 2005|Wilgoren 2005]], "...the institute's Center for Science and Culture has emerged in recent months as the ideological and strategic backbone behind the eruption of skirmishes over science in school districts and state capitals across the country."
* {{cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/religion-belief/frequently-asked-questions-about-intelligent-design |title=Frequently Asked Questions About 'Intelligent Design' |author= |date=September 16, 2005 |website=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |publisher=American Civil Liberties Union |location=New York |at=Who is behind the ID movement? |access-date=2012-06-16}}
* {{cite news |last=Kahn |first=Joseph P. |date=July 27, 2005 |title=The evolution of George Gilder |url=http://archive.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2005/07/27/the_evolution_of_george_gilder/ |newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite news |author= |date=November 2005 |title=WHO's WHO: Intelligent Design Proponents |url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?command=download&id=602 |format=PDF |journal=[[Science & Theology News]] |location=Durham, N.C. |publisher=Science & Theology News, Inc. |issn=1530-6410 |access-date=2007-07-20}}
* [[#Attie, et al. 2006|Attie, ''et al.'' 2006]], "The engine behind the ID movement is the Discovery Institute."</ref>

Although the phrase ''intelligent design'' had featured previously in [[theology|theological]] discussions of the [[Teleological argument|argument from design]],<ref name="Haught Witness Report" /> its first publication in its present use as an alternative term for creationism was in ''[[Of Pandas and People]]'',<ref name="Matzke" /><ref name="kitz31">
{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 31 of 139|Context, pp. 31–33]].

</ref> a 1989 creationist textbook intended for high school biology classes. The term was substituted into drafts of the book, directly replacing references to ''creation science'' and ''creationism'', after the 1987 [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]'s ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]'' decision barred the teaching of [[creation science]] in [[State school#United States|public schools]] on [[Separation of church and state in the United States|constitutional grounds]].<ref name="kitz21">
{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 32 of 139|Context, p. 32 ''ff'']], citing {{cite court
|litigants=Edwards v. Aguillard
|vol=482
|reporter=U.S.
|opinion=578
|year=1987
|url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/482/578.html
}}</ref> From the mid-1990s, the [[intelligent design movement]] (IDM), supported by the Discovery Institute,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/2190
|title=Media Backgrounder: Intelligent Design Article Sparks Controversy |author= |date=September 7, 2004 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite interview |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |interviewer=James M. Kushiner |title=Berkeley's Radical |url=http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-05-037-i |journal=[[Touchstone Magazine|Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity]] |publisher=Fellowship of St. James |location=Chicago |date=June 2002 |volume=15 |issue=5 |issn=0897-327X |access-date=2012-06-16 |ref=Johnson 2002}} Johnson interviewed in November 2000.
* {{cite news |last=Wilgoren |first=Jodi |date=August 21, 2005 |title=Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/national/21evolve.html?pagewanted=all |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2014-02-28 |ref=Wilgoren 2005}}
* [[#Downey 2006|Downey 2006]]
</ref> advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper">{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |title=Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Forrest |date=May 2007 |website=[[Center for Inquiry]] |publisher=Center for Inquiry |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=2007-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519124655/http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |archive-date=May 19, 2011 }}</ref> This led to the 2005 ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' trial, which found that intelligent design was not science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents," and that the public school district's promotion of it therefore violated the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]].<ref>
{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 69 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 69]] and [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 136 of 139|Curriculum, Conclusion, p. 136]].
</ref>

ID presents two main arguments against evolutionary explanations: [[irreducible complexity]] and [[specified complexity]], asserting that certain biological and informational features of living things are too complex to be the result of natural selection. Detailed scientific examination has rebutted several examples for which evolutionary explanations are claimed to be impossible.

ID seeks to challenge the [[methodological naturalism]] inherent in modern science,<ref name="Meyer 2005" /><ref name="discovery">{{cite magazine|last1=Meyer|first1=Stephen C.|last2=Nelson|first2=Paul A.|author-link2=Paul Nelson (creationist)|date=May 1, 1996|title=Getting Rid of the Unfair Rules|url=http://www.discovery.org/a/1685|magazine=Origins & Design|type=Book review|location=Colorado Springs, Colo.|publisher=[[Access Research Network]]|access-date=2007-05-20}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Johnson|first=Phillip E.|author-link=Phillip E. Johnson|date=May–June 1996|title=Third-Party Science|url=http://www.ctlibrary.com/bc/1996/mayjun/6b3030.html|magazine=[[Christianity Today|Books & Culture]]|type=Book review|volume=2|issue=3|access-date=2012-06-16|ref=Johnson 1996b|archive-date=2014-02-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219230949/http://www.ctlibrary.com/bc/1996/mayjun/6b3030.html|url-status=dead}} The review is reprinted in full by [https://web.archive.org/web/19990210082540/http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/ratzsch.htm Access Research Network] [archived February 10, 1999].
* {{cite book|last=Meyer|first=Stephen C.|title=Science and Evidence for Design in the Universe: Papers Presented at a Conference Sponsored by the Wethersfield Institute, New York City, September 25, 1999|publisher=[[Ignatius Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-89870-809-7|series=Proceedings of the Wethersfield Institute|volume=9|location=San Francisco|chapter=The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories|lccn=00102374|oclc=45720008|ref=Behe, Dembski & Meyer 2000|access-date=2014-12-01|chapter-url=http://www.discovery.org/a/1780}}
* {{Cite court|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|reporter=cv|vol=04|opinion=2688|date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 66 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 66]]
* {{Cite court|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|reporter=cv|vol=04|opinion=2688|date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 68 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 68]]. Lead defense expert Professor Behe admitted that his broadened definition of science, which encompasses ID, would also include astrology.
* See also {{cite news|last=Hanna|first=John|url=https://www.theguardian.com/worldlatest/story/0,,-6413677,00.html|title=Kansas Rewriting Science Standards|date=February 13, 2007|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2014-02-28|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216004715/http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0%2C%2C-6413677%2C00.html|archive-date=February 16, 2007|agency=[[Associated Press]]|location=London}}</ref> though proponents concede that they have yet to produce a scientific theory.<ref name="Giberson 2014">{{cite news|last=Giberson|first=Karl W.|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/21/my-debate-with-an-intelligent-design-theorist.html|title=My Debate With an 'Intelligent Design' Theorist|date=April 21, 2014|work=[[The Daily Beast]]|access-date=2014-05-14|publisher=[[The Newsweek Daily Beast Company]]|location=New York}}</ref> As a positive argument against evolution, ID proposes an analogy between natural systems and [[Cultural artifact|human artifacts]], a version of the theological argument from design for the [[existence of God]].<ref name="Numbers 373" /><ref name="kitzruling-IDandGod" group="n">{{cite court|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|reporter=cv|vol=04|opinion=2688|date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 24 of 139|Context, pp. 24–25]]. "the argument for ID is not a new scientific argument, but is rather an old religious argument for the existence of God. He traced this argument back to at least Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, who framed the argument as a syllogism: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer. ... ...[T]his argument for the existence of God was advanced early in the 19th century by Reverend Paley... [the teleological argument] The only apparent difference between the argument made by Paley and the argument for ID, as expressed by defense expert witnesses Behe and Minnich, is that ID's 'official position' does not acknowledge that the designer is God."</ref> ID proponents then conclude by analogy that the complex features, as defined by ID, are evidence of design.<ref name="SM 07" /><ref name="teachernet" group="n">
{{cite web|url=http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id=11890|title=Guidance on the place of creationism and intelligent design in science lessons|author=|website=Teachernet|publisher=[[Department for Children, Schools and Families]]|location=London|format=DOC|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20071104143905/http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id=11890|archive-date=November 4, 2007|access-date=2007-10-01|quote=The intelligent design movement claims there are aspects of the natural world that are so intricate and fit for purpose that they cannot have evolved but must have been created by an 'intelligent designer'. Furthermore they assert that this claim is scientifically testable and should therefore be taught in science lessons. Intelligent design lies wholly outside of science. Sometimes examples are quoted that are said to require an 'intelligent designer'. However, many of these have subsequently been shown to have a scientific explanation, for example, the immune system and blood clotting mechanisms. Attempts to establish an idea of the 'specified complexity' needed for intelligent design are surrounded by complex mathematics. Despite this, the idea seems to be essentially a modern version of the old idea of the 'God-of-the-gaps'. Lack of a satisfactory scientific explanation of some phenomena (a 'gap' in scientific knowledge) is claimed to be evidence of an intelligent designer.}}</ref> Critics of ID find a [[false dichotomy]] in the premise that evidence against [[evolution]] constitutes evidence for design.<ref name="Kitzmiller v p. 64">{{cite court|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|vol=04|reporter=cv|opinion=2688|date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#4. Whether ID is Science|Whether ID Is Science, p. 64]].</ref><ref name="reducibly complex mousetrap, Ussery">{{cite web |url=http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html |title=A reducibly complex mousetrap |last=McDonald |first=John H. |access-date=2014-02-28 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/~dave/Behe_text.html |title=A Biochemist's Response to 'The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution' |last=Ussery |first=David |date=December 1997 |type=Book review |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304090148/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/~dave/Behe_text.html |archive-date=March 4, 2014 }} Originally published in ''Bios'' (July 1998) 70:40–45.</ref>

==History==

===Origin of the concept===
{{See also|Creation science|Teleological argument|Watchmaker analogy}}
In 1910, evolution was not a topic of major religious controversy in America, but in the 1920s, the [[Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy]] in [[theology]] resulted in [[Christian fundamentalism|Fundamentalist Christian]] opposition to teaching evolution, and the origins of modern creationism.<ref name="PM 09" /> Teaching of evolution was effectively suspended in U.S. public schools until the 1960s, and when evolution was then reintroduced into the curriculum, there was a series of court cases in which attempts were made to get creationism taught alongside evolution in science classes. [[Young Earth creationism|Young Earth creationists]] (YEC) promoted creation science as "an alternative scientific explanation of the world in which we live". This frequently invoked the [[teleological argument|argument from design]] to explain complexity in nature as demonstrating the existence of God.<ref name="SM 07" />

The argument from design, also known as the teleological argument or "argument from intelligent design", has been advanced in theology for centuries.<ref name="Ayala 6">{{cite book |last=Ayala |first=Francisco J. |author-link=Francisco J. Ayala |year=2007 |title=Darwin's Gift to Science and Religion |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Joseph Henry Press]] |pages=6, 15–16, 138 |isbn=978-0-309-10231-5 |lccn=2007005821 |oclc=83609838 |ref=Ayala 2007}} Ayala writes that "Paley made the strongest possible case for intelligent design", and refers to "Intelligent Design: The Original Version" before discussing ID proponents reviving the argument from design with the pretence that it is scientific.</ref> It can be summarised briefly as "Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer." [[Thomas Aquinas]] presented it in his [[quinque viae|fifth proof]] of God's existence as a [[syllogism]].<ref name="kitzruling-IDandGod" group="n" /> In 1802, [[William Paley]]'s ''Natural Theology'' presented examples of intricate purpose in organisms. His version of the [[watchmaker analogy]] argued that, in the same way that a watch has evidently been designed by a craftsman, complexity and [[adaptation]] seen in nature must have been designed, and the perfection and diversity of these designs shows the designer to be omnipotent, the [[God in Christianity|Christian God]].<ref>[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]], pp. 60, 68–70, 242–245
* {{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 24 of 139|Context, pp. 24–25]].</ref> Like creation science, intelligent design centers on Paley's religious argument from design,<ref name="SM 07" /> but while Paley's natural theology was open to [[deism|deistic]] design through God-given laws, intelligent design seeks scientific confirmation of repeated miraculous interventions in the history of life.<ref name="PM 09" /> Creation science prefigured the intelligent design arguments of irreducible complexity, even featuring the bacterial [[flagellum]]. In the United States, attempts to introduce creation science in schools led to court rulings that it is religious in nature, and thus cannot be taught in public school science classrooms. Intelligent design is also presented as science, and shares other arguments with creation science but avoids literal [[Bible|Biblical]] references to such topics as the [[Genesis flood narrative|Flood]] story from the [[Book of Genesis]] or using [[Chronology of the Bible|Bible verses to age the Earth]].<ref name="SM 07" />

[[Barbara Forrest]] writes that the intelligent design movement began in 1984 with the book ''The Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing Current Theories'', co-written by creationist [[Charles Thaxton|Charles B. Thaxton]], a chemist, with two other authors, and published by Jon A. Buell's [[Foundation for Thought and Ethics]].<ref name="DarkSyde">{{cite interview |last=Forrest |first=Barbara C. |interviewer=Andrew Stephen |title=Know Your Creationists: Know Your Allies |url=http://www.dailykos.com/story/2006/03/11/193288/-Know-Your-Creationists-Know-Your-Allies |work=[[Daily Kos]] |publisher=Kos Media, LLC |location=Berkeley, Calif. |date=March 11, 2006 |oclc=59226519 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

In March 1986, [[Stephen C. Meyer]] published a review of the book, discussing how [[information theory]] could suggest that messages transmitted by [[DNA]] in the cell show "specified complexity" specified by intelligence, and must have originated with an intelligent agent.<ref name="meyermolo">{{cite magazine |last=Meyer |first=Stephen C. |date=March 1986 |title=We Are Not Alone |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/meyer/sm_notalone.htm |journal=Eternity |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Evangelical Foundation Inc. |issn=0014-1682 |access-date=2007-10-10}}</ref> He also argued that science is based upon "foundational assumptions" of naturalism that were as much a matter of faith as those of "creation theory".<ref name="Meyer Tenets 1986">{{cite journal | last=Meyer | first=Stephen C. | title=Scientific Tenets of Faith | journal=The Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 38, No. 1 | date=March 1986 | url=http://arn.org/docs/meyer/sm_scientifictenets.htm | access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> In November of that year, Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paley's argument from design.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.origins.org/articles/thaxton_dnadesign.html |title=DNA, Design and the Origin of Life |last=Thaxton |first=Charles B. |author-link=Charles Thaxton |date=November 13–16, 1986 |conference=Jesus Christ: God and Man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203913/http://www.origins.org/articles/thaxton_dnadesign.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |location=Dallas |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> At the "Sources of Information Content in DNA" conference which Thaxton held in 1988, he said that his intelligent cause view was compatible with both [[metaphysical naturalism]] and [[supernatural]]ism.<ref name="picshb" />

Intelligent design avoids identifying or naming the [[intelligent designer]]—it merely states that one (or more) must exist—but leaders of the movement have said the designer is the Christian God.<ref name="dembski_logos">{{cite magazine |last=Dembski |first=William A. |author-link=William A. Dembski |date=July–August 1999 |title=Signs of Intelligence: A Primer on the Discernment of Intelligent Design |url=http://touchstonemag.com/archives/issue.php?id=49 |magazine=Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity |location=Chicago |publisher=Fellowship of St. James |volume=12 |issue=4 |issn=0897-327X |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=...[I]ntelligent design is just the Logos theology of John's Gospel restated in the idiom of information theory.}}</ref><ref name="wedge2" group="n">''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District'', [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 26 of 139|pages 26–27]], "the writings of leading ID proponents reveal that the designer postulated by their argument is the God of Christianity." Examples include:
* {{cite news |last=Nickson |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Nickson |date=February 6, 2004 |title=Let's Be Intelligent about Darwin |url=http://elizabethnickson.com/darwin.htm |newspaper=[[National Post]] |type=Reprint |location=Toronto |publisher=Postmedia Network |issn=1486-8008 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228190939/http://elizabethnickson.com/darwin.htm |archive-date=December 28, 2013 }} — [[Phillip E. Johnson]] (2003)
* {{cite magazine |last=Grelen |first=Jay |date=November 30, 1996 |title=Witnesses for the prosecution |url=http://www.worldmag.com/1996/11/witnesses_for_the_prosecution |magazine=World |location=Asheville, N.C. |publisher=God's World Publications |volume=11 |issue=28 |page=18 |issn=0888-157X |access-date=2014-02-16 |quote=This isn't really, and never has been, a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy. }}
* [[#Johnson 2002|Johnson 2002]], "So the question is: How to win? That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the 'wedge' strategy: 'Stick with the most important thing'—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, 'Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?' and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do."</ref><ref group="n">{{cite episode |title=Doubting Darwin: The Marketing of Intelligent Design |url=http://digital.films.com/play/YTTF34 |access-date=2014-02-28 |series=[[Nightline]] |first=Koppel |last=Ted |author-link=Ted Koppel |network=[[American Broadcasting Company]] |location=New York |date=August 10, 2005 |quote=I think the designer is God ...}} — [[Stephen C. Meyer]]
* [[#Pearcey 2004|Pearcey 2004]], pp. 204–205, "By contrast, design theory demonstrates that Christians can sit in the supernaturalist's chair, even in their professional lives, seeing the cosmos through the lens of a comprehensive biblical worldview. Intelligent Design steps boldly into the scientific arena to build a case based on empirical data. It takes Christianity out of the ineffectual realm of value and stakes out a cognitive claim in the realm of objective truth. It restores Christianity to its status as genuine knowledge, equipping us to defend it in the public arena."</ref> Whether this lack of specificity about the designer's identity in public discussions is a genuine feature of the concept, or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from the teaching of science, has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design. The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case.

===Origin of the term===
{{See also|Timeline of intelligent design}}

Since the [[Middle Ages]], discussion of the religious "argument from design" or "teleological argument" in theology, with its concept of "intelligent design", has persistently referred to the theistic Creator God. Although ID proponents chose this provocative label for their proposed alternative to evolutionary explanations, they have de-emphasized their religious antecedents and denied that ID is [[natural theology]], while still presenting ID as supporting the argument for the existence of God.<ref name="Haught Witness Report">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/files/pub/legal/kitzmiller/expert_reports/2005-04-01_Haught_expert_report_P.pdf |title=Report of John F. Haught, Ph. D |last=Haught |first=John F. |author-link=John F. Haught |date=April 1, 2005 |access-date=2013-08-29}} Haught's expert report in ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District''.</ref><ref name="Dao">{{cite news|last=Dao |first=James |date=December 25, 2005 |title=2005: In a Word; Intelligent Design |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E6D81530F936A15751C1A9639C8B63 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2013-08-23 }} Dao states that the Discovery Institute said the phrase may have first been used by [[F. C. S. Schiller]]: his essay "Darwinism and Design", published in ''[[The Contemporary Review]]'' for June 1897, evaluated objections to "what has been called the Argument from Design" raised by [[natural selection]], and said "...it will not be possible to rule out the supposition that the process of Evolution may be guided by an intelligent design." [http://infomotions.com/etexts/archive/ia311518.us.archive.org/1/items/humanismphiloso00schiuoft/humanismphiloso00schiuoft_djvu.htm pp. 128, 141] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184445/http://infomotions.com/etexts/archive/ia311518.us.archive.org/1/items/humanismphiloso00schiuoft/humanismphiloso00schiuoft_djvu.htm |date=October 29, 2013 }}</ref>

While intelligent design proponents have pointed out past examples of the phrase ''intelligent design'' that they said were not creationist and faith-based, they have failed to show that these usages had any influence on those who introduced the label in the intelligent design movement.<ref name="Dao" /><ref name="Matzke 007">{{cite web |url=http://pandasthumb.org/archives/2007/08/the-true-origin.html |title=The true origin of 'intelligent design' |last=Matzke |first=Nick |date=August 14, 2007 |website=[[The Panda's Thumb (blog)|The Panda's Thumb]] |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |type=Blog |access-date=2012-07-03}}</ref><ref>Matzke gives as examples the August 21, 1847, issue of ''[[Scientific American]]'', and an 1861 letter in which [[Charles Darwin]] uses "intelligent Design" to denote [[John Herschel]]'s view that the overlapping changes of species found in geology had needed "intelligent direction":
* {{cite journal |author= |title=The Utility and Pleasures of Science |url=http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=scia;cc=scia;rgn=full%20text;idno=scia0002-48;didno=scia0002-48;view=image;seq=00383;node=scia0002-48%3A1 |journal=Scientific American |date=August 21, 1847 |volume=2 |issue=48 |page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924097312866&view=1up&seq=383&size=125&q1=intelligent%20design 381] |issn=0036-8733 |access-date=2012-06-16 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican08211847-381}} concludes that "objects" which "the great Author" has supplied in "the great store-house of nature" give "evidence of infinite skill and intelligent design in their adaptation".
* {{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-3154 |title=Darwin, C. R. to Herschel, J. F. W. |last=Darwin |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Darwin |date=May 23, 1861 |website=[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin#Darwin Correspondence Project website|Darwin Correspondence Project]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Library]] |location=Cambridge, UK |id=Letter 3154 |access-date=2014-02-28}}, discussing a footnote Herschel had added in January 1861 to his ''Physical Geology'' (see footnotes to [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=235&itemID=F1548.1&viewtype=side pp. 190–191] in Francis Darwin's ''Life and Letters''.)
* {{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/8931 |last=Luskin |first=Casey |date=September 8, 2008 |title=A Brief History of Intelligent Design |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2012-07-08}} Luskin quotes examples of use of the phrase by [[F. C. S. Schiller]] and [[Fred Hoyle]].</ref>

Variations on the phrase appeared in Young Earth creationist publications: a 1967 book co-written by [[Percival Davis]] referred to "design according to which basic organisms were created". In 1970, [[A. E. Wilder-Smith]] published ''The Creation of Life: A Cybernetic Approach to Evolution'' which defended Paley's design argument with computer calculations of the improbability of genetic sequences, which he said could not be explained by evolution but required "the abhorred necessity of divine intelligent activity behind nature", and that "the same problem would be expected to beset the relationship between the designer behind nature and the intelligently designed part of nature known as man." In a 1984 article as well as in his affidavit to ''Edwards v. Aguillard'', [[Dean H. Kenyon]] defended creation science by stating that "biomolecular systems require intelligent design and engineering know-how", citing Wilder-Smith. Creationist Richard B. Bliss used the phrase "creative design" in ''Origins: Two Models: Evolution, Creation'' (1976), and in ''Origins: Creation or Evolution'' (1988) wrote that "while evolutionists are trying to find non-intelligent ways for life to occur, the creationist insists that an intelligent design must have been there in the first place."<ref name="Forrest expert report">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/files/pub/legal/kitzmiller/expert_reports/2005_04_01_Forrest_expert_report_P.pdf |title=Expert Witness Report |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |date=April 1, 2005 |access-date=2013-05-30}} Forrest's expert report in ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District''.</ref><ref name="Elsberry Dec96">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Enterprising.cfm |title=Enterprising Science Needs Naturalism |last=Elsberry |first=Wesley R. |author-link=Wesley R. Elsberry |date=December 5, 1996 |website=Talk Reason |access-date=2013-08-23}}</ref> The first systematic use of the term, defined in a glossary and claimed to be other than creationism, was in ''Of Pandas and People'', co-authored by Davis and Kenyon.<ref name="Matzke 007" />

====''Of Pandas and People''====
{{Main|Of Pandas and People}}
[[File:Pandas text analysis.png|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Use of the terms "creationism" versus "intelligent design" in sequential drafts of the book ''Of Pandas and People''.<ref name="Matzke" />]]
The most common modern use of the words "intelligent design" as a term intended to describe a field of inquiry began after the United States Supreme Court ruled in June 1987 in the case of ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]'' that it is [[Constitutionality#Unconstitutional laws in the United States|unconstitutional]] for a state to require the teaching of creationism in public school science curricula.<ref name="Matzke" />

A Discovery Institute report says that Charles B. Thaxton, editor of ''Pandas'', had picked the phrase up from a [[NASA]] scientist, and thought, "That's just what I need, it's a good engineering term."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evolutionnews.org/2005/12/post_6001764.html |title=Dover Judge Regurgitates Mythological History of Intelligent Design |last=Witt |first=Jonathan |date=December 20, 2005 |website=Evolution News & Views |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> In two successive 1987 drafts of the book, over one hundred uses of the root word "creation", such as "creationism" and "Creation Science", were changed, almost without exception, to "intelligent design",<ref name=kitz31/> while "creationists" was changed to "design proponents" or, in one instance, "[[cdesign proponentsists]]"{{sic}}.<ref name="Matzke">{{cite journal |last=Matzke |first=Nick |author-link=Nick Matzke |date=January–April 2006 |title=Design on Trial: How NCSE Helped Win the ''Kitzmiller'' Case |url=http://ncse.com/rncse/26/1-2/design-trial |journal=Reports of the National Center for Science Education |volume=26 |issue=1–2 |pages=37–44 |issn=2158-818X |access-date=2009-11-18 |ref=Matzke 2006a}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www2.ncseweb.org/wp/?p=80 |title=Missing Link discovered! |last=Matzke |first=Nick |date=November 7, 2005 |website=Evolution Education and the Law |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |type=Blog |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114121029/http://www2.ncseweb.org/wp/?p=80 |archive-date=January 14, 2007 |access-date=2009-11-18}}</ref> In June 1988, Thaxton held a conference titled "Sources of Information Content in DNA" in [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]].<ref name=picshb>{{cite conference |url=http://www.leaderu.com/offices/thaxton/docs/inpursuit.html |title=In Pursuit of Intelligent Causes: Some Historical Background |last=Thaxton |first=Charles B. |date=June 24–26, 1988 |conference=Sources of Information Content in DNA |location=Tacoma, Wash. |oclc=31054528 |access-date=2007-10-06}} Revised July 30, 1988, and May 6, 1991.</ref> Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference, and later recalled that "The term ''intelligent design'' came up..."<ref name="Safire 05">{{cite news |last=Safire |first=William |author-link=William Safire |date=August 21, 2005 |title=Neo-Creo |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/magazine/21ONLANGUAGE.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> In December 1988 Thaxton decided to use the label "intelligent design" for his new creationist movement.<ref name="DarkSyde" />

''Of Pandas and People'' was published in 1989, and in addition to including all the current arguments for ID, was the first book to make systematic use of the terms "intelligent design" and "design proponents" as well as the phrase "design theory", defining the term ''intelligent design'' in a glossary and representing it as not being creationism. It thus represents the start of the modern [[intelligent design movement]].<ref name="Matzke" /><ref name="Matzke 007" /><ref name="pandafounds">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/analysis/critique-pandas-people |title=Critique: 'Of Pandas and People' |last=Matzke |first=Nick |date=November 23, 2004 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |type=Blog |access-date=2007-09-24}}</ref> "Intelligent design" was the most prominent of around fifteen new terms it introduced as a new lexicon of creationist terminology to oppose evolution without using religious language.<ref name="Aulie">{{cite web|url=http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/archive/design/aulie_of-pandas.html |title=A Reader's Guide to Of Pandas and People |last=Aulie |first=Richard P. |author-link=Richard P. Aulie |year=1998 |publisher=[[National Association of Biology Teachers]] |location=McLean, Va. |access-date=2007-10-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306082532/http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/archive/design/aulie_of-pandas.html |archive-date=March 6, 2014 }}</ref> It was the first place where the phrase "intelligent design" appeared in its primary present use, as stated both by its publisher Jon A. Buell,<ref name="SM 07">{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Eugenie C. |author-link1=Eugenie Scott |last2=Matzke |first2=Nicholas J. |author-link2=Nick Matzke |date=May 15, 2007 |title=Biological design in science classrooms |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=104 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=8669–8676 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8669S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701505104 |pmc=1876445 |pmid=17494747 |doi-access=free }} [http://www.pnas.org/content/104/suppl_1/8669.abstract abstract]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2005/10/i_guess_id_real.html |title=I guess ID really was 'Creationism's Trojan Horse' after all |last=Matzke |first=Nick |date=October 13, 2005 |website=The Panda's Thumb |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |type=Blog |access-date=2009-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624124225/http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2005/10/i_guess_id_real.html |archive-date=June 24, 2008 }}</ref> and by [[William A. Dembski]] in his expert witness report for ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District''.<ref name="Dembski Witness Report">{{cite web |last=Dembski |first=William A. |url=http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.09.Expert_Report_Dembski.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20050930230119/http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.09.Expert_Report_Dembski.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 30, 2005 |title=Expert Witness Report: The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design |date=March 29, 2005 |access-date=2009-06-02 }} Dembski's expert report in ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District''.</ref>

The [[National Center for Science Education]] (NCSE) has criticized the book for presenting all of the basic arguments of intelligent design proponents and being actively promoted for use in public schools before any research had been done to support these arguments.<ref name=pandafounds/> Although presented as a scientific textbook, philosopher of science [[Michael Ruse]] considers the contents "worthless and dishonest".<ref>[[#Hughes 1992|Ruse 1992]], p. 41</ref> An [[American Civil Liberties Union]] lawyer described it as a political tool aimed at students who did not "know science or understand the controversy over evolution and creationism". One of the authors of the science framework used by California schools, [[Kevin Padian]], condemned it for its "sub-text", "intolerance for honest science" and "incompetence".<ref name="RethinkingSchools">{{cite magazine |last=Lynn |first=Leon |date=Winter 1997–1998 |title=Creationists Push Pseudo-Science Text |url=http://www.rethinkingschools.org/restrict.asp?path=archive/12_02/panda.shtml |magazine=Rethinking Schools |location=Milwaukee |publisher=Rethinking Schools, Ltd. |volume=12 |issue=2 |issn=0895-6855 |access-date=2009-02-08 |archive-date=2016-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826233505/http://www.rethinkingschools.org/restrict.asp?path=archive%2F12_02%2Fpanda.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Concepts==

===Irreducible complexity===
{{Main|Irreducible complexity}}
[[Image:MichaelBehe.jpg|thumbnail|right|The concept of [[irreducible complexity]] was popularised by [[Michael Behe]] in his 1996 book, ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]''.]]
The term "irreducible complexity" was introduced by biochemist [[Michael Behe]] in his 1996 book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', though he had already described the concept in his contributions to the 1993 revised edition of ''Of Pandas and People''.<ref name="pandafounds" /> Behe defines it as "a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apologetics.org/MolecularMachines/tabid/99/Default.aspx |title=Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference |last=Behe |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Behe |year=1997 |website=Apologetics.org |publisher=The Apologetics Group;[[Trinity College (Florida)|Trinity College of Florida]] |location=Trinity, Fla. |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801101947/http://www.apologetics.org/MolecularMachines/tabid/99/Default.aspx |archive-date=August 1, 2012 }} "This paper was originally presented in the Summer of 1994 at the meeting of the C.S. Lewis Society, Cambridge University."</ref>

Behe uses the analogy of a mousetrap to illustrate this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces—the base, the catch, the spring and the hammer—all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. Removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems, because the selectable function is present only when all parts are assembled. Behe argued that irreducibly complex biological mechanisms include the bacterial flagellum of ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'', the [[Coagulation|blood clotting cascade]], [[Cilium|cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].<ref>Irreducible complexity of these examples is disputed; see {{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 76 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, pp. 76–78]], and [[Kenneth R. Miller]]'s January 3, 2006, lecture at [[Case Western Reserve University]]'s Strosacker Auditorium, {{YouTube|id=Ohd5uqzlwsU|title="The Collapse of Intelligent Design: Will the Next Monkey Trial be in Ohio?"}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html |title=The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of 'Irreducible Complexity' |last=Miller |first=Kenneth R. |website=Biology by Miller & Levine |publisher=Miller and Levine Biology |location=Rehoboth, Mass. |access-date=2014-02-28}} "This is a pre-publication copy of an article that appeared in 'Debating Design from Darwin to DNA,' edited by [[Michael Ruse]] and William Dembski."</ref>

Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary and therefore could not have been added sequentially.<ref name="reducibly complex mousetrap, Ussery" /> They argue that something that is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary as other components change. Furthermore, they argue, evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system, rather than by adding them. This is sometimes called the "scaffolding objection" by an analogy with scaffolding, which can support an "irreducibly complex" building until it is complete and able to stand on its own.<ref group="n">{{cite journal |last1=Bridgham |first1=Jamie T. |last2=Carroll |first2=Sean M. |last3=Thornton |first3=Joseph W. |author-link3=Joseph Thornton (biologist) |date=April 7, 2006 |title=Evolution of Hormone-Receptor Complexity by Molecular Exploitation |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/312/5770/97.abstract |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=312 |issue=5770 |pages=97–101 |bibcode=2006Sci...312...97B |doi=10.1126/science.1123348 |pmid=16601189 |s2cid=9662677 |access-date=2014-02-28}} Bridgham, ''et al.'', showed that gradual evolutionary mechanisms can produce complex protein-protein interaction systems from simpler precursors.</ref>
Behe has acknowledged using "sloppy prose", and that his "argument against [[Darwinism]] does not add up to a logical proof."<ref group="n">[[#Orr 2005|Orr 2005]]. This article draws from the following exchange of letters in which Behe admits to sloppy prose and non-logical proof:
* {{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/1406 |title=Has Darwin Met His Match? – Letters: An Exchange Over ID |last1=Behe |first1=Michael |author-link1=Michael Behe |last2=Dembski |first2=William A. |last3=Wells |first3=Jonathan |author-link3=Jonathan Wells (intelligent design advocate) |last4=Nelson |first4=Paul A. |author-link4=Paul Nelson (creationist) |last5=Berlinski |first5=David |author-link5=David Berlinski |date=March 26, 2003 |website=[[Center for Science and Culture]] |publisher=[[Discovery Institute]] |location=Seattle |type=Reprint |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> Irreducible complexity has remained a popular argument among advocates of intelligent design; in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Dover trial]], the court held that "Professor Behe's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large."<ref name="Kitzmiller v p. 64" />

===Specified complexity===
{{Main|Specified complexity}}
In 1986, Charles B. Thaxton, a physical chemist and creationist, used the term "specified complexity" from [[information theory]] when claiming that messages transmitted by DNA in the cell were specified by intelligence, and must have originated with an intelligent agent.<ref name="meyermolo" />
The intelligent design concept of "specified complexity" was developed in the 1990s by mathematician, philosopher, and theologian [[William A. Dembski]].<ref name="Time-15-Aug-2005">{{cite news |last=Wallis |first=Claudia |date=August 7, 2005 |title=The Evolution Wars |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1090909-3,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070114131252/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1090909-3,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 14, 2007 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |location=New York |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |access-date=2011-10-22}}</ref> Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity (i.e., is both complex and "specified", simultaneously), one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes. He provides the following examples: "A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A [[Sonnet#English (Shakespearean) sonnet|Shakespearean sonnet]] is both complex and specified."<ref>[[#Dembski 1999|Dembski 1999]], p. 47</ref> He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the "patterns" of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as DNA.

[[Image:Dembski head shot.jpg|thumbnail|left|upright|[[William A. Dembski]] proposed the concept of specified complexity.<ref>Photograph of William A. Dembski taken at lecture given at [[University of California, Berkeley]], March 17, 2006.</ref>|alt=]]
Dembski defines [[complex specified information]] (CSI) as anything with a less than 1 in 10150 chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a [[Tautology (rhetoric)|tautology]]: complex specified information cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fitelson |first1=Branden |last2=Stephens |first2=Christopher |last3=Sober |first3=Elliott |author-link3=Elliott Sober |date=September 1999 |title=How Not to Detect Design |url=http://sober.philosophy.wisc.edu/selected-papers/ID-1999-HowNotToDetectDesign_DembskiReview.pdf?attredirects=0 |format=PDF |journal=[[Philosophy of Science (journal)|Philosophy of Science]] |type=Book review |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=472–488 |issn=0031-8248 |jstor=188598 |access-date=2014-02-28 |doi=10.1086/392699|s2cid=11079658 }}</ref><ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/dembski/wd_anotherwaytodetectdesign.htm |title=Another Way to Detect Design? |last=Dembski |first=William A. |author-link=William A. Dembski |year=2001 |website=Metanexus |publisher=[[Metanexus Institute]] |location=New York |access-date=2012-06-16}} This is a "three part lecture series entitled 'Another Way to Detect Design' which contains William Dembski's response to Fitelson, Stephens, and Sober whose article 'How Not to Detect Design' ran on Metanexus:Views (2001.09.14, 2001.09.21, and 2001.09.28). These lectures were first made available online at Metanexus: The Online Forum on Religion and Science http://www.metanexus.net. This is from three keynote lectures delivered October 5–6, 2001 at the Society of Christian Philosopher's meeting at the University of Colorado, Boulder."</ref><ref name="Wein">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/design/faqs/nfl/ |title=Not a Free Lunch But a Box of Chocolates: A critique of William Dembski's book ''No Free Lunch'' |last=Wein |first=Richard |year=2002 |website=[[TalkOrigins Archive]] |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref>

The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument has been discredited in the scientific and mathematical communities.<ref name="talkorigins.org, math.jmu.edu">{{cite web |last=Baldwin |first=Rich |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/information/dembski.html |title=Information Theory and Creationism: William Dembski |date=July 14, 2005 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |access-date=2012-06-16}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosenhouse |first=Jason |author-link=Jason Rosenhouse |date=Fall 2001 |title=How Anti-Evolutionists Abuse Mathematics |url=http://educ.jmu.edu/~rosenhjd/sewell.pdf |journal=[[The Mathematical Intelligencer]] |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=3–8 |doi=10.1007/bf03024593 |s2cid=189888286 |oclc=3526661 |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref><ref name="Perakh2005a">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/newmath.cfm |title=Dembski 'displaces Darwinism' mathematically – or does he? |last=Perakh |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Perakh |date=March 18, 2005 |website=Talk Reason |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields, as Dembski asserts. John Wilkins and [[Wesley R. Elsberry]] characterize Dembski's "explanatory filter" as ''eliminative'' because it eliminates explanations sequentially: first regularity, then chance, finally defaulting to design. They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkins |first1=John S. |last2=Elsberry |first2=Wesley R. |date=November 2001 |title=The Advantages of Theft over Toil: The Design Inference and Arguing from Ignorance |url=http://www.talkdesign.org/cs/theft_over_toil |journal=[[Biology and Philosophy]] |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=709–722 |doi=10.1023/A:1012282323054 |s2cid=170765232 |issn=0169-3867 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

[[Richard Dawkins]], another critic of intelligent design, argues in ''[[The God Delusion]]'' (2006) that allowing for an intelligent designer to account for unlikely complexity only postpones the problem, as such a designer would need to be at least as complex.<ref>[[#Dawkins 2006|Dawkins 2006]]</ref> Other scientists have argued that evolution through selection is better able to explain the observed complexity, as is evident from the use of selective evolution to design certain electronic, aeronautic and automotive systems that are considered problems too complex for human "intelligent designers".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marks |first=Paul |date=July 28, 2007 |title=Evolutionary algorithms now surpass human designers |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526146.000-evolutionary-algorithms-now-surpass-human-designers.html |journal=[[New Scientist]] |issue=2614 |pages=26–27 |issn=0262-4079 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

===Fine-tuned universe===
{{Main|Fine-tuned universe}}
Intelligent design proponents have also occasionally appealed to broader teleological arguments outside of biology, most notably an argument based on the [[Fine-tuned universe|fine-tuning of universal constants]] that make matter and life possible and that are argued not to be solely attributable to chance. These include the values of [[Dimensionless physical constant|fundamental physical constants]], the relative strength of [[nuclear force]]s, [[electromagnetism]], and [[Gravitation|gravity]] between [[Elementary particle|fundamental particles]], as well as the ratios of masses of such particles. Intelligent design proponent and Center for Science and Culture fellow [[Guillermo Gonzalez (astronomer)|Guillermo Gonzalez]] argues that if any of these values were even slightly different, the universe would be dramatically different, making it impossible for many [[chemical element]]s and features of the [[Universe]], such as [[galaxy|galaxies]], to form.<ref>[[#Gonzalez 2004|Gonzalez 2004]]</ref> Thus, proponents argue, an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome.

Scientists have generally responded that these arguments are poorly supported by existing evidence.<ref>[[#Stenger 2011|Stenger 2011]], p. 243</ref><ref>[[#Susskind 2005|Susskind 2005]]</ref> [[Victor J. Stenger]] and other critics say both intelligent design and the [[Anthropic principle#Variants|weak form]] of the [[anthropic principle]] are essentially a [[Tautology (logic)|tautology]]; in his view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the Universe is able to support life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/vstenger/Cosmo/FineTune.pdf |title=Is The Universe Fine-Tuned For Us? |last=Stenger |first=Victor J |author-link=Victor J. Stenger |website=Victor J. Stenger |publisher=University of Colorado |location=Boulder, Colo. |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716192004/http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/vstenger/Cosmo/FineTune.pdf |archive-date=July 16, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/vstenger/Cosmo/ant_encyc.pdf |title=The Anthropic Principle |last=Stenger |first=Victor J |author-link=Victor J. Stenger|website=Victor J. Stenger |publisher=University of Colorado |location=Boulder, Colo. |access-date=2012-06-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617015335/http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/vstenger/Cosmo/ant_encyc.pdf |archive-date=June 17, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Silk |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Silk |date=September 14, 2006 |title=Our place in the Multiverse |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=443 |issue=7108 |pages=145–146 |bibcode=2006Natur.443..145S |doi=10.1038/443145a |issn=0028-0836 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an [[Argument from ignorance#Argument from incredulity/Lack of imagination|argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible. Life as we know it might not exist if things were different, but a different sort of life might exist in its place. A number of critics also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable.<ref>[[#Huchingson 1993|Feinberg & Shapiro 1993]], "A Puddlian Fable", pp. 220–221</ref>

===Intelligent designer===
{{Main|Intelligent designer}}

The contemporary intelligent design movement formulates its arguments in [[secular]] terms and intentionally avoids identifying the intelligent agent (or agents) they posit. Although they do not state that God is the designer, the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a god could intervene. Dembski, in ''[[The Design Inference]]'' (1998), speculates that an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]] culture could fulfill these requirements. ''Of Pandas and People'' proposes that [[Search for extraterrestrial intelligence|SETI]] illustrates an appeal to intelligent design in science. In 2000, philosopher of science [[Robert T. Pennock]] suggested the [[Raëlian beliefs and practices|Raëlian]] [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]] religion as a real-life example of an extraterrestrial intelligent designer view that "make[s] many of the same bad arguments against evolutionary theory as creationists".<ref>[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]], pp. 229–229, 233–242</ref> The authoritative description of intelligent design,<ref name="DI-topquestions" /> however, explicitly states that the ''Universe'' displays features of having been designed. Acknowledging the [[paradox]], Dembski concludes that "no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/119 |title=The Act of Creation: Bridging Transcendence and Immanence |last=Dembski |first=William A. |date=August 10, 1998 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-02-28}} "Presented at Millstatt Forum, Strasbourg, France, 10 August 1998."</ref> The leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the Christian God, to the exclusion of all other religions.<ref name="dembski_logos" />

Beyond the debate over whether intelligent design is scientific, a number of critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely, irrespective of its status in the world of science. For example, [[Jerry Coyne]] asks why a designer would "give us a pathway for making [[vitamin C]], but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes" (see [[pseudogene]]) and why a designer would not "stock oceanic islands with reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and freshwater fish, despite the suitability of such islands for these species". Coyne also points to the fact that "the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland, even when the environments are very different" as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer.<ref name="CoyneTNR">{{cite magazine |last=Coyne |first=Jerry |author-link=Jerry Coyne |date=August 22, 2005 |title=The Case Against Intelligent Design: The Faith That Dare Not Speak Its Name |url=http://www.edge.org/conversation/the-case-against-intelligent-design |magazine=[[The New Republic]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> Previously, in ''Darwin's Black Box'', Behe had argued that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer's motives, so such questions cannot be answered definitively. Odd designs could, for example, "...have been placed there by the designer for a reason—for artistic reasons, for variety, to show off, for some as-yet-undetected practical purpose, or for some unguessable reason—or they might not."<ref name="odd_design">[[#Behe 1996|Behe 1996]], p. 221</ref> Coyne responds that in light of the evidence, "either life resulted not from intelligent design, but from evolution; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved."<ref name="CoyneTNR" />

Intelligent design proponents such as [[Paul Nelson (creationist)|Paul Nelson]] avoid the [[Argument from poor design|problem of poor design in nature]] by insisting that we have simply failed to understand the perfection of the design. Behe cites Paley as his inspiration, but he differs from Paley's expectation of a perfect Creation and proposes that designers do not necessarily produce the best design they can. Behe suggests that, like a parent not wanting to spoil a child with extravagant toys, the designer can have multiple motives for not giving priority to excellence in engineering. He says that "Another problem with the argument from imperfection is that it critically depends on a psychoanalysis of the unidentified designer. Yet the reasons that a designer would or would not do anything are virtually impossible to know unless the designer tells you specifically what those reasons are."<ref name="odd_design" /> This reliance on inexplicable motives of the designer makes intelligent design scientifically untestable. Retired [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] law professor, author and intelligent design advocate [[Phillip E. Johnson]] puts forward a core definition that the designer creates for a purpose, giving the example that in his view [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] was created to punish immorality and [[HIV/AIDS denialism|is not caused by HIV]], but such motives cannot be tested by scientific methods.<ref name="Pennock 245">[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]], pp. 245–249, 265, 296–300</ref>

Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question "What designed the designer?"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/philosop/empty.htm |title=Intelligent Design: The Glass is Empty |last=Simanek |first=Donald E. |date=February 2006 |website=Donald Simanek's Pages |publisher=[[Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania]] |location=Lock Haven, PA |access-date=2012-06-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714082248/http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/philosop/empty.htm |archive-date=2012-07-14 }}</ref> Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design.<ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1147 |title=FAQ: Who designed the designer? |author= |website=[[Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center]] |publisher=Casey Luskin; IDEA Center |location=Seattle |type=Short answer |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=One need not fully understand the origin or identity of the designer to determine that an object was designed. Thus, this question is essentially irrelevant to intelligent design theory, which merely seeks to detect if an object was designed.... Intelligent design theory cannot address the identity or origin of the designer—it is a philosophical / religious question that lies outside the domain of scientific inquiry. Christianity postulates the religious answer to this question that the designer is God who by definition is eternally existent and has no origin. There is no logical philosophical impossibility with this being the case (akin to [[Aristotle]]'s 'unmoved mover') as a religious answer to the origin of the designer.}}</ref> Richard Wein counters that "...scientific explanations often create new unanswered questions. But, in assessing the value of an explanation, these questions are not irrelevant. They must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides. Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings (ourselves) is little more than [[Begging the question|question-begging]]. The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer."<ref name="Wein" /> [[Richard Dawkins]] sees the assertion that the designer does not need to be explained as a [[Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism#Thought-terminating cliché|thought-terminating cliché]].<ref name="Rosenhouse">{{cite web |url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/who_designed_the_designer/ |title=Who Designed the Designer? |last=Rosenhouse |first=Jason |date=November 3, 2006 |website=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] |series=Intelligent Design Watch |location=Amherst, N.Y. |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref>[[#Dawkins 1986|Dawkins 1986]], p. 141</ref> In the absence of observable, measurable evidence, the very question "What designed the designer?" leads to an [[turtles all the way down|infinite regression]] from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction.<ref>See for example {{cite web |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/050927voices_pseudoscience |title=Intelligent design is pseudoscience |last=Manson |first=Joseph |date=September 27, 2005 |work=UCLA Today |access-date=2014-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515090423/http://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/050927voices_pseudoscience |archive-date=May 15, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Movement==
{{Main|Intelligent design movement}}
[[Image:Creación de Adám.jpg|thumb|left|The Discovery Institute's Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture used banners based on ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'' from the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling|Sistine Chapel]]. Later it used a less religious image, then was renamed the [[Center for Science and Culture]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/general/evolving-banners-at-discovery-institute |title=Evolving Banners at the Discovery Institute |date=August 28, 2002 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |access-date=2007-10-07}}</ref>]]

The intelligent design movement is a direct outgrowth of the creationism of the 1980s.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /> The scientific and academic communities, along with a U.S. federal court, view intelligent design as either a form of creationism or as a direct descendant that is closely intertwined with traditional creationism;<ref name="harvard">{{cite journal |last=Mu |first=David |date=Fall 2005 |title=Trojan Horse or Legitimate Science: Deconstructing the Debate over Intelligent Design |url=http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hsr/wp-content/themes/hsr/pdf/fall2005/mu.pdf |journal=[[Harvard College#Publications and media|Harvard Science Review]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=22–25 |access-date=2014-02-28 |ref=Mu 2005 |quote=...for most members of the mainstream scientific community, ID is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience.}}</ref><ref name="NSTA" /><ref>{{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 136 of 139|Curriculum, Conclusion, p. 136]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wise |first=Donald U. |date=January 2001 |title=Creationism's Propaganda Assault on Deep Time and Evolution |url=http://nagt.org/nagt/jge/abstracts/jan01.html |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=30–35 |issn=1089-9995 |access-date=2014-02-28|bibcode=2001JGeEd..49...30W |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-49.1.30 |s2cid=152260926 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Marcus R. |author-link=Marcus R. Ross |date=May 2005 |title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism |url=https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/bio_chem_fac_pubs/79 |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=319–323 |issn=1089-9995 |access-date=2012-06-16|bibcode=2005JGeEd..53..319R |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-53.3.319 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.1340 |s2cid=14208021 }}</ref><ref>[[#Numbers 2006|Numbers 2006]]</ref> and several authors explicitly refer to it as "intelligent design creationism".<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /><ref>[[#Forrest & Gross 2004|Forrest & Gross 2004]]</ref><ref group="n">
[[#Pennock 2001|Pennock 2001]], "Wizards of ID: Reply to Dembski", pp. 645–667, "Dembski chides me for never using the term 'intelligent design' without conjoining it to 'creationism'. He implies (though never explicitly asserts) that he and others in his movement are not creationists and that it is incorrect to discuss them in such terms, suggesting that doing so is merely a rhetorical ploy to 'rally the troops'. (2) Am I (and the many others who see Dembski's movement in the same way) misrepresenting their position? The basic notion of creationism is the rejection of biological evolution in favor of special creation, where the latter is understood to be supernatural. Beyond this there is considerable variability..."</ref><ref>[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=Eugenie C. |author-link=Eugenie Scott |date=July–August 1999 |title=The Creation/Evolution Continuum |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/general/creationevolution-continuum |journal=Reports of the National Center for Science Education |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=16–17, 23–25 |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* [[#Scott 2004|Scott 2004]]</ref>

The movement is headquartered in the Center for Science and Culture, established in 1996 as the creationist wing of the [[Discovery Institute]] to promote a religious agenda<ref name=wedge_doc group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.pdf |title=The Wedge |year=1999 |publisher=[[Center for Science and Culture|Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture]] |location=Seattle |quote=The social consequences of materialism have been devastating. As symptoms, those consequences are certainly worth treating. However, we are convinced that in order to defeat materialism, we must cut it off at its source. That source is ''scientific'' materialism. This is precisely our strategy. If we view the predominant materialistic science as a giant tree, our strategy is intended to function as a 'wedge' that, while relatively small, can split the trunk when applied at its weakest points. The very beginning of this strategy, the 'thin edge of the wedge,' was Phillip Johnson's critique of Darwinism begun in 1991 in ''Darwinism on Trial'', and continued in ''Reason in the Balance'' and ''Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds''. Michael Behe's highly successful ''Darwin's Black Box'' followed Johnson's work. We are building on this momentum, broadening the wedge with a positive scientific alternative to materialistic scientific theories, which has come to be called the theory of intelligent design (ID). Design theory promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions. |access-date=2014-05-31}}</ref> calling for broad social, academic and political changes. The [[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns|Discovery Institute's intelligent design campaigns]] have been staged primarily in the United States, although efforts have been made in other countries to promote intelligent design. Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the secular philosophy of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]]. Intelligent design proponents allege that science should not be limited to naturalism and should not demand the adoption of a naturalistic philosophy that dismisses out-of-hand any explanation that includes a [[supernatural]] cause. The overall goal of the movement is to "reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist [[World view|worldview]]" represented by the theory of evolution in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions".<ref name=wedge_doc group="n" />

Phillip E. Johnson stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast creationism as a scientific concept.<ref name=wedge2 group="n" /><ref name=PJC group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp |title=How The Evolution Debate Can Be Won |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E |author-link=Phillip E. Johnson |website=[[D. James Kennedy|Coral Ridge Ministries]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107005414/http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp |publisher=Coral Ridge Ministries |location=Fort Lauderdale, Fla. |archive-date=November 7, 2007 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science. [...] Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? [...] I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.}} — Johnson, "Reclaiming America for Christ Conference" (1999)</ref> All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its Center for Science and Culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discovery.org/id/about/fellows/ |title=Fellows |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2018-07-15}}</ref> Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute, which guides the movement and follows its [[wedge strategy]] while conducting its "[[Teach the Controversy]]" campaign and their other related programs.

Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design. In statements directed at the general public, they say intelligent design is not religious; when addressing conservative Christian supporters, they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the Bible.<ref name=PJC group="n" /> Recognizing the need for support, the Institute affirms its Christian, evangelistic orientation:

{{Quote|Alongside a focus on influential opinion-makers, we also seek to build up a popular base of support among our natural constituency, namely, Christians. We will do this primarily through apologetics seminars. We intend these to encourage and equip believers with new scientific evidences that support the faith, as well as to "popularize" our ideas in the broader culture.<ref name=wedge_doc group="n" />}}

[[Barbara Forrest]], an expert who has written extensively on the movement, describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute's obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy. She has written that the movement's "activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious worldview that undergirds it."<ref>[[#Forrest 2001|Forrest 2001]], {{cite web |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Wedge.cfm |title=The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism Is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905230611/http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Wedge.cfm |archive-date=September 5, 2014 }}</ref>

===Religion and leading proponents===
Although arguments for intelligent design by the intelligent design movement are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer,<ref name=IDstatementOnCreator group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?command=download&id=565 |title=Does intelligent design postulate a "supernatural creator? |author= |website=Discovery Institute |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |id=Truth Sheet # 09-05 |access-date=2007-07-19 |quote=...intelligent design does not address metaphysical and religious questions such as the nature or identity of the designer. [...] '...the nature, moral character and purposes of this intelligence lie beyond the competence of science and must be left to religion and philosophy.'}}</ref> the majority of principal intelligent design advocates are publicly religious Christians who have stated that, in their view, the designer proposed in intelligent design is the [[God in Christianity|Christian conception of God]]. Stuart Burgess, Phillip E. Johnson, William A. Dembski, and Stephen C. Meyer are [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Protestants]]; Michael Behe is a [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]; [[Paul Nelson (creationist)|Paul Nelson]] supports young Earth creationism; and [[Jonathan Wells (intelligent design advocate)|Jonathan Wells]] is a member of the [[Unification Church]]. Non-Christian proponents include [[David Klinghoffer]], who is [[Judaism|Jewish]],<ref name="Judaism">{{cite web |url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Issues/Science/Creationism_and_Evolution/ID_Prn.shtml |title=Judaism & Intelligent Design |last=Kippley-Ogman |first=Emma |website=MyJewishLearning.com |publisher=MyJewishLearning, Inc. |location=New York |access-date=2010-11-13 |quote=But there are also Jewish voices in the intelligent design camp. David Klinghoffer, a Discovery Institute fellow, is an ardent advocate of intelligent design. In an article in The Forward (August 12, 2005), he claimed that Jewish thinkers have largely ignored intelligent design and contended that Jews, along with Christians, should adopt the theory because beliefs in God and in natural selection are fundamentally opposed. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306170150/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Issues/Science/Creationism_and_Evolution/ID_Prn.shtml |archive-date=March 6, 2014 }}</ref> [[Michael Denton]] and [[David Berlinski]], who are [[Agnosticism|agnostic]],<ref name="Agnostic1">[[#Meyer 2009|Meyer 2009]], "Michael Denton, an agnostic, argues for intelligent design in Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, 326–343."</ref><ref name="Agnostic2">[[#Frame 2009|Frame 2009]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=o-c1IZtSnoIC&pg=PA291#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 291], "In contrast to the other would-be pioneers of Intelligent Design, Denton describes himself as an agnostic, and his book was released by a secular publishing house."</ref><ref name="Representation">{{cite web |url=https://www.discovery.org/id/faqs/#generalQuestions |author= |title=CSC – Frequently Asked Questions: General Questions: Is Discovery Institute a religious organization? |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2018-07-15 |quote=Discovery Institute is a secular think tank, and its Board members and Fellows represent a variety of religious traditions, including mainline Protestant, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Jewish, and agnostic. Until recently the Chairman of Discovery's Board of Directors was former Congressman John Miller, who is Jewish. Although it is not a religious organization, the Institute has a long record of supporting religious liberty and the legitimate role of faith-based institutions in a pluralistic society. In fact, it sponsored a program for several years for college students to teach them the importance of religious liberty and the separation of church and state.}}</ref> and [[Muzaffar Iqbal]], a [[Pakistani Canadian|Pakistani-Canadian]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Muslim1">[[#Young & Edis 2004|Edis 2004]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=hYLKdtlVeQgC&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false "Grand Themes, Narrow Constituency", p. 12]: "Among Muslims involved with ID, the most notable is Muzaffar Iqbal, a fellow of the International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design, a leading ID organization."</ref><ref name="Muslim2">[[#Shanks 2004|Shanks 2004]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=mWn-AE6XLXIC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 11]: "Muzaffar Iqbal, president of the Center for Islam and Science, has recently endorsed work by intelligent design theorist William Dembski."</ref> Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments that are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of theistic [[creationism]] is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified "as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message."<ref group="n">{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |date=April 1999 |title=Keeping the Darwinists Honest |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/citmag99.htm |magazine=Citizen |location=Colorado Springs, Colo. |publisher=[[Focus on the Family]] |issn=1084-6832 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=ID is an intellectual movement, and the Wedge strategy stops working when we are seen as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message. [...] The evangelists do what they do very well, and I hope our work opens up for them some doors that have been closed.}}</ref> Johnson emphasizes that "...the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion. ...This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact."<ref name="Johnson-Touchstone">{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Phillip E. |date=July–August 1999 |title=The Wedge: Breaking the Modernist Monopoly on Science |url=http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=12-04-018-f |magazine=Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity |location=Chicago |publisher=Fellowship of St. James |volume=12 |issue=4 |issn=0897-327X |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

The [[wedge strategy|strategy]] of deliberately disguising the religious intent of intelligent design has been described by William A. Dembski in ''The Design Inference''.<ref>[[#Dembski 1998|Dembski 1998]]</ref> In this work, Dembski lists a [[god]] or an "[[extraterrestrial life|alien life force]]" as two possible options for the identity of the designer; however, in his book ''[[Intelligent Design (book)|Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology]]'' (1999), Dembski states:

{{Quote|Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ.<ref>[[#Dembski 1999|Dembski 1999]], p. 210</ref>}}

Dembski also stated, "ID is part of God's [[general revelation]] [...] Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology {{Square bracket open|1}} [[materialism]] {{Square bracket close|1}}, which suffocates the human spirit, but, in my personal experience, I've found that it opens the path for people to come to Christ."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.02.Reply_to_Henry_Morris.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729035206/http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.02.Reply_to_Henry_Morris.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 29, 2012 |title=Intelligent Design's Contribution to the Debate Over Evolution: A Reply to Henry Morris |last=Dembski |first=William |date=February 1, 2005 |website=DesignInference.com |publisher=William Dembski |location=Pella, Iowa |access-date=2014-02-28 }}</ref> Both Johnson and Dembski cite the Bible's [[Gospel of John]] as the foundation of intelligent design.<ref name=dembski_logos/><ref name=PJC group="n" />

Barbara Forrest contends such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature, not merely a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide.<ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm2.html |title=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Trial transcript: Day 6 (October 5), PM Session, Part 2 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=What I am talking about is the essence of intelligent design, and the essence of it is theistic realism as defined by Professor Johnson. Now that stands on its own quite apart from what their motives are. I'm also talking about the definition of intelligent design by Dr. Dembski as the Logos theology of John's Gospel. That stands on its own. [...] Intelligent design, as it is understood by the proponents that we are discussing today, does involve a supernatural creator, and that is my objection. And I am objecting to it as they have defined it, as Professor Johnson has defined intelligent design, and as Dr. Dembski has defined intelligent design. And both of those are basically religious. They involve the supernatural.}} — Barbara Forrest, 2005, testifying in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial.</ref> She writes that the leading proponents of intelligent design are closely allied with the ultra-conservative [[Christian Reconstructionism]] movement. She lists connections of (current and former) Discovery Institute Fellows Phillip E. Johnson, Charles B. Thaxton, Michael Behe, [[Richard Weikart]], Jonathan Wells and [[Francis J. Beckwith]] to leading Christian Reconstructionist organizations, and the extent of the funding provided the Institute by [[Howard Ahmanson, Jr.]], a leading figure in the Reconstructionist movement.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" />

===Reaction from other creationist groups===
Not all creationist organizations have embraced the intelligent design movement. According to Thomas Dixon, "Religious leaders have come out against ID too. An open letter affirming the compatibility of Christian faith and the teaching of evolution, first produced in response to controversies in Wisconsin in 2004, has now been signed by over ten thousand clergy from different Christian denominations across America."<ref name=Dixon82/> [[Hugh Ross (creationist)|Hugh Ross]] of [[Reasons to Believe]], a proponent of [[Old Earth creationism]], believes that the efforts of intelligent design proponents to divorce the concept from Biblical Christianity make its hypothesis too vague. In 2002, he wrote: "Winning the argument for design without identifying the designer yields, at best, a sketchy origins model. Such a model makes little if any positive impact on the community of scientists and other scholars. [...] ...the time is right for a direct approach, a single leap into the origins fray. Introducing a biblically based, scientifically verifiable creation model represents such a leap."<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Ross |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Ross (creationist) |date=July 2002 |title=More Than Intelligent Design |url=http://www.reasons.org/articles/more-than-intelligent-design |magazine=Facts for Faith |location=Glendora, Calif. |publisher=[[Reasons to Believe]] |issue=10 |oclc=52894856 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

Likewise, two of the most prominent YEC organizations in the world have attempted to distinguish their views from those of the intelligent design movement. [[Henry M. Morris]] of the [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR) wrote, in 1999, that ID, "even if well-meaning and effectively articulated, will not work! It has often been tried in the past and has failed, and it will fail today. The reason it won't work is because it is not the Biblical method." According to Morris: "The evidence of intelligent design ... must be either followed by or accompanied by a sound presentation of true Biblical creationism if it is to be meaningful and lasting."<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Morris |first=Henry M. |author-link=Henry M. Morris |date=July 1999 |title=Design Is Not Enough! |url=http://www.icr.org/article/design-not-enough/ |magazine=Back to Genesis |location=Santee, Calif. |publisher=[[Institute for Creation Research]] |issue=127 |oclc=26390403 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> In 2002, [[Carl Wieland]], then of [[Answers in Genesis]] (AiG), criticized design advocates who, though well-intentioned, "'left the Bible out of it'" and thereby unwittingly aided and abetted the modern rejection of the Bible. Wieland explained that "AiG's major 'strategy' is to boldly, but humbly, call the church back to its Biblical foundations ... [so] we neither count ourselves a part of this movement nor campaign against it."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/0830_IDM.asp |title=AiG's views on the Intelligent Design Movement |last=Wieland |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Wieland |date=August 30, 2002 |website=[[Answers in Genesis]] |location=Hebron, Ky. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021015010305/http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/0830_IDM.asp |archive-date=October 15, 2002 |access-date=April 25, 2007}}</ref>

===Reaction from the scientific community===
The unequivocal [[scientific consensus|consensus]] in the [[scientific community]] is that intelligent design is not science and has no place in a science curriculum.<ref name="consensus">''See:''
* [[List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design]]
* {{Cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 83 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 83]]
* The Discovery Institute's ''[[A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism]]'' petition begun in 2001 has been signed by "over 700 scientists" as of August 20, 2006. The four-day ''[[A Scientific Support for Darwinism]]'' petition gained 7,733 signatories from scientists opposing ID.
* [[#AAAS 2002|AAAS 2002]]. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and firmly rejects ID.
* More than 70,000 Australian scientists [https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/science-policy/submissions-government/letter%E2%80%94intelligent-design-not-science "...urge all Australian governments and educators not to permit the teaching or promulgation of ID as science."]
* [http://ncse.com/media/voices/science National Center for Science Education]: List of statements from scientific professional organizations on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism in the sciences.
* [[#Nature Methods 2007|''Nature Methods'' 2007]], "Long considered a North American phenomenon, pro-ID interest groups can also be found throughout Europe. ...Concern about this trend is now so widespread in Europe that in October 2007 the [[Creation and evolution in public education#Council of Europe|Council of Europe]] voted on a motion calling upon member states to firmly oppose the teaching of creationism as a scientific discipline."
* [[#Dean 2007|Dean 2007]], "There is no credible scientific challenge to the theory of evolution as an explanation for the complexity and diversity of life on earth."</ref> The U.S. [[National Academy of Sciences]] has stated that "creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the [[scientific method|methods of science]]."<ref>[[#National Academy of Sciences 1999|National Academy of Sciences 1999]], [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309064066&page=25 p. 25]</ref> The U.S. [[National Science Teachers Association]] and the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] have termed it [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="NSTA">''See:''
* {{cite press release |last=Workosky |first=Cindy |date=August 3, 2005 |title=National Science Teachers Association Disappointed About Intelligent Design Comments Made by President Bush |url=http://old.nsta.org/about/pressroom.aspx?id=50794 |location=Arlington, Va. |publisher=[[National Science Teachers Association]] |access-date=2014-01-14 |quote='We stand with the nation's leading scientific organizations and scientists [...] in stating that intelligent design is not science. Intelligent design has no place in the science classroom,' said Gerry Wheeler, NSTA Executive Director. [...] 'It is simply not fair to present pseudoscience to students in the science classroom,' said NSTA President Mike Padilla. 'Nonscientific viewpoints have little value in increasing students' knowledge of the natural world.'}}
* [[#Mu 2005|Mu 2005]]</ref> Others in the scientific community have denounced its tactics, accusing the ID movement of manufacturing false attacks against evolution, of engaging in misinformation and misrepresentation about science, and marginalizing those who teach it.<ref name="JCI">{{cite journal |last1=Attie |first1=Alan D. |last2=Sober |first2=Elliott |author-link2=Elliott Sober |last3=Numbers |first3=Ronald L. |author-link3=Ronald Numbers |last4=Amasino |first4=Richard M. |author-link4=Richard Amasino |last5=Cox |first5=Beth |last6=Berceau |first6=Terese |author-link6=Terese Berceau |last7=Powell |first7=Thomas |last8=Cox |first8=Michael M. |date=May 1, 2006 |title=Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action |url= |journal=[[Journal of Clinical Investigation]] |volume=116 |issue=5 |pages=1134–1138 |doi=10.1172/JCI28449 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=16670753 |pmc=1451210 |ref=Attie, et al. 2006}}</ref> More recently, in September 2012, [[Bill Nye]] warned that creationist views threaten science education and innovations in the United States.<ref name="APNews-20120924">{{cite news |last=Lovan |first=Dylan |date=September 24, 2012 |title=Bill Nye Warns: Creation Views Threaten US Science |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/bill-nye-warns-creation-views-threaten-us-science |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref name="Youtube-20120823">{{cite web |last1=Fowler |first1=Jonathan |last2=Rodd |first2=Elizabeth|title=Bill Nye: Creationism Is Not Appropriate For Children |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHbYJfwFgOU | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211102/gHbYJfwFgOU| archive-date=2021-11-02 | url-status=live|date=August 23, 2012 |website=YouTube |publisher=[[Big Think]] |location=New York |access-date=2014-02-28}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 2001, the Discovery Institute published advertisements under the heading "[[A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism]]", with the claim that listed scientists had signed this statement expressing skepticism:

{{Quote|We are skeptical of claims for the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life. Careful examination of the evidence for Darwinian theory should be encouraged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/sign_the_list.php |title=Sign – Dissent from Darwin |website=dissentfromdarwin.org |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411085856/http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/sign_the_list.php |archive-date=April 11, 2011 }}</ref>}}

The ambiguous statement did not exclude other known evolutionary mechanisms, and most signatories were not scientists in relevant fields, but starting in 2004 the Institute claimed the increasing number of signatures indicated mounting doubts about evolution among scientists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/2114 |title=Doubts Over Evolution Mount With Over 300 Scientists Expressing Skepticism With Central Tenet of Darwin's Theory |author= |date=April 1, 2004 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-01-02}}</ref> The statement formed a key component of [[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns|Discovery Institute campaigns]] to present intelligent design as scientifically valid by claiming that evolution lacks broad scientific support,<ref name="Evans">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/general/doubting-darwinism-creative-license |title=Doubting Darwinism Through Creative License |last=Evans |first=Skip |date=April 8, 2002 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |type=Blog |access-date=2011-04-25}}</ref><ref name="Chang">{{cite news |first=Kenneth |last=Chang |date=February 21, 2006 |title=Few Biologists But Many Evangelicals Sign Anti-Evolution Petition |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/science/sciencespecial2/21peti.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2008-01-04}}</ref> with Institute members continued to cite the list through at least 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/16911 |title=A Scientific Analysis of Karl Giberson and Francis Collins' ''The Language of Science and Faith'' |last=Luskin |first=Casey |date=June 1, 2011 |website=Evolution News & Views |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-01-02}}</ref> As part of a strategy to counter these claims, scientists organised [[Project Steve]], which gained more signatories named Steve (or variants) than the Institute's petition, and a counter-petition, "[[A Scientific Support for Darwinism]]", which quickly gained similar numbers of signatories.

===Polls===
Several surveys were conducted prior to the December 2005 decision in ''Kitzmiller v. Dover School District'', which sought to determine the level of support for intelligent design among certain groups. According to a 2005 [[Harris Insights & Analytics|Harris poll]], 10% of adults in the United States viewed human beings as "so complex that they required a powerful force or intelligent being to help create them."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=581 |title=Nearly Two-thirds of U.S. Adults Believe Human Beings Were Created by God |author= |date=July 6, 2005 |website=The Harris Poll |publisher=[[Harris Insights & Analytics|Harris Interactive]] |location=Rochester, N.Y. |id=#52 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051217080148/http://harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=581 |archive-date=December 17, 2005 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> Although [[John Zogby|Zogby polls]] commissioned by the Discovery Institute show more support, these polls suffer from considerable flaws, such as having a very low response rate (248 out of 16,000), being conducted on behalf of an organization with an expressed interest in the outcome of the poll, and containing [[leading question]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmsr.org/id-poll.htm |title=Sandia National Laboratories says that the Intelligent Design Network (IDNet-NM/Zogby) 'Lab Poll' is BOGUS! |author= |website=New Mexicans for Science and Reason |publisher=NMSR |location=Peralta, N.M. |access-date=2007-07-13}}</ref><ref name="Polling_for_ID">{{cite web |url=http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/polling/ |title=Polling for ID |last=Mooney |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Mooney (journalist) |date=September 11, 2003 |website=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |location=Amherst, N.Y. |type=Blog |publisher=Center for Inquiry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327041611/http://csicop.org/doubtandabout/polling/ |archive-date=March 27, 2008 |access-date=2007-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.salon.com/0001092/2003/07/30.html |title='Intelligent Design'-ers launch new assault on curriculum using lies and deception |last=Harris |first=David |date=July 30, 2003 |website=[[Salon (website)|Salon]] |location=San Francisco |type=Blog |publisher=Salon Media Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030816135718/http://blogs.salon.com/0001092/2003/07/30.html |archive-date=August 16, 2003 |access-date=2007-07-13}}</ref>

The 2017 [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] creationism survey found that 38% of adults in the United States hold the view that "God created humans in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years" when asked for their views on the origin and development of human beings, which was noted as being at the lowest level in 35 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/210956/belief-creationist-view-humans-new-low.aspx|title=In U.S., Belief in Creationist View of Humans at New Low|first=Gallup|last=Inc.|date=22 May 2017}}</ref> Previously, a series of Gallup polls in the United States from 1982 through 2014 on "Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design" found support for "human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced formed of life, but God guided the process" of between 31% and 40%, support for "God created human beings in pretty much their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years or so" varied from 40% to 47%, and support for "human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God had no part in the process" varied from 9% to 19%. The polls also noted answers to a series of more detailed questions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/170822/believe-creationist-view-human-origins.aspx |title=In U.S., 42% Believe Creationist View of Human Origins |author= |website=Gallup.Com |date=2 June 2014 |location=Omaha |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |access-date=2016-01-30}}</ref>

===Allegations of discrimination against ID proponents===
{{Main|Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed}}

There have been allegations that ID proponents have met discrimination, such as being refused tenure or being harshly criticized on the Internet. In the [[documentary film]] ''[[Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed]]'', released in 2008, host [[Ben Stein]] presents five such cases. The film contends that the mainstream science establishment, in a "scientific conspiracy to keep God out of the nation's laboratories and classrooms", suppresses academics who believe they see evidence of intelligent design in nature or criticize evidence of evolution.<ref name="Cornelia_Dean">{{cite news |last=Dean |first=Cornelia |date=September 27, 2007 |title=Scientists Feel Miscast in Film on Life's Origin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/27/science/27expelled.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&oref=slogin& |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2014-05-14 |ref=Dean 2007}}</ref><ref name="Premise_pressrelease">{{cite press release |last=Burbridge-Bates |first=Lesley |date=August 14, 2007 |title=What Happened to Freedom of Speech? |url=http://www.standardnewswire.com/news/55281599.html |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Motive Entertainment; Premise Media Corporation |access-date=2014-05-14}}</ref> Investigation into these allegations turned up alternative explanations for perceived persecution.<ref group=n>{{cite web |url=https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2007/jun/statement.shtml |title=Statement from Iowa State University President Gregory Geoffroy |last=Geoffroy |first=Gregory |author-link=Gregory L. Geoffroy |date=June 1, 2007 |website=News Service: Iowa State University |publisher=[[Iowa State University]] |location=Ames, Ohio |access-date=2007-12-16}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/six-things-ben-stein-doesnt-want-you-to-know/ |title=Six Things in Expelled That Ben Stein Doesn't Want You to Know... |last1=Rennie |first1=John |author-link1=John Rennie (editor) |last2=Mirsky |first2=Steve |author-link2=Steve Mirsky |date=April 16, 2008 |work=[[Scientific American]] |publisher=[[Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group]] |location=Stuttgart, Germany |issn=0036-8733 |access-date=2014-06-24}}
* {{cite news |last=Vedantam |first=Shankar |date=February 5, 2006 |title=Eden and Evolution |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/03/AR2006020300822_pf.html |access-date=2008-02-16 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=W08 |quote=GMU spokesman Daniel Walsch denied that the school had fired Crocker. She was a part-time faculty member, he said, and was let go at the end of her contract period for reasons unrelated to her views on intelligent design.}}</ref>

The film portrays intelligent design as motivated by science, rather than religion, though it does not give a detailed definition of the phrase or attempt to explain it on a scientific level. Other than briefly addressing issues of irreducible complexity, ''Expelled'' examines it as a political issue.<ref name="Colorado_Independent" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rogerebert.com/scanners/ben-stein-no-argument-allowed |title=Ben Stein: No argument allowed |last=Emerson |first=Jim |date=December 17, 2008 |website=RogerEbert.com |publisher=Ebert Digital LLC |location=Chicago |type=Blog |access-date=2014-05-14 |quote=One spokesman comes close to articulating a thought about Intelligent Design: 'If you define evolution precisely, though, to mean the common descent of all life on earth from a single ancestor via undirected mutation and natural selection -- that's a textbook definition of neo-Darwinism -- biologists of the first rank have real questions... 'Intelligent Design is the study of patterns in nature that are best explained as a result of intelligence.'}}</ref> The scientific theory of evolution is portrayed by the film as contributing to [[fascism]], the [[Holocaust]], [[communism]], [[atheism]], and [[eugenics]].<ref name="Colorado_Independent">{{cite news |last=Whipple |first=Dan |date=December 16, 2007 |title=Science Sunday: Intelligent Design Goes to the Movies |url=http://www.coloradoindependent.com/3116/science-sunday-intelligent-design-goes-to-the-movies |work=[[The Colorado Independent]] |type=Blog |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[American Independent News Network]] |access-date=2014-05-14}}</ref><ref name="Catsoulis">{{cite news |last=Catsoulis |first=Jeannette |date=April 18, 2008 |title=Resentment Over Darwin Evolves Into a Documentary |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/movies/18expe.html |newspaper=The New York Times |type=Movie review |access-date=2014-05-14}}</ref>

''Expelled'' has been used in private screenings to legislators as part of the [[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns|Discovery Institute intelligent design campaign]] for [[Academic Freedom bills]].<ref name="WSJschools">{{cite news |last=Simon |first=Stephanie |date=May 2, 2008 |title=Evolution's Critics Shift Tactics With Schools |url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB120967537476060561?mod=googlenews_wsj&mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB120967537476060561.html%3Fmod%3Dgooglenews_wsj |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=2014-05-14}}</ref> Review screenings were restricted to churches and Christian groups, and at a special pre-release showing, one of the interviewees, [[PZ Myers]], was refused admission. The American Association for the Advancement of Science describes the film as dishonest and divisive propaganda aimed at introducing religious ideas into public school science classrooms,<ref name="AAASPressRelease">{{cite web |last=Lempinen |first=Edward W. |date=April 18, 2008 |title=New AAAS Statement Decries 'Profound Dishonesty' of Intelligent Design Movie |url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2008/0418expelled.shtml |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080425000539/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2008/0418expelled.shtml |archive-date=April 25, 2008 |access-date =2008-04-20}}</ref> and the [[Anti-Defamation League]] has denounced the film's allegation that evolutionary theory influenced the Holocaust.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Frankowski, Nathan (Director) |year=2008 |title=[[Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed]] |medium=Motion picture |publisher=Premise Media Corporation; Rampant Films |oclc=233721412}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/2432-anti-evolution-film-stirs-controversy.html |title=New Anti-Evolution Film Stirs Controversy |last=Mosher |first=Dave |date=April 3, 2008 |website=[[LiveScience]] |location=New York |publisher=[[Imaginova|Space Holdings Corp.]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> The film includes interviews with scientists and academics who were misled into taking part by misrepresentation of the topic and title of the film. Skeptic [[Michael Shermer]] describes his experience of being repeatedly asked the same question without context as "surreal".<ref>{{cite web |author=Josh Timonen |url=http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/2400-expelled-overview |title=Expelled Overview |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317175934/http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/2400-expelled-overview |archive-date=March 17, 2015 |work=The Richard Dawkins Center for Reason and Science |date=March 24, 2008 |access-date=March 13, 2015}}</ref>

==Criticism==

===Scientific criticism===
{{Main|Intelligent design and science}}

Advocates of intelligent design seek to keep God and the Bible out of the discussion, and present intelligent design in the language of science as though it were a scientific hypothesis.<ref name="IDstatementOnCreator" group="n" /><ref name="Johnson-Touchstone" /> For a theory to qualify as scientific,<ref group="n">[[#Gauch 2003|Gauch 2003]], Chapters 5–8. Discusses principles of induction, deduction and probability related to the expectation of consistency, testability, and multiple observations. Chapter 8 discusses parsimony (Occam's razor).</ref><ref>[[#Elmes, Kantowitz & Roediger 2006|Elmes, Kantowitz & Roediger 2006]]. Chapter 2 discusses the scientific method, including the principles of falsifiability, testability, progressive development of theory, dynamic self-correcting of hypotheses, and parsimony, or "Occam's razor".</ref><ref name="kitzruling_pg64" group="n">{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|volume=04
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}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 64 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 64]]. The ruling discusses central aspects of expectations in the scientific community that a scientific theory be testable, dynamic, correctible, progressive, based upon multiple observations, and provisional.</ref> it is expected to be:
* Consistent
* Parsimonious (sparing in its proposed entities or explanations; see [[Occam's razor]])
* Useful (describes and explains observed phenomena, and can be used in a predictive manner)
* Empirically testable and [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] (potentially confirmable or disprovable by experiment or observation)
* Based on multiple observations (often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments)
* Correctable and dynamic (modified in the light of observations that do not support it)
* Progressive (refines previous theories)
* Provisional or tentative (is open to experimental checking, and does not assert certainty)

For any theory, hypothesis, or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, and ideally all, of these criteria. The fewer criteria are met, the less scientific it is; if it meets only a few or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency,<ref name="Perakh2005b">See, e.g., {{cite journal |last=Perakh |first=Mark |year=2005 |title=The Dream World of William Dembski's Creationism |url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Skeptic_paper.cfm |journal=[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|Skeptic]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=54–65 |issn=1063-9330 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> violates the principle of parsimony,<ref group="n">See, e.g., [[#Fitelson, Stephens & Sober 2001|Fitelson, Stephens & Sober 2001]], "How Not to Detect Design–Critical Notice: William A. Dembski ''The Design Inference''", pp. 597–616. Intelligent design fails to pass Occam's razor. Adding entities (an intelligent agent, a designer) to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events.</ref> is not scientifically useful,<ref group="n">See, e.g., {{cite web |url=http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/schneider/evolution.htm |title=Professor Schneider's thoughts on Evolution and Intelligent Design |last=Schneider |first=Jill E. |website=Department of Biological Sciences |publisher=[[Lehigh University]] |location=Bethlehem, Pa. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902030147/http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/schneider/evolution.htm |archive-date=September 2, 2006 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=Q: Why couldn't intelligent design also be a scientific theory? A: The idea of intelligent design might or might not be true, but when presented as a scientific hypothesis, it is not useful because it is based on weak assumptions, lacks supporting data and terminates further thought.}}</ref> is not falsifiable,<ref group="n">See, e.g., {{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|volume=04
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}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 22 of 139|Context, p. 22]] and [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 77 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 77]]. The designer is not falsifiable, since its existence is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. The designer being beyond the realm of the observable, claims about its existence can be neither supported nor undermined by observation, making intelligent design and the argument from design analytic ''a posteriori'' arguments.</ref> is not empirically testable,<ref group="n">See, e.g., {{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|volume=04
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|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 22 of 139|Context, p. 22]] and [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 66 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 66]]. That intelligent design is not empirically testable stems from the fact that it violates a basic premise of science, naturalism.</ref> and is not correctable, dynamic, progressive, or provisional.<ref group="n">See, e.g., the brief explanation in {{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
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}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 66 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 66]]. Intelligent design professes to offer an answer that does not need to be defined or explained, the intelligent agent, designer. By asserting a conclusion that cannot be accounted for scientifically, ''the designer'', intelligent design cannot be sustained by any further explanation, and objections raised to those who accept intelligent design make little headway. Thus intelligent design is not a provisional assessment of data, which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that a conclusion that need not be accounted for has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data.</ref><ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://media.ljworld.com/pdf/2005/09/15/nobel_letter.pdf |title=Nobel Laureates Initiative |date=September 9, 2005 |publisher=The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity |type=Letter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051007161950/http://media.ljworld.com/pdf/2005/09/15/nobel_letter.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2005 |access-date=2014-02-28}} The September 2005 statement by 38 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]] stated that: "...intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent."</ref><ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html |title=Intelligent Design is not Science: Scientists and teachers speak out |date=October 2005 |website=Faculty of Science |publisher=[[University of New South Wales]] |location=Sydney |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614003243/http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html |archive-date=June 14, 2006 |access-date=2009-01-09}} The October 2005 statement, by a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers said: "intelligent design is not science" and "urge all Australian governments and educators not to permit the teaching or promulgation of ID as science."</ref>

Intelligent design proponents seek to change this fundamental basis of science<ref name="Forrest2000">{{cite journal |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |date=Fall–Winter 2000 |title=Methodological Naturalism and Philosophical Naturalism: Clarifying the Connection |url=http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/naturalism.html |journal=[[Philo (journal)|Philo]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=7–29 |issn=1098-3570 |access-date=2007-07-27 |doi=10.5840/philo20003213}}</ref> by eliminating "methodological naturalism" from science<ref>[[#Johnson 1995|Johnson 1995]]. <nowiki>Johnson positions himself as a "theistic realist" against "methodological naturalism".</nowiki></ref> and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement, Phillip E. Johnson, calls "[[theistic realism]]".<ref name="Johnsonconversation" group="n">
[[#Johnson 1996b|Johnson 1996b]], "My colleagues and I speak of 'theistic realism'—or sometimes, 'mere creation'—as the defining concept of our [the ID] movement. This means that we affirm that God is objectively real as Creator, and that the reality of God is tangibly recorded in evidence accessible to science, particularly in biology."</ref> Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive explanation for the origins of life and the universe.<ref name="Watanabe" group="n">{{cite news |last=Watanabe |first=Teresa |date=March 25, 2001 |title=Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2001/mar/25/news/mn-42548 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |quote='We are taking an intuition most people have and making it a scientific and academic enterprise. ...'We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator.' |access-date=2014-02-28}} — Phillip E. Johnson</ref> Many intelligent design followers believe that "[[scientism]]" is itself a religion that promotes [[secularism]] and materialism in an attempt to erase [[theism]] from public life, and they view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres.

It has been argued that methodological naturalism is not an ''assumption'' of science, but a ''result'' of science well done: the God explanation is the least parsimonious, so according to [[Occam's razor]], it cannot be a scientific explanation.<ref name="Jennings2015">{{cite book|first=Byron K.|last=Jennings|title=In Defense of Scientism: An Insider's view of Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-C-BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|year=2015|publisher=Byron Jennings|isbn=978-0-9940589-2-8|page=60}}</ref>

The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse and the failure to submit work to the scientific community that withstands scrutiny have weighed against intelligent design being accepted as valid science.<ref name="kitzruling_pg87">{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|volume=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 87 of 139|Whether ID is Science, p. 87]]</ref> The intelligent design movement has not published a properly peer-reviewed article supporting ID in a scientific journal, and has failed to publish supporting peer-reviewed research or data.<ref name="kitzruling_pg87" /> The only article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was [[Sternberg peer review controversy|quickly withdrawn by the publisher]] for having circumvented the journal's peer-review standards.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |year=2004 |title=Statement from the Council of the Biological Society of Washington |url=http://biostor.org/reference/81375 |journal=Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=241 |issn=0006-324X |oclc=1536434 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> The Discovery Institute says that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer-reviewed journals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discovery.org/a/2640 |title=Peer-Reviewed & Peer-Edited Scientific Publications Supporting the Theory of Intelligent Design (Annotated) |date=February 1, 2012 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804092839/http://www.discovery.org/a/2640 |archive-date=August 4, 2007 }} The July 1, 2007, version of page is .</ref> but critics, largely members of the scientific community, reject this claim and state intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with peer review that lack impartiality and rigor,<ref group="n">{{cite journal|last1=Brauer |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Forrest |first2=Barbara |author-link2=Barbara Forrest |last3=Gey |first3=Steven G. |author-link3=Steven Gey |year=2005 |title=Is It Science Yet?: Intelligent Design Creationism and the Constitution |url=http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1229&context=lawreview |format=PDF |journal=Washington University Law Review |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=79–80 |issn=2166-7993 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=ID leaders know the benefits of submitting their work to independent review and have established at least two purportedly 'peer-reviewed' journals for ID articles. However, one has languished for want of material and quietly ceased publication, while the other has a more overtly philosophical orientation. Both journals employ a weak standard of 'peer review' that amounts to no more than vetting by the editorial board or society fellows. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220073757/http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1229&context=lawreview |archive-date=December 20, 2013 }}</ref> consisting entirely of intelligent design supporters.<ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CI/CI001_4.html |title=CI001.4: Intelligent Design and peer review |editor-last=Isaak |editor-first=Mark |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=With some of the claims for peer review, notably Campbell and Meyer (2003) and the e-journal PCID, the reviewers are themselves ardent supporters of intelligent design. The purpose of peer review is to expose errors, weaknesses, and significant omissions in fact and argument. That purpose is not served if the reviewers are uncritical.
}}</ref>

Further criticism stems from the fact that the phrase ''intelligent'' design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable intelligence, a concept that has no [[scientific consensus]] definition. The characteristics of intelligence are assumed by intelligent design proponents to be observable without specifying what the criteria for the measurement of intelligence should be. Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by intelligent design proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence), as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature.<ref group="n">{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|volume=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 81 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 81]]. "For human artifacts, we know the designer's identity, human, and the mechanism of design, as we have experience based upon [[empirical evidence]] that humans can make such things, as well as many other attributes including the designer's abilities, needs, and desires. With ID, proponents assert that they refuse to propose hypotheses on the designer's identity, do not propose a mechanism, and the designer, he/she/it/they, has never been seen. In that vein, defense expert Professor Minnich agreed that in the case of human artifacts and objects, we know the identity and capacities of the human designer, but we do not know any of those attributes for the designer of biological life. In addition, Professor Behe agreed that for the design of human artifacts, we know the designer and its attributes and we have a baseline for human design that does not exist for design of biological systems. Professor Behe's only response to these seemingly insurmountable points of disanalogy was that the inference still works in science fiction movies."</ref>

Among a significant proportion of the general public in the United States, the major concern is whether conventional evolutionary biology is compatible with belief in God and in the Bible, and how this issue is taught in schools.<ref name="Time-15-Aug-2005" /> The Discovery Institute's "Teach the Controversy" campaign promotes intelligent design while attempting to discredit evolution in United States public high school science courses.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /><ref name=meyer_seattle_times>{{cite news |last=Shaw |first=Linda |date=March 31, 2005 |title=Does Seattle group 'teach controversy' or contribute to it? |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2002225932_design31m.html |newspaper=[[The Seattle Times]] |publisher=[[The Seattle Times Company]] |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224195947/http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2002225932_design31m.html |archive-date=December 24, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=November 9, 2005 |title=Small Group Wields Major Influence in Intelligent Design Debate |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=1297170&WNT=true |work=[[ABC World News|World News Tonight]] |location=New York |publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=December 2002 |title=Survival of the Slickest |url=http://prospect.org/article/survival-slickest |work=[[The American Prospect]] |location=Washington, D.C. |volume=13 |issue=22 |access-date=2014-02-28 |quote=ID's home base is the Center for Science and Culture at Seattle's conservative Discovery Institute. Meyer directs the center; former Reagan adviser [[Bruce Chapman]] heads the larger institute, with input from the Christian supply-sider and former ''American Spectator'' owner [[George Gilder]] (also a Discovery senior fellow). From this perch, the ID crowd has pushed a 'teach the controversy' approach to evolution that closely influenced the Ohio State Board of Education's recently proposed science standards, which would require students to learn how scientists 'continue to investigate and critically analyze' aspects of Darwin's theory.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metanexus.net/essay/teaching-intelligent-design-what-happened-when-response-eugenie-scott |title=Teaching Intelligent Design -- What Happened When? A Response to Eugenie Scott |last=Dembski |first=William A. |date=February 27, 2001 |website=Metanexus |publisher=[[Metanexus Institute]] |location=New York |quote=The clarion call of the intelligent design movement is to 'teach the controversy.' There is a very real controversy centering on how properly to account for biological complexity (cf. the ongoing events in Kansas), and it is a scientific controversy. |access-date=2014-02-28}} Dembski's response to Eugenie Scott's February 12, 2001, essay published by Metanexus, [http://www.metanexus.net/essay/big-tent-and-camels-nose "The Big Tent and the Camel's Nose."]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/07/no_one_here_but.html |title=No one here but us Critical Analysis-ists… |last=Matzke |first=Nick |date=July 11, 2006 |website=The Panda's Thumb |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston |type=Blog |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906051325/http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/07/no_one_here_but.html |archive-date=September 6, 2015 }} Nick Matzke's analysis shows how teaching the controversy using the ''Critical Analysis of Evolution'' model lesson plan is a means of teaching all the intelligent design arguments without using the intelligent design label.</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=September 2021}} The scientific community and science education organizations have replied that there is no scientific controversy regarding the validity of evolution and that the controversy exists solely in terms of religion and politics.<ref>[[#Annas 2006|Annas 2006]], "That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned."</ref><ref name=AAAS>{{cite web |url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf |title=Statement on the Teaching of Evolution |author= |date=February 16, 2006 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |location=Washington, D.C. |quote=Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called 'flaws' in the theory of evolution or 'disagreements' within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific 'alternatives' to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to 'critically analyze' evolution or to understand 'the controversy.' But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221125539/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2006 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

===Arguments from ignorance===
[[Eugenie Scott|Eugenie C. Scott]], along with [[Glenn Branch]] and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are [[Argument from ignorance|arguments from ignorance]].
In the argument from ignorance, a lack of evidence for one view is erroneously argued to constitute proof of the correctness of another view. Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies on a lack of knowledge for its conclusion: lacking a natural explanation for certain specific aspects of evolution, we assume intelligent cause. They contend most scientists would reply that the unexplained is not unexplainable, and that "we don't know yet" is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside science. Particularly, Michael Behe's demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a false dichotomy, where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research.<ref name="Scott and Branch">{{cite web
|url=http://ncse.com/creationism/general/intelligent-design-not-accepted-by-most-scientists |title='Intelligent Design' Not Accepted by Most Scientists |last1=Scott |first1=Eugenie C. |author-link=Eugenie Scott |last2=Branch |first2=Glenn |author-link2=Glenn Branch |date=August 12, 2002
|orig-year=Reprinted with permission from ''School Board News'', August 13, 2002 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |type=Blog |access-date=2009-11-18}}</ref>

In his conclusion to the Kitzmiller trial, Judge John E. Jones III wrote that "ID is at bottom premised upon a false dichotomy, namely, that to the extent evolutionary theory is discredited, ID is confirmed." This same argument had been put forward to support creation science at the ''[[McLean v. Arkansas]]'' (1982) trial, which found it was "contrived dualism", the false premise of a "two model approach". Behe's argument of irreducible complexity puts forward negative arguments against evolution but does not make any positive scientific case for intelligent design. It fails to allow for scientific explanations continuing to be found, as has been the case with several examples previously put forward as supposed cases of irreducible complexity.<ref>{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 71 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, pp. 71–74]].</ref>

===Possible theological implications===
Intelligent design proponents often insist that their claims do not require a religious component.<ref>[[#Merriman 2007|Merriman 2007]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=l_8VFygyaDYC&lpg=PA26&dq=intelligent%20design%20science%20can%20test%20religion&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q=intelligent%20design%20science%20can%20test%20religion&f=false p. 26]</ref> However, various philosophical and theological issues are naturally raised by the claims of intelligent design.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=George L. |year=2002 |title=Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem |url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/nrcse/IDTHG.html |journal=Covalence: The Bulletin of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Alliance for Faith, Science and Technology |volume=IV |issue=2 |oclc=52753579 |access-date=2014-02-28}} Reprinted with permission.</ref>

Intelligent design proponents attempt to demonstrate scientifically that features such as irreducible complexity and specified complexity could not arise through natural processes, and therefore required repeated direct miraculous interventions by a Designer (often a Christian concept of God). They reject the possibility of a Designer who works merely through setting natural laws in motion at the outset,<ref name="PM 09">{{cite journal |last1=Padian |first1=Kevin |author-link1=Kevin Padian |last2=Matzke |first2=Nicholas J. |date=January 1, 2009 |title=Darwin, Dover, 'Intelligent Design' and textbooks |url=http://www.ntskeptics.org/news/4170029.pdf |journal=[[Biochemical Journal]] |volume=417 |issue=1 |pages=29–42 |doi=10.1042/bj20081534 |issn=0264-6021 |pmid=19061485 |access-date=2015-11-10}}</ref> in contrast to [[theistic evolution]] (to which even [[Charles Darwin]] was open<ref>[[#Darwin 1860|Darwin 1860]], p. 484, "... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed by the Creator."</ref>). Intelligent design is distinct because it asserts repeated miraculous interventions in addition to designed laws. This contrasts with other major religious traditions of a created world in which God's interactions and influences do not work in the same way as physical causes. The Roman Catholic tradition makes a careful distinction between ultimate [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] explanations and secondary, natural causes.<ref name="Haught Witness Report" />

The concept of direct miraculous intervention raises other potential theological implications. If such a Designer does not intervene to alleviate suffering even though capable of intervening for other reasons, some imply the designer is not [[Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] (see [[problem of evil]] and related [[theodicy]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070614103827/http://www.designinference.com/documents/2003.04.CTNS_theodicy.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-06-14 |title=Making the Task of Theodicy Impossible? Intelligent Design and the Problem of Evil |last=Dembski |first=William A. |date=Spring 2003 |website=DesignInference.com |publisher=William Dembski |location=Pella, Iowa |access-date=2014-02-28 }}</ref>

Further, repeated interventions imply that the original design was not perfect and final, and thus pose a problem for any who believe that the Creator's work had been both perfect and final.<ref name="PM 09" /> Intelligent design proponents seek to explain the [[Argument from poor design|problem of poor design in nature]] by insisting that we have simply failed to understand the perfection of the design (for example, proposing that [[Vestigiality|vestigial organs]] have unknown purposes), or by proposing that designers do not necessarily produce the best design they can, and may have unknowable motives for their actions.<ref name="Pennock 245" />

In 2005, the director of the [[Vatican Observatory]], the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] astronomer [[George Coyne]], set out theological reasons for accepting evolution in an August 2005 article in ''[[The Tablet]]'', and said that "Intelligent design isn't science even though it pretends to be". It should not be included in the science curriculum for public schools. "If you want to teach it in schools, intelligent design should be taught when religion or cultural history is taught, not science."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thetablet.co.uk/cgi-bin/archive_db.cgi/tablet-01063 |title=God's chance creation |last=Coyne |first=George |date=2005-08-06 |publisher=The Tablet |access-date=2008-10-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220104834/http://www.thetablet.co.uk/cgi-bin/archive_db.cgi/tablet-01063 |archive-date=February 20, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2005-11-18-vaticanastronomer_x.htm |title=Vatican official: 'Intelligent design' isn't science |work= [[USA Today]]|access-date=2008-10-16 | date=2005-11-18}}</ref> In 2006, he "condemned ID as a kind of ‘crude creationism’ which reduced God to a mere engineer."<ref name=Dixon82>{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Dixon|title=Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efgTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|date=24 July 2008|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-929551-7|page=82}}</ref>

Critics state that the [[wedge strategy]]'s "ultimate goal is to create a theocratic state".<ref name="ForrestGross2007">{{cite book|first1=Barbara|last1=Forrest|first2=Paul R.|last2=Gross|title=Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7mMSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-531973-6|page=11}}</ref>

===God of the gaps===
Intelligent design has also been characterized as a [[God of the gaps|God-of-the-gaps]] argument,<ref name="Stanford--GodoftheGaps">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ratzsch |first=Del |editor-first=Edward N |editor-last=Zalta |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |title=Teleological Arguments for God's Existence |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/#IntDesIDMov |access-date=2014-02-28 |date=October 3, 2010 |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab |location=Stanford, Calif. |issn=1095-5054 |at=Section 4.3, The "Intelligent Design" (ID) Movement}}</ref> which has the following form:
* There is a gap in scientific knowledge.
* The gap is filled with acts of God (or intelligent designer) and therefore proves the existence of God (or intelligent designer).<ref name="Stanford--GodoftheGaps" />

A God-of-the-gaps argument is the theological version of an [[argument from ignorance]]. A key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations (often supernatural) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions.<ref>See, for instance: {{cite journal |last=Bube |first=Richard H. |author-link=Richard H. Bube |date=Fall 1971 |title=Man Come Of Age: Bonhoeffer's Response To The God-Of-The-Gaps |url=http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/14/14-4/14-4-pp203-220_JETS.pdf |journal=[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]] |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=203–220 |issn=0360-8808 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> [[History of science|Historians of science]] observe that the [[astronomy]] of the earliest [[civilization]]s, although astonishing and incorporating [[mathematics|mathematical constructions]] far in excess of any practical value, proved to be misdirected and of little importance to the development of science because they failed to inquire more carefully into the mechanisms that drove the [[astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] across the sky.<ref>[[#Ronan 1983|Ronan]], p. 61</ref> It was the [[Ancient Greece|Greek civilization]] that first practiced science, although not yet as a formally defined experimental science, but nevertheless an attempt to rationalize the world of natural experience without recourse to divine intervention.<ref>[[#Ronan 1983|Ronan]], p. 123</ref> In this historically motivated definition of science any appeal to an intelligent creator is explicitly excluded for the paralysing effect it may have on [[scientific progress]].

==Legal challenges in the United States==
===Kitzmiller trial===
{{Main|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District}}
''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District'' was the first direct challenge brought in the [[Federal judiciary of the United States|United States federal courts]] against a public school district that required the presentation of intelligent design as an alternative to evolution. The plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.<ref name="NCSE 2008-17-10">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/legal/intelligent-design-trial-kitzmiller-v-dover |title=Intelligent Design on Trial: Kitzmiller v. Dover National Center for Science Education |author= |date=October 17, 2008 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* [[#Matzke 2006a|Matzke 2006a]]</ref>

Eleven parents of students in [[Dover, Pennsylvania]], sued the [[Dover Area School District]] over a statement that the school board required be read aloud in ninth-grade science classes when evolution was taught. The plaintiffs were represented by the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU), [[Americans United for Separation of Church and State]] (AU) and [[Pepper Hamilton|Pepper Hamilton LLP]]. The National Center for Science Education acted as consultants for the plaintiffs. The defendants were represented by the [[Thomas More Law Center]].<ref>
{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
|court=United States District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania
|url=http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/sites/pamd/files/opinions/04v2688a.pdf
}} Memorandum and Order, July 27, 2005.</ref> The suit was tried in a [[bench trial]] from September 26 to November 4, 2005, before Judge [[John E. Jones III]]. [[Kenneth R. Miller]], Kevin Padian, [[Brian Alters]], [[Robert T. Pennock]], Barbara Forrest and [[John F. Haught]] served as expert witnesses for the plaintiffs. Michael Behe, [[Steve Fuller (sociologist)|Steve Fuller]] and Scott Minnich served as expert witnesses for the defense.

On December 20, 2005, Judge Jones issued his 139-page [[Question of fact|findings of fact]] and decision, ruling that the Dover mandate was unconstitutional, and barring intelligent design from being taught in Pennsylvania's Middle District public school science classrooms. On November 8, 2005, there had been an election in which the eight Dover school board members who voted for the intelligent design requirement were all defeated by challengers who opposed the teaching of intelligent design in a science class, and the current school board president stated that the board did not intend to appeal the ruling.<ref>{{cite news |last=Powell |first=Michael |date=December 21, 2005 |title=Judge Rules Against 'Intelligent Design' |url=http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=5945 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055938/http://pewforum.org/news/display.php?NewsID=5945 |archive-date=September 28, 2007 |access-date=2007-09-03}}</ref>

In his finding of facts, Judge Jones made the following condemnation of the "Teach the Controversy" strategy:

{{Quote|Moreover, ID's backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny which we have now determined that it cannot withstand by advocating that the ''controversy'', but not ID itself, should be taught in science class. This tactic is at best disingenuous, and at worst a [[Wikt:canard#Noun|canard]]. The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought, but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID.<ref>{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 89 of 139|Whether ID Is Science, p. 89]]</ref>}}

===Reaction to Kitzmiller ruling===
Judge Jones himself anticipated that his ruling would be criticized, saying in his decision that:

{{Quote|Those who disagree with our holding will likely mark it as the product of an activist judge. If so, they will have erred as this is manifestly not an activist Court.

Rather, this case came to us as the result of the activism of an ill-informed faction on a school board, aided by a national public interest law firm eager to find a constitutional test case on ID, who in combination drove the Board to adopt an imprudent and ultimately unconstitutional policy. The breathtaking inanity of the Board's decision is evident when considered against the factual backdrop which has now been fully revealed through this trial. The students, parents, and teachers of the Dover Area School District deserved better than to be dragged into this legal maelstrom, with its resulting utter waste of monetary and personal resources.<ref name="kitz137">
{{cite court
|litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
|vol=04
|reporter=cv
|opinion=2688
|date=December 20, 2005
}} [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 137 of 139|Curriculum, Conclusion, pp. 137–138]]</ref>}}

As Jones had predicted, [[John G. West]], Associate Director of the Center for Science and Culture, said:

{{Quote|The Dover decision is an attempt by an activist federal judge to stop the spread of a scientific idea and even to prevent criticism of Darwinian evolution through government-imposed censorship rather than open debate, and it won't work. He has conflated Discovery Institute's position with that of the Dover school board, and he totally misrepresents intelligent design and the motivations of the scientists who research it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.evolutionnews.org/2005/12/dover_intelligent_design_decis.html |title=Dover Intelligent Design Decision Criticized as a Futile Attempt to Censor Science Education |last=Crowther |first=Robert |date=December 20, 2005 |website=Evolution News & Views |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2007-09-03}}</ref>}}

Newspapers have noted that the judge is "a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and a churchgoer".<ref>{{cite news |last=Raffaele |first=Martha |date=December 20, 2005 |title=Intelligent design policy struck down |url=http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/latestnews/stories/122105dnnatidesign.780fc9a.html |newspaper=[[Dallas Morning News]] |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930035635/http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/latestnews/stories/122105dnnatidesign.780fc9a.html |archive-date=September 30, 2007 |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite news |author= |date=December 20, 2005 |title=Judge rules against 'intelligent design' |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10545387/ |work=[[NBCNews.com]] |agency=Associated Press |others=Contributions by [[Alan Boyle]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Provonsha |first=Matthew |date=September 21, 2006 |title=Godless: The Church of Liberalism |url=http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/06-09-21/ |magazine=[[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|eSkeptic]] |type=Book review |issn=1556-5696 |access-date=2007-09-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/creationism/general/discovery-institute-tries-to-swift-boat-judge-jones |title=Discovery Institute tries to "swift-boat" Judge Jones |last1=Padian |first1=Kevin |last2=Matzke |first2=Nick |date=January 4, 2006 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |type=Blog |access-date=2009-11-18}}</ref>

The decision has been examined in a search for flaws and conclusions, partly by intelligent design supporters aiming to avoid future defeats in court. In its Winter issue of 2007, the ''Montana Law Review'' published three articles.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |date=Winter 2007 |title=Editor's Note: Intelligent Design Articles |url=http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2036&context=mlr |format=PDF |journal=Montana Law Review |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |issn=0026-9972 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>
In the first, David K. DeWolf, John G. West and Casey Luskin, all of the Discovery Institute, argued that intelligent design is a valid scientific theory, the Jones court should not have addressed the question of whether it was a scientific theory, and that the Kitzmiller decision will have no effect at all on the development and adoption of intelligent design as an alternative to standard evolutionary theory.<ref name="DeWolf">{{cite journal |last1=DeWolf |first1=David K. |last2=West |first2=John G. |author-link2=John G. West |last3=Luskin |first3=Casey |date=Winter 2007 |title=Intelligent Design Will Survive ''Kitzmiller v. Dover'' |url=http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2037&context=mlr |format=PDF |journal=Montana Law Review |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=7–57 |issn=0026-9972 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> In the second [[Peter H. Irons]] responded, arguing that the decision was extremely well reasoned and spells the death knell for the intelligent design efforts to introduce creationism in public schools,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Irons |first=Peter |author-link=Peter H. Irons |date=Winter 2007 |title=Disaster In Dover: The Trials (And Tribulations) Of Intelligent Design |url=http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2038&context=mlr |format=PDF |journal=Montana Law Review |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=59–87 |issn=0026-9972 |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> while in the third, DeWolf, ''et al.'', answer the points made by Irons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeWolf |first1=David K. |last2=West |first2=John G. |last3=Luskin |first3=Casey |date=Winter 2007 |title=Rebuttal to Irons |url=http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2039&context=mlr |format=PDF |journal=Montana Law Review |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=89–94 |issn=0026-9972 |access-date=2014-02-28 |archive-date=2014-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309110010/http://scholarship.law.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2039&context=mlr |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/dispatches/2007/06/07/irons-responds-to-west-luskin/#more |title=Irons Responds to West, Luskin and DeWolf |last=Brayton |first=Ed |date=June 7, 2007 |website=Dispatches from the Creation Wars |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs|ScienceBlogs LLC]] |type=Blog |access-date=2014-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301020525/http://scienceblogs.com/dispatches/2007/06/07/irons-responds-to-west-luskin/#more |archive-date=2014-03-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, fear of a similar lawsuit has resulted in other school boards abandoning intelligent design "teach the controversy" proposals.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" />

===Anti-evolution legislation===
{{Main|Anti-evolution legislation}}
A number of [[anti-evolution]] [[bill (proposed law)|bills]] have been introduced in the [[United States Congress]] and [[State legislature (United States)|State legislatures]] since 2001, based largely upon language drafted by the [[Discovery Institute]] for the [[Santorum Amendment]]. Their aim has been to expose more students to articles and videos produced by advocates of intelligent design that criticise evolution. They have been presented as supporting "[[academic freedom]]", on the supposition that teachers, students, and college professors face intimidation and retaliation when discussing scientific criticisms of evolution, and therefore require protection. Critics of the legislation have pointed out that there are no credible scientific critiques of evolution, and an investigation in [[Florida]] of allegations of intimidation and retaliation found no evidence that it had occurred. The vast majority of the bills have been unsuccessful, with the one exception being Louisiana's [[Louisiana Science Education Act]], which was enacted in 2008.

In April 2010, the [[American Academy of Religion]] issued ''Guidelines for Teaching About Religion in K‐12 Public Schools in the United States'', which included guidance that creation science or intelligent design should not be taught in science classes, as "Creation science and intelligent design represent worldviews that fall outside of the realm of science that is defined as (and limited to) a method of inquiry based on gathering observable and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning." However, these worldviews as well as others "that focus on speculation regarding the origins of life represent another important and relevant form of human inquiry that is appropriately studied in literature or social sciences courses. Such study, however, must include a diversity of worldviews representing a variety of religious and philosophical perspectives and must avoid privileging one view as more legitimate than others."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/news/2010/07/american-academy-religion-teaching-creationism-005712 |title=American Academy of Religion on teaching creationism |author= |date=July 23, 2010 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |access-date=2010-08-09}}</ref>

==Status outside the United States==

===Europe===
In June 2007, the [[Council of Europe]]'s Committee on Culture, Science and Education issued a report, ''The dangers of creationism in education'', which states "Creationism in any of its forms, such as 'intelligent design', is not based on facts, does not use any scientific reasoning and its contents are pathetically inadequate for science classes."<ref name="EDOC11297">{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11678&Language=EN |title=The dangers of creationism in education |date=June 8, 2007 |work=Committee on Culture, Science and Education |publisher=[[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] |type=Report |id=Doc. 11297 |access-date=2014-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309011447/http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11678&Language=EN |archive-date=2013-03-09 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11751&Language=EN |title=The dangers of creationism in education |date=September 17, 2007 |work=Committee on Culture, Science and Education |publisher=Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe |type=Report |id=Doc. 11375 |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307233347/http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11751&Language=en |archive-date=March 7, 2013 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://assembly.coe.int/main.asp?link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta07/eres1580.htm |title=The dangers of creationism in education |date=October 4, 2007 |work=Committee on Culture, Science and Education |publisher=Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe |type=Resolution |id=Resolution 1580 |access-date=2014-02-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307163155/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta07%2FERES1580.htm |archive-date=March 7, 2014 }}</ref> In describing the dangers posed to education by teaching creationism, it described intelligent design as "anti-science" and involving "blatant scientific fraud" and "intellectual deception" that "blurs the nature, objectives and limits of science" and links it and other forms of creationism to [[denialism]]. On October 4, 2007, the Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly approved a resolution stating that schools should "resist presentation of creationist ideas in any discipline other than religion", including "intelligent design", which it described as "the latest, more refined version of creationism", "presented in a more subtle way". The resolution emphasises that the aim of the report is not to question or to fight a belief, but to "warn against certain tendencies to pass off a belief as science".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/news/2007/10/council-europe-approves-resolution-against-creationism-001200 |title=Council of Europe approves resolution against creationism |author= |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |access-date=2009-11-18|date=2007-10-05 }}
* {{cite news |last=Reilhac |first=Gilbert |date=October 4, 2007 |title=Council of Europe firmly opposes creationism in school |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/scienceNewsMolt/idUKL0417855220071004 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=2007-10-05}}</ref>

In the [[Education in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], public education includes [[Religious education#United Kingdom|religious education]] as a compulsory subject, and there are many [[faith school]]s that teach the ethos of particular denominations. When it was revealed that a group called [[Truth in Science]] had distributed DVDs produced by Illustra Media<ref group="n">{{cite web |url=http://www.illustramedia.com/ID01WiredMagPage.htm |title=WIRED Magazine response |author= |website=Illustra Media |publisher=Illustra Media |location=La Habra, Calif. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220122105/http://www.illustramedia.com/ID01WiredMagPage.htm |archive-date=December 20, 2008 |access-date=2007-07-13 |quote=It's also important that you read a well developed rebuttal to Wired's misleading accusations. Links to both the article and a response by the Discovery Institute (our partners in the production of ''[[Unlocking the Mystery of Life]]'' and ''[[The Privileged Planet]]'') are available below.}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Ratliff |first=Evan |author-link=Evan Ratliff |date=October 2004 |title=The Crusade Against Evolution |volume=12 |url=http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/evolution.html |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |location=New York |publisher=Condé Nast |issue=10 |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/2251 |title=Wired magazine reporter criticized for agenda driven reporting |author= |date=October 13, 2004 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> featuring Discovery Institute fellows making the case for design in nature,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/a/2116 |title=Unlocking the Mystery of Life |last1=Meyer |first1=Stephen C. |last2=Allen |first2=W. Peter |date=July 15, 2004 |website=Center for Science and Culture |publisher=Discovery Institute |location=Seattle |type=Preview |access-date=2007-07-13}}</ref> and claimed they were being used by 59 schools,<ref>{{cite news |last=Randerson |first=James |date=November 26, 2006 |title=Revealed: rise of creationism in UK school |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/nov/27/controversiesinscience.religion |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |access-date=2008-10-17}}</ref> the [[Department for Education and Skills (United Kingdom)|Department for Education and Skills]] (DfES) stated that "Neither creationism nor intelligent design are taught as a subject in schools, and are not specified in the science curriculum" (part of the [[National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)|National Curriculum]], which does not apply to [[Independent school (United Kingdom)|independent schools]] or to [[education in Scotland]]).<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=September 29, 2006 |title='Design' attack on school science |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/5392096.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref>
{{cite hansard |house=House of Commons |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmhansrd/vo061101/text/61101w0010.htm#0611021004183 |date=November 1, 2006 |column_start=455W |column_end=456W|title=Truth in Science}}</ref> The DfES subsequently stated that "Intelligent design is not a recognised scientific theory; therefore, it is not included in the science curriculum", but left the way open for it to be explored in religious education in relation to different beliefs, as part of a syllabus set by a local [[Standing Advisory Council on Religious Education]].<ref>{{cite hansard |house=House of Lords |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200607/ldhansrd/text/61218w0006.htm |date=December 18, 2006 |column_start=WA257 |column_end=WA258|title=Schools: Intelligent Design}}</ref> In 2006, the [[Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency|Qualifications and Curriculum Authority]] produced a "Religious Education" model unit in which pupils can learn about religious and nonreligious
views about creationism, intelligent design and evolution by natural selection.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/news/2007/02/guidance-creationism-british-teachers-001170 |title=Guidance on creationism for British teachers |author= |date=February 2, 2007 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, Calif. |access-date=2009-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thurrock.gov.uk/sites/default/files/assets/documents/examplar_unit_y9_science_religion.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20150909031632/https://www.thurrock.gov.uk/sites/default/files/assets/documents/examplar_unit_y9_science_religion.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-09-09 |title=How can we answer questions about creation and origins? |author= |year=2006 |publisher=[[Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency|Qualifications and Curriculum Authority]] |access-date=2014-02-28 }}</ref>

On June 25, 2007, the UK Government responded to an e-petition by saying that creationism and intelligent design should not be taught as science, though teachers would be expected to answer pupils' questions within the standard framework of established scientific theories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page12021 |title=nocrescied – epetition response |author= |date=June 21, 2007 |website=Number10.gov.uk |publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information|Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015040043/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page12021 |archive-date=October 15, 2008 |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bcseweb.org.uk/index.php/Main/TheUKGovernmentsPosition |title=The UK [government's] position on creationism and Intelligent Design in science classes |author= |website=[[British Centre for Science Education]] |publisher=British Centre for Science Education |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> Detailed government "Creationism teaching guidance" for schools in England was published on September 18, 2007. It states that "Intelligent design lies wholly outside of science", has no underpinning scientific principles, or explanations, and is not accepted by the science community as a whole. Though it should not be taught as science, "Any questions about creationism and intelligent design which arise in science lessons, for example as a result of media coverage, could provide the opportunity to explain or explore why they are not considered to be scientific theories and, in the right context, why evolution is considered to be a scientific theory." However, "Teachers of subjects such as RE, history or citizenship may deal with creationism and intelligent design in their lessons."<ref name=teachernet group="n" />

The [[British Centre for Science Education]] lobbying group has the goal of "countering creationism within the UK" and has been involved in government lobbying in the UK in this regard.<ref name="EDOC11297" /> [[Northern Ireland]]'s [[Department of Education (Northern Ireland)|Department for Education]] says that the curriculum provides an opportunity for alternative theories to be taught. The [[Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP)—which has links to fundamentalist Christianity—has been campaigning to have intelligent design taught in science classes. A DUP former Member of Parliament, [[David Simpson (Northern Ireland politician)|David Simpson]], has sought assurances from the education minister that pupils will not lose marks if they give creationist or intelligent design answers to science questions.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=November 30, 2007 |title=The creation of a new Giant's Causeway row |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/life/the-creation-of-a-new-giants-causeway-row-28069738.html |newspaper=[[Belfast Telegraph]] |location=Dublin |publisher=[[Independent News & Media]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Henry |first=Lesley-Anne |date=September 26, 2007 |title=Tussle of Biblical proportions over creationism in Ulster classrooms |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/tussle-of-biblical-proportions-over-creationism-in-ulster-classrooms-28064310.html |newspaper=Belfast Telegraph |location=Dublin |publisher=Independent News & Media |access-date=2014-02-28}}
* {{cite news |author= |date=September 27, 2007 |title=Viewpoint: The world, according to Lisburn folk |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/opinion/viewpoint-the-world-according-to-lisburn-folk-28064444.html |newspaper=Belfast Telegraph |location=Dublin |publisher=Independent News & Media |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> In 2007, [[Lisburn]] city council voted in favor of a DUP recommendation to write to post-primary schools asking what their plans are to develop teaching material in relation to "creation, intelligent design and other theories of origin".<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=September 26, 2007 |title=Dup Call For Schools To Teach Creation Passed By Council |url=http://www.lisburntoday.co.uk/news/local-news/dup-call-for-schools-to-teach-creation-passed-by-council-1-1639298 |newspaper=[[Ulster Star]] |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Johnston Publishing (NI)|Johnston Publishing Ltd.]] |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

Plans by Dutch Education Minister [[Maria van der Hoeven]] to "stimulate an academic debate" on the subject in 2005 caused a severe public backlash.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Enserink |first=Martin |date=June 3, 2005 |title=Evolution Politics: Is Holland Becoming the Kansas of Europe? |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=308 |issue=5727 |page=1394 |doi=10.1126/science.308.5727.1394b |pmid=15933170|s2cid=153515231 }}</ref> After the [[Dutch general election, 2006|2006 elections]], she was succeeded by [[Ronald Plasterk]], described as a "molecular geneticist, staunch atheist and opponent of intelligent design".<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=February 13, 2007 |title=Cabinet ministers announced (update 2) |url=http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2007/02/cabinet_ministers_announced_up.php |work=DutchNews.nl |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Dutch News BV |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref> As a reaction on this situation in the Netherlands, the Director General of the Flemish Secretariat of Catholic Education ({{interlanguage link|VSKO|nl|Katholiek Onderwijs Vlaanderen}}) in [[Belgium]], {{Interlanguage link|Mieke Van Hecke|nl}}, declared that: "Catholic scientists already accepted the theory of evolution for a long time and that intelligent design and creationism doesn't belong in Flemish Catholic schools. It's not the tasks of the politics to introduce new ideas, that's task and goal of science."<ref>{{cite news |title=''Katholieke wetenschappers hebben de evolutietheorie al lang aanvaard'' |date=May 23, 2005 |newspaper=[[De Morgen]] |location=Brussels |publisher=[[De Persgroep Nederland]]}}</ref>

===Australia===
The status of intelligent design in Australia is somewhat similar to that in the UK (see [[Education in Australia]]). In 2005, the Australian [[Department of Education, Science and Training|Minister for Education, Science and Training]], [[Brendan Nelson]], raised the notion of intelligent design being taught in science classes. The public outcry caused the minister to quickly concede that the correct forum for intelligent design, if it were to be taught, is in religion or philosophy classes.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wroe |first=David |date=August 11, 2005 |title='Intelligent design' an option: Nelson |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2005/08/10/1123353386917.html |newspaper=[[The Age]] |location=Sydney |publisher=[[Fairfax Media]] |access-date=2014-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Deborah |date=October 21, 2005 |title=Intelligent design not science: experts |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/intelligent-design-not-science-experts/2005/10/20/1129775902661.html |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Sydney |publisher=Fairfax Media |access-date=2007-07-13}}</ref> The Australian chapter of [[Cru (Christian organization)|Campus Crusade for Christ]] distributed a DVD of the Discovery Institute's documentary ''[[Unlocking the Mystery of Life]]'' (2002) to Australian secondary schools.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kruger |first=Paula |date=August 26, 2005 |title=Brendan Nelson suggests 'intelligent design' could be taught in schools |url=http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1447202.htm |work=[[PM (ABC Radio)|PM]] |type=Transcript |location=Sydney |publisher=[[Radio National|ABC Radio National]] |access-date=2011-10-22}}</ref> [[Timothy Hawkes|Tim Hawkes]], the head of [[The King's School, Parramatta|The King's School]], one of Australia's leading private schools, supported use of the DVD in the classroom at the discretion of teachers and principals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Green |first=Shane |date=October 28, 2005 |title=School backs intelligent design DVD |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/school-backs-intelligent-design-dvd/2005/10/27/1130400306721.html |newspaper=The Age |location=Sydney |publisher=Fairfax Media |access-date=2011-10-22}}</ref>

===Relation to Islam===
[[Muzaffar Iqbal]], a notable Pakistani-Canadian Muslim, signed "A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism", a petition from the Discovery Institute.<ref name="ccit">{{cite journal |last=Edis |first=Taner |author-link=Taner Edis|date=November–December 1999 |title=Cloning Creationism in Turkey |url=http://ncse.com/rncse/19/6/cloning-creationism-turkey |journal=Reports of the National Center for Science Education |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=30–35 |issn=2158-818X |access-date=2009-11-18}}</ref> Ideas similar to intelligent design have been considered respected intellectual options among Muslims, and in [[Turkey]] many intelligent design books have been translated. In [[Istanbul]] in 2007, public meetings promoting intelligent design were sponsored by the local government,<ref name="icash">{{cite journal |last=Edis |first=Taner |date=January 2008 |title=Islamic Creationism: A Short History |url=http://www.hssonline.org/publications/Newsletter2008/NewsletterJanuary2008Creationism.html |journal=Newsletter |volume=37 |issue=1 |access-date=2011-04-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716061337/http://www.hssonline.org/publications/Newsletter2008/NewsletterJanuary2008Creationism.html |archive-date=July 16, 2011 }}</ref> and David Berlinski of the Discovery Institute was the keynote speaker at a meeting in May 2007.<ref name="SecurityWatch">{{cite web |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail//?id=54183&lng=en |title=Turkey's survival of the fittest |last=Jones |first=Dorian L. |date=March 12, 2008 |work=Security Watch |publisher=[[International Relations and Security Network]] |location=Zurich |access-date=2014-02-28}}</ref>

===Relation to ISKCON===
In 2011, the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON) [[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] published an intelligent design book titled ''Rethinking Darwin: A Vedic Study of Darwinism and Intelligent Design''. The book included contributions from intelligent design advocates William A. Dembski, Jonathan Wells and Michael Behe as well as from Hindu creationists Leif A. Jensen and [[Michael Cremo]].<ref>[[#Jensen 2011|Jensen 2011]]</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Abiogenesis]]
* [[Buddhism and evolution]]
* [[Clockwork universe]]
* [[Creation and evolution in public education]]
* [[Day-age creationism]]
* [[Evolution as fact and theory]]
* [[Gap creationism]]
* [[Genetic entropy]]
* [[Haldane's dilemma]]
* [[Hindu views on evolution]]
* [[History of evolutionary thought]]
* [[History of the creation–evolution controversy]]
* [[Intelligent design in politics]]
* [[Intelligent design and science]]
* [[Intelligent falling]]
* [[International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design]]
* [[Islamic views on evolution]]
* [[Jainism and non-creationism]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[List of works on intelligent design]]
* [[Materialism]]
* [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|Modern evolutionary synthesis]]
* [[Naturalism (philosophy)]]
* [[Neo-creationism]]
* [[Neo-Darwinism]]
* [[Objections to evolution]]
* [[Philosophy of science]]
* [[Progressive creationism]]
* [[Raëlism#Intelligent Design|Raëlian intelligent design]]
* [[Santorum Amendment]]
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Scientific skepticism]]
* [[Social Darwinism]]
* [[Sternberg peer review controversy]]
* "[[Strengths and weaknesses of evolution]]"
* [[The eclipse of Darwinism]]
* [[Unintelligent design]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em|group=n}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |author-link=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |title=Why Evolution is True |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |lccn=2008042122 |oclc=259716035 |ref=Coyne 2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |year=2006 |title=The God Delusion |location=Boston |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin Company]] |isbn=978-0-618-68000-9 |lccn=2006015506 |oclc=68965666 |ref=Dawkins 2006|title-link=The God Delusion }}
* {{cite book |last=Stenger |first=Victor J. |author-link=Victor J. Stenger |year=2011 |title=The Fallacy of Fine-Tuning: Why the Universe Is Not Designed for Us |location=Amherst, N.Y. |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-1-61614-443-2 |lccn=2010049901 |oclc=679931691 |ref=Stenger 2011}}
{{Refend}}

{{Navboxes
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Intelligent Design}}
[[Category:Intelligent design| ]]
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Astrology

2022-04-25T17:01:04Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with '{{short description|Pseudoscience claiming celestial objects influence human affairs}} {{About|the pseudoscience associated with celestial objects}} {{distinguis...'

{{short description|Pseudoscience claiming celestial objects influence human affairs}}
{{About|the pseudoscience associated with celestial objects}}
{{distinguish|text=[[astronomy]], the scientific study of celestial objects}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Use British English|date= September 2016}}
{{Astrology sidebar}}
{{Paranormal}}


'''Astrology''' is a [[pseudoscience]] that claims to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the movements and relative positions of [[Celestial objects in astrology|celestial objects]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Oxford University Press | title = astrology | encyclopedia = Oxford Dictionary of English | access-date = 11 December 2015 | url = https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/astrology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Merriam-Webster Inc. | title = astrology| encyclopedia = Merriam-Webster Dictionary | access-date = 11 December 2015 | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astrology}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |first1= Nicholas |last1= Bunnin |first2= Jiyuan |last2= Yu |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |year= 2008 |page= 57 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LdbxabeToQYC&q=dictionary+philosophy+astrology&pg=PA57|isbn= 9780470997215 |doi=10.1002/9780470996379 }}</ref><ref name="Thagard">{{cite journal|last=Thagard|first=Paul R.|year=1978|title=Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/THAWAI|journal=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association|volume=1|pages=223–234|doi=10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639|s2cid=147050929}}</ref> Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in [[Calendrical calculation|calendrical]] systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.<ref name="Koch-Westenholz 1995 Foreword, 11">{{cite book |last= Koch-Westenholz |first= Ulla |title= Mesopotamian astrology: an introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian celestial divination |year= 1995 |publisher= Museum Tusculanum Press |location= Copenhagen |isbn= 978-87-7289-287-0 |pages= Foreword, 11}}</ref> Many cultures have attached importance to [[astronomical event]]s, and some—such as the [[Hindu astrology|Hindus]], [[Chinese astrology|Chinese]], and the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]—developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. [[Western astrology]], one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th century BCE [[Mesopotamia]], from where it spread to [[Ancient Greece]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], the [[Arab world]] and eventually [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Western Europe]]. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of [[horoscope]]s that purport to explain aspects of a person's [[personality]] and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of [[professional]] astrologers rely on such systems.<ref name="Cosmic" />{{rp|83}}

Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with [[astronomy]], [[alchemy]], [[meteorology]], and medicine.<ref name="Kassell">{{cite journal |last= Kassell |first= Lauren |title= Stars, spirits, signs: towards a history of astrology 1100–1800 |journal= Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences |date= 5 May 2010 |volume= 41 |issue= 2 |pages= 67–69 |doi= 10.1016/j.shpsc.2010.04.001|pmid= 20513617 }}</ref> It was present in political circles and is mentioned in various works of literature, from [[Dante Alighieri]] and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] to [[William Shakespeare]], [[Lope de Vega]], and [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón de la Barca]]. Following the end of the 19th century and the wide-scale adoption of the [[scientific method]], researchers have successfully challenged astrology on both [[Scientific theory|theoretical]]<ref name="Vishveshwara" />{{rp|249;}}<ref name="AsquithNSF" /> and [[experiment]]al grounds,<ref name=Carlson>{{cite journal | last= Carlson | first= Shawn |title= A double-blind test of astrology |journal= Nature |year= 1985 |volume= 318 |pages= 419–425 |url= http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/Astrology-Carlson.pdf |doi= 10.1038/318419a0 |issue= 6045 | bibcode = 1985Natur.318..419C| s2cid= 5135208 }}</ref><ref name=Zarka>{{cite journal |last= Zarka |first= Philippe |title= Astronomy and astrology |journal= Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |year= 2011 |volume= 5 |issue= S260 |pages= 420–425 |doi= 10.1017/S1743921311002602|bibcode= 2011IAUS..260..420Z |url= https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |doi-access= free }}</ref> and have shown it to have no scientific validity or [[explanatory power]].<ref name="Cosmic" /> Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined, until a resurgence starting in the 1960s.<ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopedia |author1= David E. Pingree |author2= Robert Andrew Gilbert |title= Astrology - Astrology in modern times |url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39971/astrology/35979/Astrology-in-modern-times |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date= 7 October 2012 | quote = In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences. Its continued legitimacy is demonstrated by the fact that some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology. In the West, however, Newtonian physics and Enlightenment rationalism largely eradicated the widespread belief in astrology, yet Western astrology is far from dead, as demonstrated by the strong popular following it gained in the 1960s.}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

[[File:Marcantonio Raimondi - Two Women with the Signs of Libra and Scorpio.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Marcantonio Raimondi]] engraving, 15th century]]

The word ''[[wikt:astrology|astrology]]'' comes from the early [[Latin]] word ''[[wikt:astrologia|astrologia]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=astrology |title = astrology |first = Douglas |last = Harper |author-link = Douglas Harper |work = [[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date = 6 December 2011 |quote = Differentiation between astrology and astronomy began late 1400s and by 17c. this word was limited to "reading influences of the stars and their effects on human destiny." }}</ref> which derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ἀστρολογία|ἀστρολογία]]}}—from [[wikt:ἄστρον#Ancient Greek|ἄστρον]] ''astron'' ("star") and [[wikt:-λογία#Ancient Greek|-λογία]] ''-logia'', ("study of"—"account of the stars"). ''Astrologia'' later passed into meaning 'star-divination' with ''[[wikt:astronomia|astronomia]]'' used for the scientific term.<ref>{{cite book|title = Oxford English Dictionary |chapter= astrology, n.| chapter-url = http://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/12267 |edition = Second |date = September 2011 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]| quote = In Old French and Middle English astronomie seems to be the earlier and general word, astrologie having been subseq. introduced for the 'art' or practical application of astronomy to mundane affairs, and thus gradually limited by 17th cent. to the reputed influences of the stars, unknown to science. Not in Shakespeare.|title-link= Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of astrology}}

[[File:P. 26 'The Zodiac Man' a diagram of a human body and astrological symbols with instructions explaining the importance of astrology from a medical perspective.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Zodiac Man'', a diagram of a human body and astrological symbols with instructions explaining the importance of astrology from a medical perspective. From a 15th-century Welsh manuscript]]

Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the [[Hindu astrology|Indians]], [[Chinese astrology|Chinese]], and [[Maya civilization|Maya]] developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. In the West, astrology most often consists of a system of [[horoscope]]s purporting to explain aspects of a person's [[personality]] and predict future events in their life based on the positions of the sun, moon, and other celestial objects at the time of their birth. The majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.<ref name="Cosmic" />{{rp|83}}

Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium [[BCE]], with roots in [[Calendrical calculation|calendrical]] systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.<ref name="Koch-Westenholz 1995 Foreword, 11"/> A form of astrology was practised in the first dynasty of [[Mesopotamia]] (1950–1651 BCE). {{citation needed|date=June 2021}} ''Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa'' is one of earliest known Hindu texts on [[astronomy]] and astrology (''[[Jyotisha]]''). The text is dated between 1400 BCE to final centuries BCE by various scholars according to astronomical and linguistic evidences. Chinese astrology was elaborated in the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BCE). [[Hellenistic astrology]] after 332 BCE mixed [[Babylonian astrology]] with Egyptian [[Decans|Decanic astrology]] in [[Alexandria]], creating [[horoscopic astrology]]. [[Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great's]] conquest of [[Asia]] allowed astrology to spread to [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]. In Rome, astrology was associated with "[[Chaldea]]n wisdom". After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe and [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]]. Major astronomers including [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo]] practised as court astrologers. Astrological references appear in literature in the works of poets such as [[Dante Alighieri]] and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], and of playwrights such as [[Christopher Marlowe]] and [[William Shakespeare]].

Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as [[astronomy]], [[alchemy]], [[meteorology]], and medicine.<ref name="Kassell"/> At the end of the 17th century, new scientific concepts in astronomy and physics (such as [[heliocentrism]] and [[classical mechanics|Newtonian mechanics]]) called astrology into question. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.<ref name="Brit"/>

=== Ancient world ===
{{see also|Babylonian astrology}}

Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky.<ref>{{cite book|last=Campion |first=Nicholas |title=History of western astrology. Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. |year=2009 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-4411-8129-9 |edition=first}}</ref>{{rp|2,3}} Early evidence for humans making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that [[lunar cycle]]s were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago.<ref name=Marshack>{{cite book|last=Marshack |first=Alexander |title=The roots of civilization : the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol and notation|year=1991 |publisher=Moyer Bell |isbn=978-1-55921-041-6 |edition=Rev. and expanded}}</ref>{{rp|81ff}} This was a first step towards recording the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organising a communal calendar.<ref name=Marshack/> Farmers addressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of the [[constellations]] that appear in the different seasons—and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald annual floods or seasonal activities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Evelyn-White |first=Hesiod; with an English translation by Hugh G.|title=The Homeric hymns and Homerica |year=1977 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-674-99063-0 |edition=Reprinted |quote=Fifty days after the solstice, when the season of wearisome heat is come to an end, is the right time to go sailing. Then you will not wreck your ship, nor will the sea destroy the sailors, unless Poseidon the Earth-Shaker be set upon it, or Zeus, the king of the deathless gods |pages=663–677}}</ref> By the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with [[heliacal rising]]s of the stars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aveni |first=David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone |title=Exploring ancient skies an encyclopedic survey of archaeoastronomy |year=2005 |publisher=Springer |location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-95310-6 |page=268 |edition=Online}}</ref>

Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astrological references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]] is thought to have been compiled in [[Babylon]] around 1700 BCE.<ref>Russell Hobson, ''THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.E.'', Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish Studies. University of Sydney. 2009 [http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/2123/5404/1/r-hobson-2009-thesis.pdf PDF File]</ref> A scroll documenting an early use of [[electional astrology]] is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the [[Sumer]]ian ruler [[Gudea of Lagash]] (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellations that would be most favourable for the planned construction of a temple.<ref>From scroll A of the ruler Gudea of Lagash, I 17 – VI 13. O. Kaiser, ''Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments'', Bd. 2, 1–3. Gütersloh, 1986–1991. Also quoted in A. Falkenstein, 'Wahrsagung in der sumerischen Überlieferung', ''La divination en Mésopotamie ancienne et dans les régions voisines''. Paris, 1966.</ref> However, there is controversy about whether these were genuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an integrated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the records of the first dynasty of [[Mesopotamia]] (1950–1651 BCE). This astrology had some parallels with [[Hellenistic]] Greek (western) astrology, including the [[zodiac]], a norming point near 9 degrees in Aries, the trine aspect, planetary exaltations, and the dodekatemoria (the twelve divisions of 30 degrees each).<ref name="Rochberg-Halton">{{cite journal | title=Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology | author=Rochberg-Halton, F. | s2cid=163678063 | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | year=1988 | volume=108 | issue=1 | pages=51–62 | jstor=603245 | doi=10.2307/603245}}</ref> The Babylonians viewed celestial events as possible signs rather than as causes of physical events.<ref name="Rochberg-Halton"/>

The system of [[Chinese astrology]] was elaborated during the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BCE) and flourished during the [[Han Dynasty]] (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), during which all the familiar elements of traditional Chinese culture – the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of the five elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality – were brought together to formalise the philosophical principles of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology and alchemy.<ref name=Kistemaker />{{rp|3,4}}

==== Ancient objections ====

[[File:Cicero - Musei Capitolini.JPG|thumb|upright|The Roman orator [[Cicero]] objected to astrology]]

The [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic]] schools of [[philosophical skepticism]] criticized the rationality of astrology. Criticism of astrology by [[Academic skepticism|academic skeptics]] such as [[Cicero]], [[Carneades]], and [[Favorinus]]; and [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonists]] such as [[Sextus Empiricus]] has been preserved.

[[Carneades]] argued that belief in fate denies [[free will]] and [[morality]]; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.<ref>{{cite book | title=Lament, Death, and Destiny | publisher=Peter Lang | author=Hughes, Richard | year=2004 | page=87}}</ref>

[[Cicero]] stated the twins objection (that with close birth times, personal outcomes can be very different), later developed by [[Saint Augustine]].{{sfn|Long|2005|page=173}} He argued that since the other planets are much more distant from the Earth than the Moon, they could have only very tiny influence compared to the Moon's.{{sfn|Long|2005|pages=173–174}} He also argued that if astrology explains everything about a person's fate, then it wrongly ignores the visible effect of inherited ability and parenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or the effects of the weather on people.{{sfn|Long|2005|page=177}}

[[Favorinus]] argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides,{{sfn|Long|2005|page=184}} and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates.

[[Sextus Empiricus]] argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac,{{sfn|Long|2005|page=186}} and wrote an entire book, ''[[Sextus Empiricus#Writings|Against the Astrologers]]'', compiling arguments against astrology.

[[Plotinus]], a [[Neoplatonism|neoplatonist]], argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on human affairs should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's [[conjunction (astronomy)|conjunction]] with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of its surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet in question.{{sfn|Long|2005|page=174}}

=== Hellenistic Egypt ===
{{Main|Hellenistic astrology}}

[[File:Quadritpartitum.jpg|thumb|upright|1484 copy of first page of [[Ptolemy|Ptolemy's]] ''Tetrabiblos'', translated into Latin by [[Plato of Tivoli]]|alt=Ptolemy's ''Tetrabiblos'', the Hellenistic text that founded Western astrology]]
In 525 BCE, [[Egypt]] was conquered by the Persians. The 1st century BCE Egyptian [[Dendera Zodiac]] shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology.{{sfn|Barton|1994|page=24}}

With the occupation by [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BCE, Egypt became [[Hellenistic]]. The city of [[Alexandria]] was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where [[Babylonian astrology]] was mixed with Egyptian [[Decans|Decanic astrology]] to create [[Horoscopic astrology]]. This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary [[exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]]s, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and [[four elements]].{{sfn|Holden|1996|pages=11–13}} 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain decans, particularly Sothis.{{sfn|Barton|1994|page=20}} The [[astrologer]] and astronomer [[Ptolemy#Astrology|Ptolemy]] lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' formed the basis of Western astrology, and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more."{{sfn|Robbins|1940|loc='Introduction'|page=xii}}

=== Greece and Rome ===

The conquest of [[Asia]] by [[Alexander the Great]] exposed the Greeks to ideas from [[Syria]], Babylon, Persia and central Asia.<ref>Campion, 2008. p. 173.</ref> Around 280 BCE, [[Berossus]], a priest of [[Marduk|Bel]] from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of [[Kos]], teaching astrology and Babylonian culture.<ref>Campion, 2008. p. 84.</ref> By the 1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology, one using [[horoscope]]s to describe the past, present and future; the other, [[theurgic]], emphasising the [[soul|soul's]] ascent to the stars.<ref>Campion, 2008. pp. 173–174.</ref> Greek influence played a crucial role in the transmission of astrological theory to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]].<ref name=B32>Barton, 1994. p. 32.</ref>

The first definite reference to astrology in Rome comes from the orator [[Cato the Elder|Cato]], who in 160 BCE warned farm overseers against consulting with Chaldeans,<ref>Barton, 1994. p. 32–33.</ref> who were described as Babylonian 'star-gazers'.<ref name=Campion227>Campion, 2008. pp. 227–228.</ref> Among both Greeks and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], Babylonia (also known as [[Chaldea]]) became so identified with astrology that 'Chaldean wisdom' became [[synonym]]ous with [[divination]] using planets and stars.<ref>Parker, 1983. p. 16.</ref> The 2nd-century Roman poet and satirist [[Juvenal]] complains about the pervasive influence of Chaldeans, saying, "Still more trusted are the Chaldaeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will believe has come from [[Jupiter (mythology)|Hammon's]] fountain."<ref>[[Juvenal]], Satire 6: ''[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/juvenal_satires_06.htm The Ways of Women]'' (translated by G. G. Ramsay, 1918, retrieved 5 July 2012).</ref>

One of the first astrologers to bring [[Hermetic astrology]] to Rome was [[Thrasyllus of Mendes|Thrasyllus]], astrologer to the [[emperor]] [[Tiberius]],<ref name="B32"/> the first emperor to have had a court astrologer,<ref>Barton, 1994. p. 43.</ref> though his predecessor [[Augustus]] had used astrology to help legitimise his [[Imperialism|Imperial]] rights.<ref>Barton, 1994. p. 63.</ref>

=== Medieval world ===

==== Hindu ====
{{main|Hindu astrology}}

The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the ''[[Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra|{{IAST|Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra}}]]'', and ''[[Sārāvalī]]'' by {{IAST|Kalyāṇavarma}}.
The ''Horāshastra'' is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The ''Sārāvalī'' likewise dates to around 800 CE.<ref>[[David Pingree]], ''{{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}}'' (J. Gonda (Ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature'', Vol VI Fasc 4), p.81</ref> English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

==== Islamic ====
{{main|Astrology in medieval Islam}}

[[File:Translation of Albumasar Venice 1515 De Magnis Coniunctionibus.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Image of a Latin astrological text |[[Latin]] translation of [[Albumasar|Abū Maʿshar's]] ''De Magnis Coniunctionibus'' ('Of the great [[Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)|conjunctions]]'), [[Venice]], 1515]]

Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |first1=Salim |last1=Ayduz |first2=Ibrahim |last2=Kalin |first3=Caner |last3=Dagli |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 2014 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=philosophy+astrology+university&pg=RA1-PA515|isbn=9780199812578 }}</ref> following the collapse of [[Alexandria]] to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid empire]] in the 8th. The second Abbasid [[caliph]], [[Al Mansur]] (754–775) founded the city of [[Baghdad]] to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as ''Bayt al-Hikma'' 'House of Wisdom', which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included [[Mashallah ibn Athari|Mashallah]], who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad,<ref name=Biruni>{{cite book|author=Bīrūnī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad|title=The chronology of ancient nations|year=1879|publisher=London, Pub. for the Oriental translations fund of Great Britain & Ireland by W. H. Allen and co.|lccn=01006783|chapter=VIII}}</ref> and [[Sahl ibn Bishr]], (''a.k.a.'' ''Zael''), whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as [[Guido Bonatti]] in the 13th century, and [[William Lilly]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book | author=Houlding, Deborah | title=Essays on the History of Western Astrology | publisher=STA| year=2010 | pages=2–7 | chapter=6: Historical sources and traditional approaches}}</ref> Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]].

==== Europe ====

[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 004.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Dante Alighieri]] meets the Emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]] in the Sphere of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], in Canto 5 of the ''[[Paradiso (Dante)|Paradiso]]'']]

{{See also|Christian views on astrology}}
The first astrological book published in Europe was the ''Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus'' ("Book of the Planets and Regions of the World"), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored by [[Gerbert of Aurillac]].<ref name=Campion44>Campion, 1982. p. 44.</ref> [[Ptolemy|Ptolemy's]] second century AD ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' was translated into Latin by [[Plato Tiburtinus|Plato of Tivoli]] in 1138.<ref name=Campion44/> The [[Dominican order|Dominican]] theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] followed [[Aristotle]] in proposing that the stars ruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting to reconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that God ruled the soul.<ref name=Campion45>Campion, 1982. p. 45.</ref> The thirteenth century mathematician [[Campanus of Novara]] is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the [[prime vertical]] into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs,<ref name=Campion46>Campion, 1982. p. 46.</ref> though the system was used earlier in the East.<ref>{{cite book | author=North, John David | year= 1986 | title=Horoscopes and history | publisher=Warburg Institute | pages=175–176 | chapter=The eastern origins of the Campanus (Prime Vertical) method. Evidence from al-Bīrūnī}}</ref> The thirteenth century [[astronomer]] [[Guido Bonatti]] wrote a textbook, the ''Liber Astronomicus'', a copy of which King [[Henry VII of England]] owned at the end of the fifteenth century.<ref name=Campion46/>

In ''[[Paradiso (Dante)|Paradiso]]'', the final part of the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', the Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri]] referred "in countless details"<ref name=Durling>{{cite journal | title=Dante's Christian Astrology. by Richard Kay. Review | author=Durling, Robert M. | journal=Speculum |date=January 1997 | volume=72 | issue=1 | pages=185–187 | quote=Dante's interest in astrology has only slowly been gaining the attention it deserves. In 1940 Rudolf Palgen published his pioneering eighty-page "Dantes Sternglaube: Beiträge zur Erklärung des Paradiso", which concisely surveyed Dante's treatment of the planets and of the sphere of fixed stars; he demonstrated that it is governed by the astrological concept of the "children of the planets" (in each sphere the pilgrim meets souls whose lives reflected the dominant influence of that planet) and that in countless details the imagery of the Paradiso is derived from the astrological tradition. ... Like Palgen, he [Kay] argues (again, in more detail) that Dante adapted traditional astrological views to his own Christian ones; he finds this process intensified in the upper heavens. | jstor=2865916 | doi=10.2307/2865916}}</ref> to the astrological planets, though he adapted traditional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint,<ref name=Durling/> for example using astrological thinking in his prophecies of the reform of [[Christendom]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dante and the Doctrine of the Great Conjunctions | author=Woody, Kennerly M. | journal=Dante Studies, with the Annual Report of the Dante Society | year=1977 | volume=95 | issue=95 | pages=119–134 | quote=It can hardly be doubted, I think, that Dante was thinking in astrological terms when he made his prophecies. [The attached footnote cites Inferno. I, lOOff.; Purgatorio. xx, 13-15 and xxxiii, 41; Paradiso. xxii, 13-15 and xxvii, 142-148.] | jstor=40166243}}</ref>

==== Medieval objections ====

[[File:Isidor von Sevilla.jpeg|thumb|upright|right|The medieval theologian [[Isidore of Seville]] criticised the predictive part of astrology.]]

In the seventh century, [[Isidore of Seville]] argued in his ''[[Etymologiae]]'' that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the sun, the moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous.<ref name=Wood5>Wood, 1970. p. 5</ref><ref name=Isidore>{{cite book | title=Etymologiae | author=Isidore of Seville | year=c. 600 | pages=L, 82, col. 170}}</ref> In contrast, [[John Gower]] in the fourteenth century defined astrology as essentially limited to the making of predictions.<ref name=Wood5/><ref>{{cite book | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=3197718&pageno=9 | title=Confessio Amantis | author=Gower, John | year=1390 | pages=VII, 670–84 | quote=Assembled with Astronomie / Is ek that ilke Astrologie / The which in juggementz acompteth / Theffect, what every sterre amonteth, / And hou thei causen many a wonder / To tho climatz that stonde hem under.}}</ref> The influence of the stars was in turn divided into natural astrology, with for example effects on tides and the growth of plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly predictable effects on people.<ref name=Wood6>Wood, 1970. p. 6</ref><ref name=Allen148>{{cite book | title=Star-crossed Renaissance | publisher=Duke University Press | author=Allen, Don Cameron | year=1941 | page=148}}</ref> The fourteenth century sceptic [[Nicole Oresme]] however included astronomy as a part of astrology in his ''Livre de divinacions''.<ref name=Wood8>Wood, 1970. pp. 8–11</ref> Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction of events such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappropriate, but that such prediction was a valid field of inquiry. However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose the timing of actions (so-called interrogation and election) as wholly false, and rejected the determination of human action by the stars on grounds of free will.<ref name=Wood8/><ref name=Coopland>{{cite book | title=Nicole Oresme and the Astrologers: A Study of his Livre de Divinacions | publisher=Harvard University Press; Liverpool University Press | author=Coopland, G. W. | year=1952}}</ref> The friar Laurens Pignon (c. 1368–1449)<ref>{{cite book | title=Laurens Pignon, O.P.: Confessor of Philip the Good | publisher=Jean Mielot | author=Vanderjagt, A.J. | year=1985 | location=Venlo, The Netherlands}}</ref> similarly rejected all forms of divination and determinism, including by the stars, in his 1411 ''Contre les Devineurs''.<ref>Veenstra, 1997. pp. 5, 32, passim</ref> This was in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab astronomer [[Albumasar]] (787-886) whose ''Introductorium in Astronomiam'' and ''De Magnis Coniunctionibus'' argued the view that both individual actions and larger scale history are determined by the stars.<ref>Veenstra, 1997. p. 184</ref>

In the late 15th century, [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]] forcefully attacked astrology in ''Disputationes contra Astrologos'', arguing that the heavens neither caused, nor heralded earthly events.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dijksterhuis |first1=Eduard Jan |title=The mechanization of the world picture |date=1986 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> His contemporary, [[Pietro Pomponazzi]], a "rationalistic and critical thinker", was much more sanguine about astrology and critical of Pico's attack.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Craig |title=Pietro Pomponazzi |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pomponazzi/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University }}</ref>

=== Renaissance and Early Modern ===
{{see also|Renaissance magic}}
[[File:Robert Fludd's An Astrologer Casting a Horoscope 1617.jpg|thumb|right|'An Astrologer Casting a Horoscope' from [[Robert Fludd|Robert Fludd's]] ''Utriusque Cosmi Historia'', 1617]]

[[Renaissance]] scholars commonly practised astrology. [[Gerolamo Cardano]] cast the horoscope of king [[Edward VI of England]], while [[John Dee]] was the personal astrologer to queen [[Elizabeth I of England]]. [[Catherine de Medici]] paid [[Michael Nostradamus]] in 1566 to verify the prediction of the death of her husband, king [[Henry II of France]] made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus. Major astronomers who practised as court astrologers included [[Tycho Brahe]] in the royal court of Denmark, [[Johannes Kepler]] to the [[Habsburgs]], [[Galileo Galilei]] to the [[Medici]], and [[Giordano Bruno]] who was burnt at the stake for heresy in Rome in 1600.<ref name=Campion47>Campion, 1982. p. 47.</ref> The distinction between astrology and astronomy was not entirely clear. Advances in astronomy were often motivated by the desire to improve the accuracy of astrology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Pico+and+the+historiography+of+Renaissance+astrology.-a0251858267|title=Pico and the historiography of Renaissance astrology|work=Explorations in Renaissance Culture|author=Rabin, Sheila J.|date=2010|access-date=10 February 2016}}</ref>

[[Ephemeris|Ephemerides]] with complex astrological calculations, and [[almanac]]s interpreting celestial events for use in medicine and for choosing times to plant crops, were popular in Elizabethan England.<ref name=Harkness105>{{cite book | title=The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Harkness, Deborah E. | year=2007 | page=105 | isbn=978-0-300-14316-4}}</ref> In 1597, the English [[mathematician]] and [[physician]] [[Thomas Hood (mathematician)|Thomas Hood]] made a set of paper instruments that used revolving overlays to help students work out relationships between fixed stars or constellations, the midheaven, and the twelve [[House (astrology)|astrological houses]].<ref name=Harkness133>{{cite book | title=The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Harkness, Deborah E. | year=2007 | page=133 | isbn=978-0-300-14316-4}}</ref> Hood's instruments also illustrated, for pedagogical purposes, the supposed relationships between the signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of the human body adherents believed were governed by the planets and signs.<ref name=Harkness133/><ref>{{cite AV media | title=Astronomical diagrams by Thomas Hood, Mathematician | publisher=British Library | date=c. 1597 | medium=Vellum, in oaken cases | location=British Library (Add. MSS. 71494, 71495)}}</ref> While Hood's presentation was innovative, his astrological information was largely standard and was taken from [[Gerard Mercator|Gerard Mercator's]] astrological disc made in 1551, or a source used by Mercator.<ref>{{cite conference | url=http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/staff/saj/hood-astrology | title=The astrological instruments of Thomas Hood | access-date=12 June 2013 | author=Johnston, Stephen | book-title=XVII International Scientific Instrument Symposium |date=July 1998 | location=Soro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Dee, Mercator, and Louvain Instrument Making: An Undescribed Astrological Disc by Gerard Mercator (1551) | author=Vanden Broeke, Steven | journal=Annals of Science | year=2001 | volume=58 | issue=3 | pages=219–240 | doi=10.1080/00033790016703 | s2cid=144443271 }}</ref>

=== Enlightenment period and onwards ===
[[File:Seven spiritualists 1906.jpg|thumb|[[Middle-class]] Chicago women discuss spiritualism. (1906)]]
During [[the Enlightenment]], intellectual sympathy for astrology fell away, leaving only a popular following supported by cheap almanacs.<ref name=Porter>{{cite book | title=Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World | publisher=Penguin | author=Porter, Roy | year=2001 | pages=151–152 | isbn=978-0-14-025028-2 | quote=he did not even trouble readers with formal disproofs!}}</ref> One English almanac compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the age by printing a derisive ''Discourse on the Invalidity of Astrology'', while in France [[Pierre Bayle|Pierre Bayle's]] ''Dictionnaire'' of 1697 stated that the subject was puerile.<ref name=Porter/> The [[Anglo-Irish]] [[satire|satirist]] [[Jonathan Swift]] ridiculed the [[Whiggism|Whig]] political astrologer [[John Partridge (astrologer)|John Partridge]].<ref name=Porter/>

Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century, as part of a general revival of [[spiritualism]] and—later, [[New Age]] philosophy,<ref name="Campion-2009" />{{rp|239–249}} and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes.<ref name="Campion-2009" />{{rp|259–263}} Early in the 20th century the psychiatrist [[Carl Jung]] developed some concepts concerning astrology,<ref>{{cite book | author=Jung, C.G. | title=C.G. Jung Letters: 1906–1950. | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton, NJ | isbn=978-0-691-09895-1 | author2=Hull | editor-first=Gerhard | editor-last=Adler | others=in collaboration with Aniela Jaffé; translations from the German by R.F.C. | year=1973 | quote=Letter from Jung to Freud, 12 June 1911 "I made horoscopic calculations in order to find a clue to the core of psychological truth." | url=https://archive.org/details/letters0001jung }}</ref> which led to the development of [[psychological astrology]].<ref name="Campion-2009">{{cite book | last=Campion| first=Nicholas| title=History of western astrology. Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. | year=2009 | publisher=Continuum | location=London | isbn=978-1-4411-8129-9 | edition=first | quote=At the same time, in Switzerland, the psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) was developing sophisticated theories concerning astrology ...}}</ref>{{rp|251–256;}}<ref>Gieser, Suzanne. ''The Innermost Kernel, Depth Psychology and Quantum Physics. Wolfgang Pauli's Dialogue with C.G.Jung'', (Springer, Berlin, 2005) p. 21 {{ISBN|3-540-20856-9}}</ref><ref>Campion, Nicholas. "''Prophecy, Cosmology and the New Age Movement. The Extent and Nature of Contemporary Belief in Astrology.''"(Bath Spa University College, 2003) via Campion, Nicholas, ''History of Western Astrology'', (Continuum Books, London & New York, 2009) pp. 248, 256, {{ISBN|978-1-84725-224-1}}</ref>

== Principles and practice ==
Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an [[art]] form, a [[science]], and a method of divination.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica,' v.5, 1974, p. 916</ref><ref>Dietrich, Thomas: 'The Origin of Culture and Civilization,'' Phenix & Phenix Literary Publicists, 2005, p. 305</ref> Though most cultural astrology systems share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many use methods that differ from those in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as "Indian astrology" and in modern times referred to as "Vedic astrology") and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the world's cultural history.

=== Western ===
[[Western astrology]] is a form of [[divination]] based on the construction of a [[horoscope]] for an exact moment, such as a person's birth.<ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Philip P. Wiener]] |title=Dictionary of the history of ideas |year=1974 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-13293-8 |url=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;brand=default;}}</ref> It uses the tropical zodiac, which is aligned to the [[Equinox|equinoctial points]].<ref>James R. Lewis, 2003. ''The Astrology Book: the Encyclopedia of Heavenly Influences''. Visible Ink Press. Online at Google Books.</ref>

Western astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, Moon and planets, which are analysed by their movement through [[Astrological sign|signs]] of the [[zodiac]] (twelve spatial divisions of the [[ecliptic]]) and by their [[Astrological aspect|aspects]] (based on geometric angles) relative to one another. They are also considered by their placement in [[House (astrology)|houses]] (twelve spatial divisions of the sky).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hone |first=Margaret |title=The Modern Text-Book of Astrology |year=1978 |publisher=L. N. Fowler |location=Romford |isbn=978-0-85243-357-7 |pages=21–89}}</ref> Astrology's modern representation in western popular media is usually reduced to [[sun sign astrology]], which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an individual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the total chart.<ref>{{cite book |last=Riske |first=Kris |title=Llewellyn's Complete Book of Astrology |year=2007 |publisher=Llewellyn Publications |location=Minnesota, USA |isbn=978-0-7387-1071-6 |pages=5–6; 27}}</ref>

The horoscope visually expresses the set of relationships for the time and place of the chosen event. These relationships are between the seven 'planets', signifying tendencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zodiac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a particular sign and a particular house at the chosen time, when observed from the chosen place, creating two kinds of relationship.<ref name=Kremer>{{cite journal | title=Horoscopes and History. by J. D. North; A History of Western Astrology. by S. J. Tester | author=Kremer, Richard | journal=Speculum | year=1990 | volume=65 | issue=1 | pages=206–209 | jstor=2864524 | doi=10.2307/2864524}}</ref> A third kind is the aspect of each planet to every other planet, where for example two planets 120° apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship, but two planets 90° apart ('square') are in a conflicted relationship.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Pelletier, Robert |author2=Cataldo, Leonard | title=Be Your Own Astrologer | pages=57–60 | publisher=Pan | year=1984}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Fenton, Sasha | title=Rising Signs | pages=137–9 | publisher =Aquarian Press | year=1991}}</ref> Together these relationships and their interpretations supposedly form "...the language of the heavens speaking to learned men."<ref name=Kremer/>

Along with [[tarot divination]], astrology is one of the core studies of [[Western esotericism]], and as such has influenced systems of [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] belief not only among Western esotericists and [[Hermeticism|Hermeticists]], but also belief systems such as [[Wicca]] that have borrowed from or been influenced by the Western esoteric tradition. [[Tanya Luhrmann]] has said that "all magicians know something about astrology," and refers to a [[table of correspondences]] in [[Starhawk|Starhawk's]] ''[[The Spiral Dance]]'', organised by [[planets in astrology|planet]], as an example of the astrological lore studied by magicians.<ref name="Luhrmann">{{cite book | title=Persuasions of the witch's craft: ritual magic in contemporary England | publisher=Harvard University Press | author=Luhrmann, Tanya | year=1991 | pages=147–151 | isbn=978-0-674-66324-4}}</ref>

=== Hindu ===
{{Main|Hindu astrology}}

[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Page from an Astrological Treatise.jpg|upright|thumb|Page from an Indian astrological treatise, c. 1750]]

The earliest [[Veda|Vedic]] text on astronomy is the ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha]]''; Vedic thought later came to include astrology as well.<ref name=Subbarayappa>{{cite book|last=Subbarayappa|first=B. V.|editor=Biswas, S. K. |editor2=Mallik, D. C. V. |editor3=[[C. V. Vishveshwara|Vishveshwara, C. V.]] | title=Cosmic Perspectives | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFTGKi8fjvoC&pg=FA25 | date=14 September 1989 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-34354-1 | pages=25–40 | chapter=Indian astronomy: An historical perspective | quote=In the Vedic literature Jyotis[h]a, which connotes 'astronomy' and later began to encompass astrology, was one of the most important subjects of study... The earliest Vedic astronomical text has the title, Vedanga Jyotis[h]a...}}</ref>

Hindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrology by the 3rd century BCE,<ref name=Pingree1978>{{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |title=Indian Astronomy |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |date=18 December 1978 |volume=122 |series=American Philosophical Society |issue=6 |pages=361–364 |jstor=986451 }}</ref>{{rp|361}}<ref name=Pingree2001>{{cite journal | title=From Alexandria to Baghdād to Byzantium. The Transmission of Astrology | author=Pingree, David | journal=International Journal of the Classical Tradition | year=2001 | volume=8 | issue=1 | pages=3–37 | jstor=30224155 | doi=10.1007/bf02700227| bibcode=2003IJCT...10..487G | s2cid=162030487 }}</ref> though incorporating the Hindu lunar mansions.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=620756 | title=The Circle of Stars: An Introduction to Indian Astrology by Valerie J. Roebuck. Review | author=Werner, Karel |author-link=Karel Werner | journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | year=1993 | pages=645–646|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00008326 | volume=56| issue=3 | s2cid=162270467 }}</ref> The names of the signs (e.g. Greek 'Krios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'), the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrological Hindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apoklima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary conjunction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) in Varaha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidence of a Greek origin for Hindu astrology.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Notes on Hindu Astronomy and the History of Our Knowledge of It | author=Burgess, James | journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |date=October 1893 | pages=717–761 | jstor=25197168}}</ref> The Indian techniques may also have been augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.<ref name=Pingree1963>{{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |s2cid=128083594 |title=Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran |journal=Isis |date=June 1963 |volume=54 |series=The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society |issue=2 |pages=229–246 |jstor=228540 |doi=10.1086/349703|bibcode=1963Isis...65..229P }}</ref>{{rp|231}}

=== Chinese and East Asian ===
{{Details|Chinese zodiac}}
[[Chinese astrology]] has a close relation with [[Chinese philosophy]] (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as [[yin and yang]], the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Five phases]], the 10 [[Celestial stem]]s, the 12 [[Earthly Branches]], and [[Chinese units of measurement|shichen]] (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to [[History of astrology|political astrology]], the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of [[Omen|portent]]s and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.<ref name=Kistemaker>{{cite book | first=Sun, Xiaochun | title=The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society | journal=The Chinese Sky During the Han: Constellating Stars and Society | year=1997 | publisher=Brill | location=Leiden | isbn=978-90-04-10737-3 | last=Kistemaker, Jacob| bibcode=1997csdh.book.....S }}</ref>{{rp|22,85,176}}

The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into [[Chinese constellations|Three Enclosures]] (三垣 sān yuán), and [[Twenty-Eight Mansions]] (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci ([[:zh:分野|十二次]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stephenson|first1=F. Richard|title=Chinese roots of modern astronomy|date=1980-06-26|journal=[[New Scientist]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCucnrYeCsIC&pg=PA380|volume=86|issue=1207|pages=380–383}}</ref> The Chinese zodiac of twelve [[Astrological sign#Chinese zodiac signs|animal signs]] is said to represent twelve different types of [[personality]]. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the [[Rat (zodiac)|Rat]], and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animals signs: the [[Ox (zodiac)|Ox]], [[Tiger (zodiac)|Tiger]], [[Rabbit (zodiac)|Rabbit]], [[Dragon (zodiac)|Dragon]], [[Snake (zodiac)|Snake]], [[Horse (zodiac)|Horse]], [[Goat (zodiac)|Goat]], [[Monkey (zodiac)|Monkey]], [[Rooster (zodiac)|Rooster]], [[Dog (zodiac)|Dog]], and [[Pig (zodiac)|Pig]].<ref>Theodora Lau, ''The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes'', pp 2–8, 30–5, 60–4, 88–94, 118–24, 148–53, 178–84, 208–13, 238–44, 270–78, 306–12, 338–44, Souvenir Press, New York, 2005</ref> Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ''ziping'' and [[Zi wei dou shu|Zi Wei Dou Shu]] ({{zh|s=紫微斗数|t=紫微斗數|p=zǐwēidǒushù}}) are still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=raKRY3KQspsC&q=astrology+in+China+Springer&pg=PA76 | title=Astrology in China | publisher=Springer | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures | year=1997 | access-date=22 July 2012 | editor=Selin, Helaine|editor-link=Helaine Selin| isbn=9780792340669 }}</ref>

The [[Korean zodiac]] is identical to the Chinese one. The [[Vietnamese zodiac]] is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the ''[[Water buffalo (zodiac)|Water Buffalo]]'' instead of the ''[[Ox (zodiac)|Ox]]'', and the fourth animal is the ''[[Cat (zodiac)|Cat]]'' instead of the ''[[Rabbit (zodiac)|Rabbit]]''. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The Thai zodiac begins, not at [[Chinese New Year]], but either on the first day of fifth month in the [[Thai lunar calendar]], or during the [[Songkran (Thailand)|Songkran]] festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.<ref>{{cite web|title=การเปลี่ยนวันใหม่ การนับวัน ทางโหราศาสตร์ไทย การเปลี่ยนปีนักษัตร โหราศาสตร์ ดูดวง ทำนายทายทัก ('The transition to the new astrological dates Thailand. Changing zodiac astrology horoscope prediction')|url=http://www.myhora.com/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-004.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103152835/http://www.myhora.com/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-004.aspx|archive-date=3 January 2011|df=dmy-all}} (in Thai)</ref>

== Theological viewpoints ==
{{see also|Christian views on astrology|Jewish views on astrology|Muslim views on astrology}}

=== Ancient ===
[[St. Augustine]] (354{{ndash}}430) believed that the determinism of astrology conflicted with the Christian doctrines of man's free will and responsibility, and God not being the cause of evil,<ref>{{cite book | title=Magic and Divination at the Courts of Burgundy and France: Text and Context of Laurens Pignon's "Contre les Devineurs" (1411) | publisher=Brill | author=Veenstra, J.R. | year=1997 | isbn=978-90-04-10925-4|pages=184–185}}</ref> but he also grounded his opposition philosophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time.<ref name=Hess>{{cite book |last=Hess |first=Peter M.J. |title=Catholicism and science |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood |location=Westport |isbn=978-0-313-33190-9 |page=11 |edition=1st |author2=Allen, Paul L.}}</ref>

=== Medieval ===
[[File:Avicenna.jpg|thumb|upright|A drawing of [[Avicenna]]]]
Some of the practices of astrology were contested on theological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such as [[Al-Farabi]] (Alpharabius), [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) and [[Avicenna]]. They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]], by suggesting that the Will of God can be known and predicted.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Saliba |first=George | author-link=George Saliba | year=1994b | title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam | publisher=[[New York University Press]] | isbn=978-0-8147-8023-7 | pages=60, 67–69}}</ref> For example, Avicenna's 'Refutation against astrology', ''Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm'', argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle that planets may act as agents of divine causation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belo|first=Catarina|title=Chance and Determinism in Avicenna and Averroes|date=2007-02-23|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|isbn=978-90-474-1915-0|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004155879.i-252|page=228}}</ref> Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it.<ref>[[George Saliba]], ''Avicenna'': 'viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences'. Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, 2011, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii</ref> [[Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] (1292–1350), in his ''Miftah Dar al-SaCadah'', also used [[physics|physical]] arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology.<ref name=Livingston>{{Cite journal | title=Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation | first=John W. | last=Livingston | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=91 | issue=1 | year=1971 | pages=96–103 | doi=10.2307/600445| jstor=600445}}</ref> He recognised that the [[star]]s are much larger than the [[planet]]s, and argued: <blockquote>And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and [[al-Dhanab]], which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?<ref name=Livingston/></blockquote>

=== Modern ===

The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] maintains that divination, including predictive astrology, is incompatible with modern [[Catholicism|Catholic]] beliefs<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Stravinskas |editor-first=Peter M.J. |title=Our Sunday visitor's Catholic encyclopedia|year=1998|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Pub.|location=Huntington, Ind.|isbn=978-0-87973-669-9|edition=Rev.|page=111}}</ref> such as free will:<ref name=Hess />

{{blockquote|All forms of divination are to be rejected: recourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up the dead or other practices falsely supposed to "unveil" the future. Consulting horoscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone.<ref>{{cite web|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Part 3|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c1a1.htm|access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref>|Catechism of the Catholic Church}}

== Scientific analysis and criticism ==
{{main|Astrology and science}}
{{Paranormal|main}}
[[File:Karl Popper.jpg|thumb|upright|Popper proposed falsifiability as something that distinguishes science from non-science, using astrology as the example of an idea that has not dealt with falsification during experiment]]

The scientific community rejects astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe, and considers it a [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="SandPSandAstroSoc">{{cite encyclopedia|author1=Sven Ove Hansson|author2=Edward N. Zalta|title=Science and Pseudo-Science|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=6 July 2012|quote=[...] advocates of pseudo-sciences such as astrology and homeopathy tend to describe their theories as conformable to mainstream science.}}</ref><ref name="astrosociety.org">
{{cite web|title=Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List|url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html|publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific}}
</ref><ref name="Hartmann">
{{cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=P.|author2=Reuter, M.|author3=Nyborga, H.|date=May 2006|title=The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=40|issue=7|pages=1349–1362|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017|quote=To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book ''Astrology: Science or superstition?'' by Eysenck and Nias (1982).}}
</ref>{{rp|1350}} Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.<ref name="Zarka"/>{{rp|424;}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Astrology True or False?: A Scientific Evaluation |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=1988 |first1=Roger B. |last1=Culver |first2=Philip A. |last2=Ianna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OhoRAQAAIAAJ|isbn=9780879754839 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McGrew |first1=John H. |last2=McFall |first2=Richard M. |title=A Scientific Inquiry into the Validity of Astrology |journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration |volume=4 |number=1 |pages=75–83 |year=1990 |url=http://www.skepticalmedia.com/astrology/Scientific%20Inquiry%20into%20Astrology.pdf}}{{unreliable source?|date=February 2020}}</ref> There is no proposed [[Scientific modelling|mechanism of action]] by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict basic and well understood aspects of biology and physics.<ref name=Vishveshwara>{{cite book |last=Vishveshwara |first=edited by S.K. Biswas, D.C.V. Mallik, C.V. |title=Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated to the Memory of M.K.V. Bappu |year=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-34354-1 |edition=1. publ.}}</ref>{{rp|249;}}<ref name=AsquithNSF>{{cite book | editor=Peter D. Asquith |title=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1 |year=1978 |publisher=Reidel |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-0-917586-05-7 |url=http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/astrology.pdf}}; {{cite web |title=Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding |url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm |work=science and engineering indicators 2006 |publisher=National Science Foundation |access-date=2 August 2016 |quote=About three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items[29]"... " Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a "spirit-being" to temporarily assume control of a body. |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201220040/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm |archive-date=1 February 2013 |df=dmy}}</ref> Those who have faith in astrology have been characterised by scientists including Bart J. Bok as doing so "...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary".<ref name="Humanist">{{cite web|title=Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists|publisher=The Humanist, September/October 1975|url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318140638/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html|archive-date=18 March 2009}}; [http://thehumanist.org/the-humanist-archive/ The Humanist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007094955/http://thehumanist.org/the-humanist-archive/ |date=7 October 2011 }}, volume 36, no.5 (1976); {{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science and the Occult |chapter=Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists |year=1982 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany |isbn=978-0-87395-572-0 |pages=14–18 |author=Bok, Bart J. |author2=Lawrence E. Jerome |author3=Paul Kurtz |author-link3=Paul Kurtz |editor=Patrick Grim}}</ref>

[[Confirmation bias]] is a form of [[cognitive bias]], a [[Psychology|psychological]] factor that contributes to belief in astrology.<ref name="Allum">{{cite journal |last=Allum |first=Nick |title=What Makes Some People Think Astrology Is Scientific? |journal=Science Communication |date=13 December 2010 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=341–366 |doi=10.1177/1075547010389819 |quote=This underlies the ''Barnum effect''. Named after the 19th-century showman Phileas T. Barnum—whose circus provided "a little something for everyone"—it refers to the idea that people believe a statement about their personality that is vague or trivial if they think it derives from some systematic procedure tailored especially for them (Dickson & Kelly, 1985; Furnham & Schofield, 1987; Rogers & Soule, 2009; Wyman & Vyse, 2008). For example, the more birth detail is used in an astrological prediction or horoscope, the more credulous people tend to be (Furnham, 1991). However, confirmation bias means that people do not tend to pay attention to other information that might disconfirm the credibility of the predictions.|url=http://repository.essex.ac.uk/6076/ |citeseerx=10.1.1.598.6954 |s2cid=53334767 }}</ref>{{rp|344;}}<ref name="Raymond">{{cite journal |first=Raymond S. Nickerson |title=Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises |journal=Review of General Psychology|year=1998 |volume=2 |series=2 |pages=175–220 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 |last1=Nickerson |issue=2|citeseerx=10.1.1.93.4839|s2cid=8508954 }}</ref>{{rp|180–181;}}<ref name="Eysenck1982">{{cite book |last=Eysenck |first=H.J. |title=Astrology: Science or Superstition? |year=1984 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Harmondsworth |isbn=978-0-14-022397-2 |author2=Nias, D.K.B.}}</ref>{{rp|42–48}} {{efn|see [[Heuristics in judgement and decision making]]}}<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite book |author=Gonzalez |editor= Jean-Paul Caverni |editor2=Jean-Marc Fabre, Michel |title=Cognitive biases |year=1990 |publisher=North-Holland |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-444-88413-8}}</ref>{{rp|553}} Astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not.<ref name="Raymond" />{{rp|180–181}} Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief.<ref name="Raymond" />{{rp|180–181}}

=== Demarcation ===

Under the criterion of [[falsifiability]], first proposed by the [[philosopher of science]] [[Karl Popper]], astrology is a pseudoscience.<ref name=PopperStanford>{{cite encyclopedia |authors=Stephen Thornton, Edward N. Zalta (older edition)|title=Karl Popper|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2018}}</ref> Popper regarded astrology as "pseudo-empirical" in that "it appeals to observation and experiment," but "nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards."<ref name=Popper>{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-28594-0 |edition=Reprinted‌}}{{rp|44}}
* The relevant piece is also in {{cite book |last=Schick Jr|first=Theodore|title=Readings in the Philosophy of Science: From Positivism to Postmodernism|year=2000|publisher=Mayfield Pub|location=Mountain View, CA|isbn=978-0-7674-0277-4 |pages=33–39 |ref=none}}</ref> In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment.<ref name=Cogan>{{cite book |last=Cogan |first=Robert |title=Critical Thinking: Step by Step |year=1998 |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-7618-1067-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/criticalthinking0000coga }}</ref>{{rp|206}}

In contrast to Popper, the philosopher [[Thomas Kuhn]] argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical.<ref name=Wright>{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Peter |title=Astrology and Science in Seventeenth-Century England |journal=Social Studies of Science |year=1975 |pages=399–422 | doi = 10.1177/030631277500500402 |pmid=11610221 |volume=5|issue=4 |s2cid=32085403 }}</ref>{{rp|401}} Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically, made predictions that categorically failed, this in itself does not make astrology unscientific, nor do attempts by astrologers to explain away failures by claiming that creating a horoscope is very difficult. Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]]; astrologers followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research,<ref name=Kuhn />{{rp|8}} and so "they had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise."<ref name=Wright />{{rp|401;}}<ref name=Kuhn>{{cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas |title=Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science [held at Bedford College, Regent's Park, London, from July 11th to 17th 1965] |year=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-09623-2 |edition=Reprint |editor=[[Imre Lakatos]] |editor2=[[Alan Musgrave]] |url=https://archive.org/details/criticismgrowth00laka }}</ref>{{rp|8}} While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological [[hypothesis]] in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific.<ref name=Kuhn />{{rp|8}}

The philosopher [[Paul Thagard]] asserts that astrology cannot be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor. In the case of predicting behaviour, psychology is the alternative.<ref name=Thagard />{{rp|228}} To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience is that the state-of-the-art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempting to compare the current theory to alternatives, and not be "selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations."<ref name=Thagard />{{rp|227–228}} Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems, yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years.<ref name=Thagard />{{rp|228}}<ref name=Hurley />{{rp|549}} To Thagard, astrologers are acting as though engaged in [[normal science]] believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the "many unsolved problems", and in the face of better alternative theories (psychology). For these reasons Thagard views astrology as pseudoscience.<ref name=Thagard /><ref name=Hurley>{{cite book |last=Hurley|first=Patrick|title=A concise introduction to logic |year=2005 |publisher=Wadsworth |location=Belmont, Calif.|isbn=978-0-534-58505-1|edition=9th}}</ref>{{rp|228}}

For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.<ref name=EdwardJ />{{rp|34}}

{{blockquote|What if throughout astrological writings we meet little appreciation of coherence, blatant insensitivity to evidence, no sense of a hierarchy of reasons, slight command over the contextual force of critieria, stubborn unwillingness to pursue an argument where it leads, stark naivete concerning the efficacy of explanation and so on? In that case, I think, we are perfectly justified in rejecting astrology as irrational. ... Astrology simply fails to meet the multifarious demands of legitimate reasoning.|Edward W. James<ref name=EdwardJ>{{cite book|last=James|first=Edward W.|title=Philosophy of science and the occult.|year=1982|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-87395-572-0|editor=Patrick Grim}}</ref>{{rp|34}}|title=|source=}}

=== Effectiveness ===

Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in [[Experiment|controlled studies]] and has no scientific validity.<ref name="Cosmic">{{cite book |author1=Jeffrey Bennett |author2=Megan Donohue |author3=Nicholas Schneider |author4=Mark Voit |title=The cosmic perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/astronomymediawo04lopr |url-access=registration |year=2007 |publisher=Pearson/Addison-Wesley |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-0-8053-9283-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/astronomymediawo04lopr/page/82 82–84] |edition=4th}}</ref>{{rp|85;}}<ref name=Zarka /> Where it has made [[falsifiable]] predictions under [[Scientific control|controlled conditions]], they have been falsified.<ref name=Zarka />{{rp|424}} One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the [[California Psychological Inventory]] (CPI) questionnaire.<ref name=Muller>{{cite web|last=Muller |first=Richard |title=Web site of Richard A. Muller, Professor in the Department of Physics at the University of California at Berkeley |access-date=2 August 2011 |year=2010 |url=http://muller.lbl.gov/homepage.html }}''My former student Shawn Carlson published in Nature magazine the definitive scientific test of Astrology.'' {{cite web|last=Maddox |first=Sir John |title=John Maddox, editor of the science journal Nature, commenting on Carlson's test |year=1995 |access-date=2 August 2011 |url=http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/astrology.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912144554/http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/astrology.html |archive-date=12 September 2012 |df=dmy }} ''"... a perfectly convincing and lasting demonstration."''</ref><ref name="CritThink">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jonathan C. |title=Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit |year=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Malden, MA|isbn=978-1-4051-8123-5}}</ref> The [[Blind experiment#Double-blind trials|double-blind]] experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers<ref name=Zarka /> nominated by the [[National Council for Geocosmic Research]], who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair<ref name=Carlson/>{{rp|420;}}<ref name=CritThink />{{rp|117}} and helped draw the central proposition of [[natal astrology]] to be tested.<ref name="Carlson" />{{rp|419}} They also chose 26 out of the 28 astrologers for the tests (two more volunteered afterwards).<ref name=Carlson/>{{rp|420}} The study, published in [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] in 1985, found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing "...clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis."<ref name=Carlson />

In 1955, the astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that though he had failed to find evidence that supported indicators like [[Astrological signs|zodiacal signs]] and [[Astrological aspects|planetary aspects]] in astrology, he did find positive correlations between the [[Diurnal motion|diurnal positions]] of some [[Planets in astrology|planets]] and success in professions that astrology traditionally associates with those planets.<ref name=Pont>{{cite journal |last=Pont |first=Graham |title=Philosophy and Science of Music in Ancient Greece |journal=Nexus Network Journal |year=2004 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.1007/s00004-004-0003-x|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Gauquelin-1955">{{cite book |last=Gauquelin |first=Michel |title=L'influence des astres: étude critique et expérimentale |year=1955 |publisher=Éditions du Dauphin |location=Paris}}</ref> The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the [[natal chart]]s of successful athletes and became known as the ''[[Mars effect]]''.<ref name=Carroll>{{cite book |last=Carroll|first=Robert Todd|title=The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions |year=2003 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=978-0-471-27242-7}}</ref>{{rp|213}} A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence.<ref name=Carroll />{{rp|213–214}} They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part, accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study.<ref name=Benski>{{cite book |last=Benski |first=Claude|others=with a commentary by [[Jan Willem Nienhuys]] |title=The "Mars Effect: A French Test of over 1,000 Sports Champions |year=1995 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=978-0-87975-988-9|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information.<ref name=CritThink/>{{rp|116}}

Dean, a scientist and former astrologer, and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large scale scientific test that involved more than one hundred [[cognitive]], [[behavioural]], [[physiology|physical]], and other variables—but found no support for astrology.<ref name=FailToPredict>{{cite news |last=Matthews |first=Robert |title=Astrologers fail to predict proof they are wrong |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1439101/Astrologers-fail-to-predict-proof-they-are-wrong.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1439101/Astrologers-fail-to-predict-proof-they-are-wrong.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=13 July 2012 |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=17 August 2003 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=Geoffrey /> Furthermore, a [[meta-analysis]] pooled 40 studies that involved 700 astrologers and over 1,000 birth charts. Ten of the tests—which involved 300 participants—had the astrologers pick the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation (usually three to five others). When date and other obvious clues were removed, no significant results suggested there was any preferred chart.<ref name=Geoffrey>{{cite journal |title=Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi? |author=Dean G. |author2=Kelly, I. W. |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |year=2003 |volume=10 |issue=6–7 |pages=175–198}}</ref>{{rp|190}}

=== Lack of mechanisms and consistency ===
Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult, because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict.<ref name=Cosmic />{{rp|83}} Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.<ref name="Cosmic"/><ref name="Eysenck1982"/>{{rp|83}}

Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific,<ref name=ChrisFrench>{{cite news |last=Chris |first=French |title=Astrologers and other inhabitants of parallel universes |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/feb/07/astrologers-parallel-universes |work=The Guardian|date=7 February 2012 |access-date=8 July 2012 |location=London }}</ref> while some have proposed conventional [[Causality|causal agents]] such as [[electromagnetism]] and [[gravity]].<ref name=ChrisFrench/> Scientists reject these mechanisms as implausible<ref name=ChrisFrench /> since, for example, the magnetic field, when measured from Earth, of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances.<ref name=Shermer>{{cite book |last=editor |first=Michael Shermer |title=The Skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience |year=2002 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Cal. |isbn=978-1-57607-653-8 |page=241}}</ref>

Western astrology has taken the earth's [[Precession#Axial precession (precession of the equinoxes)|axial precession (also called precession of the equinoxes)]] into account since Ptolemy's ''[[Almagest]]'', so the "first point of Aries", the start of the astrological year, continually moves against the background of the stars.<ref>{{cite book | author=Tester, S. J. | title=A History of Western Astrology | year=1999 | publisher=Boydell & Brewer |page= 161}}</ref> The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated [[Astrological sign|sign]], astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations.<ref name=Charpak /> Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars."<ref name=Charpak/> Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the [[Age of Aquarius]], which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.<ref name=Zarka />

Astrologers usually have only a small knowledge of astronomy, and often do not take into account basic principles—such as the precession of the equinoxes, which changes the position of the sun with time. They commented on the example of [[Élizabeth Teissier]], who claimed that, "The sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year", as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday, but a number of years apart, should be under the same planetary influence. Charpak and Broch noted that, "There is a difference of about twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's location on any specific date in two successive years", and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology. Over a 40-year period there would be a difference greater than 780,000 miles.<ref name=Charpak>{{cite book |last1=Charpak |first1=Georges |last2=Broch |first2=Henri |year=2004 |orig-year=2002 |title=Debunked!: ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpnWcMzeh8oC&pg=PA6 |others=Translated by Bart K. Holland |location=Baltimore |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=9780801878671 |at="Astrology in a Vacuum", pp. 6–7}}</ref>

== Cultural impact ==

{{listen
| filename = Holst- mars.ogg
| title = Mars, the Bringer of War
| description = Mars, performed by [[The United States Air Force Band|the US Air Force Band]]
| format = [[Ogg]]
| filename2 = Holst- venus.ogg
| title2 = Venus, the Bringer of Peace
| description2 = Venus, performed by [[The United States Air Force Band|the US Air Force Band]]
| format2 = Ogg
| filename3 = Holst The Planets Mercury.ogg
| title3 = Mercury, the Winged Messenger
| description3 = Mercury, performed by [[The United States Air Force Band|the US Air Force Band]]
| filename4 = Holst The Planets Jupiter.ogg
| title4 = Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity
| description4 = Jupiter, performed by [[The United States Air Force Band|the US Air Force Band]]
| format4 = [[ogg]]
| filename5 = Holst- uranus.ogg
| title5 = Uranus, the Magician
| description5 = Uranus, performed by [[The United States Air Force Band|the US Air Force Band]]
| format5 = Ogg
}}

=== Western politics and society ===

In the West, political leaders have sometimes consulted astrologers. For example, the British intelligence agency [[MI5]] employed [[Louis de Wohl]] as an astrologer after claims surfaced that [[Adolf Hitler]] used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was "...interested to know what Hitler's own astrologers would be telling him from week to week."<ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JrdVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6779,6948658&dq=hitler-astrologer&hl=en | title=The Strange Story of Britain's "State Seer" | newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald | date=30 August 1952 | access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a "complete charlatan," and later evidence showed that Hitler considered astrology "complete nonsense."<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/mar/04/nationalarchives.secondworldwar | title=Star turn: astrologer who became SOE's secret weapon against Hitler | newspaper=The Guardian | date=4 March 2008 | access-date=21 July 2012 | location=London | first=Richard | last=Norton-Taylor}}</ref> After [[John Hinckley|John Hinckley's]] [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|attempted assassination]] of US President [[Ronald Reagan]], first lady [[Nancy Reagan]] commissioned astrologer [[Joan Quigley]] to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, [[Donald Regan]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Regan | first=Donald T. | title=For the record: from Wall Street to Washington | year=1988 | publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich | location=San Diego | isbn=978-0-15-163966-3 | edition=first | url=https://archive.org/details/forrecordfromwal00rega }}
* {{cite book | author=Quigley, Joan | title=What does Joan say? : my seven years as White House astrologer to Nancy and Ronald Reagan | year=1990 | publisher=Birch Lane Press | location=Secaucus, NJ | isbn=978-1-55972-032-8 | url=https://archive.org/details/whatdoesjoansaym00quig }}
* {{cite news | author=Gorney, Cynthia | title=The Reagan Chart Watch; Astrologer Joan Quigley, Eye on the Cosmos | url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/73606295.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=May+11%2C+1988&author=Cynthia+Gorney&pub=The+Washington+Post+%28pre-1997+Fulltext%29&edition=&startpage=c.01&desc=The+Reagan+Chart+Watch%3B+Astrologer+Joan+Quigley%2C+Eye+on+the+Cosmos | access-date=17 July 2012 | newspaper=The Washington Post | date=11 May 1988}}</ref>

There was a boom in interest in astrology in the late 1960s. The sociologist [[Marcello Truzzi]] described three levels of involvement of "Astrology-believers" to account for its revived popularity in the face of scientific discrediting. He found that most astrology-believers did not claim it was a scientific explanation with predictive power. Instead, those superficially involved, knowing "next to nothing" about astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaper astrology columns, and could benefit from "tension-management of anxieties" and "a cognitive belief-system that transcends science."<ref name=Truzzi>{{cite journal | title=The Occult Revival as Popular Culture: Some Random Observations on the Old and the Nouveau Witch | author=Truzzi, Marcello | journal=The Sociological Quarterly | year=1972 | volume=13 | issue=1 | pages=16–36 | jstor=4105818 | doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.1972.tb02101.x}}</ref> Those at the second level usually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice and predictions. They were much younger than those at the first level, and could benefit from knowledge of the language of astrology and the resulting ability to belong to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the third level were highly involved and usually cast horoscopes for themselves. Astrology provided this small minority of astrology-believers with a "''meaningful'' view of their universe and [gave] them an ''understanding'' of their place in it."{{efn|Italics in original.}} This third group took astrology seriously, possibly as a ''sacred canopy''{{Explain|date=April 2020}}, whereas the other two groups took it playfully and irreverently.<ref name=Truzzi/>

In 1953, the sociologist [[Theodor W. Adorno]] conducted a study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project examining mass culture in capitalist society.<ref name=Nederman>{{cite journal|title=Popular Occultism and Critical Social Theory: Exploring Some Themes in Adorno's Critique of Astrology and the Occult|journal=Sociological Analysis|date=Winter 1981|volume=42|author1=Cary J. Nederman |author2=James Wray Goulding |name-list-style=amp }}</ref>{{rp|326}} Adorno believed that popular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to statements that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers who go against conformity, by discouraging performance at work etc., risk losing their jobs.<ref name=Nederman />{{rp|327}} Adorno concluded that astrology is a large-scale manifestation of systematic [[irrationalism]], where individuals are subtly led—through flattery and vague generalisations—to believe that the author of the column is addressing them directly.<ref name=Adorno>{{cite journal|title=The Stars Down to Earth: The Los Angeles Times Astrology Column|author=Theodor W. Adorno | journal=Telos |date=Spring 1974 | volume=1974 | issue=19 | pages=13–90 | doi=10.3817/0374019013|s2cid=143675240 }}</ref> Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase [[opium of the people]], by Karl Marx, by commenting, "occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes."<ref name=Nederman />{{rp|329}}

A 2005 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll and a 2009 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] reported that 25% of US adults believe in astrology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/16915/Three-Four-Americans-Believe-Paranormal.aspx |title=Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal |last=Moore |first=David W. |publisher=[[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] |date=16 June 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/12/09/many-americans-mix-multiple-faiths/#eastern-or-new-age-beliefs-evil-eye |work=Many Americans Mix Multiple Faiths |title=Eastern or New Age Beliefs, 'Evil Eye' |date=9 December 2009 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|Pew Research Center's]] Religion & Public Life Project }}</ref> According to data released in the [[National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation's]] 2014 ''Science and Engineering Indicators'' study, "Fewer Americans rejected astrology in 2012 than in recent years."<ref name=NSF>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/index.cfm/chapter-7/c7h.htm |title=Science and Engineering Indicators: Chapter 7.Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding |publisher=National Science Foundation|access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> The NSF study noted that in 2012, "slightly more than half of Americans said that astrology was 'not at all scientific,' whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010. The comparable percentage has not been this low since 1983."<ref name=NSF />

=== India and Japan ===

[[File:Bdrates of Japan since 1950.svg|thumb|right|Birth (in blue) and death (in red) rates of Japan since 1950, with the sudden drop in births during hinoeuma year (1966)]]

In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of [[electional astrology|electional]], [[horary astrology|horary]] and [[karmic astrology]].<ref name="wideind">{{Cite news|title=BV Raman Dies |publisher=New York Times, 23 December 1998 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/23/world/bangalore-venkata-raman-indian-astrologer-dies-at-86.html |access-date= 12 May 2009 |first=Michael T. |last=Kaufman |date=23 December 1998}}</ref><ref name="fof">{{cite web|title=Fame and Fortune |author=Dipankar Das |url=https://www.lifepositive.com/fame-and-fortune/ |access-date=2 August 2016}}</ref> Indian politics have also been influenced by astrology.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/428081.stm | title=Soothsayers offer heavenly help | work=BBC News | access-date=21 July 2012 | date=2 September 1999}}</ref> It is still considered a branch of the [[Vedanga]].<ref>"In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences." David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology in India; Astrology in modern times". [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], 2008</ref><ref>Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? ''Indian Journal of Medical Ethics'' October–December 2001 9(4) [https://web.archive.org/web/20101103000514/http://issuesinmedicalethics.org/094co123.html]</ref> In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology,<ref name="BBC_India">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/sci_tech/highlights/010531_vedic.shtml |title=Indian Astrology vs Indian Science |work=BBC |date=31 May 2001}}</ref> resulting in permission for [[List of universities in India|Indian universities]] to offer courses in Vedic astrology.<ref name="UGC">{{cite web|title=Guidelines for Setting up Departments of Vedic Astrology in Universities Under the Purview of University Grants Commission |url=http://www.education.nic.in/circulars/astrologycurriculum.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512154221/http://www.education.nic.in/circulars/astrologycurriculum.htm |archive-date=12 May 2011|publisher=Government of India, Department of Education |access-date=26 March 2011 |quote=There is an urgent need to rejuvenate the science of Vedic Astrology in India, to allow this scientific knowledge to reach to the society at large and to provide opportunities to get this important science even exported to the world}}</ref>

In February 2011, the [[Bombay High Court]] reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that challenged its status as a science.<ref>'Astrology is a science: Bombay HC', [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms The Times of India], 3 February 2011</ref>

In [[Japan]], strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions in the years of [[Fire (wuxing)|Fire]] [[Horse (zodiac)|Horse]]. Adherents believe that women born in [[Bingwu|''hinoeuma'']] years are unmarriageable and bring bad luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the hinoeuma year.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bTGN21ev2MC&q=hinoeuma&pg=PA22 | title=Japanese childrearing: two generations of scholarship | year=1996 | access-date=22 July 2012| isbn=9781572300811 | last1=Shwalb | first1=David W. | last2=Shwalb | first2=Barbara J. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uAOrAAAAIAAJ&q=hinoeuma&pg=PA22 | title=The Political Economy of Japan: Cultural and social dynamics | year=1992 | access-date=22 July 2012| isbn=9780804719919 | last1=Kumon | first1=Shumpei | last2=Rosovsky | first2=Henry }}</ref>

=== Literature and music ===
[[File:Woman in the Moon.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Title page of [[John Lyly|John Lyly's]] astrological play, ''The Woman in the Moon'', 1597]]

The fourteenth-century English poets [[John Gower]] and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] both referred to astrology in their works, including Gower's ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' and Chaucer's ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''.<ref name=Wedel/> Chaucer commented explicitly on astrology in his ''Treatise on the Astrolabe'', demonstrating personal knowledge of one area, judicial astrology, with an account of how to find the ascendant or rising sign.<ref name=WoodAstrolabe>Wood, 1970. pp.12–21</ref>

In the fifteenth century, references to astrology, such as with [[simile]]s, became "a matter of course" in English literature.<ref name=Wedel>{{cite book | title=Mediæval Attitude Toward Astrology, Particularly in England | publisher=Kessinger | author=Wedel, Theodore Otto | year=2003 | orig-year=1920 | pages=131–156 | chapter=9: Astrology in Gower and Chaucer | isbn=9780766179981 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9lVQVyb9M4C&q=%22Confessio+Amantis%22+Gower+astrology&pg=PA133 | quote=The literary interest in astrology, which had been on the increase in England throughout the fourteenth century, culminated in the works of Gower and Chaucer. Although references to astrology were already frequent in the romances of the fourteenth century, these still retained the signs of being foreign importations. It was only in the fifteenth century that astrological similes and embellishments became a matter of course in the literature of England. Such innovations, one must confess, were due far more to Chaucer than to Gower. Gower, too, saw artistic possibilities in the new astrological learning, and promptly used these in his retelling of the Alexander legend—but he confined himself, for the most part, to a bald rehearsal of facts and theories. It is, accordingly, as a part of the long encyclopaedia of natural science that he inserted into his ''Confessio Amantis'', and in certain didactic passages of the ''Vox Clamantis'' and the ''Mirour de l'Omme'', that Astrology figures most largely in his works ... Gower's sources on the subject of astrology ... were Albumasar's ''Introductorium in Astronomiam'', the Pseudo-Aristotelian ''Secretum Secretorum'', Brunetto Latini's ''Trésor'', and the ''Speculum Astronomiae'' ascribed to Albert the Great.}}</ref>

[[File:Astrologo Fingido Calderon de la Barca title page 1641.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Title page of [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón de la Barca]]'s ''Astrologo Fingido'', Madrid, 1641]]

In the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, ''The Woman in the Moon'', is wholly motivated by astrology,<ref name=DeLacy>{{cite journal | title=Astrology in the Poetry of Edmund Spenser | author=De Lacy, Hugh | journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology |date=October 1934 | volume=33 | issue=4 | pages=520–543 | jstor=27703949}}</ref> while [[Christopher Marlowe]] makes astrological references in his plays ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]'' and ''[[Tamburlaine]]'' (both c. 1590),<ref name=DeLacy/> and [[Sir Philip Sidney]] refers to astrology at least four times in his [[Romance (heroic literature)|romance]] ''[[The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia]]'' (c. 1580).<ref name=DeLacy/> [[Edmund Spenser]] uses astrology both decoratively and causally in his poetry, revealing "...unmistakably an abiding interest in the art, an interest shared by a large number of his contemporaries."<ref name=DeLacy/> [[George Chapman|George Chapman's]] play, ''[[The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron|Byron's Conspiracy]]'' (1608), similarly uses astrology as a causal mechanism in the drama.<ref name=Camden>{{cite journal | title=Astrology in Shakespeare's Day | author=Camden Carroll, Jr. | journal=Isis |date=April 1933 | volume=19 | issue=1 | pages=26–73 | jstor=225186 | doi=10.1086/346721| s2cid=144020750 }}</ref> [[William Shakespeare|William Shakespeare's]] attitude towards astrology is unclear, with contradictory references in plays including ''[[King Lear]]'', ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'', and ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]''.<ref name=Camden/> Shakespeare was familiar with astrology and made use of his knowledge of astrology in nearly every play he wrote,<ref name=Camden/> assuming a basic familiarity with the subject in his commercial audience.<ref name=Camden/> Outside theatre, the physician and mystic [[Robert Fludd]] practised astrology, as did the quack doctor Simon Forman.<ref name=Camden/> In Elizabethan England, "The usual feeling about astrology ... [was] that it is the most useful of the sciences."<ref name=Camden/>

In seventeenth century Spain, [[Lope de Vega]], with a detailed knowledge of astronomy, wrote plays that ridicule astrology. In his pastoral romance ''La Arcadia'' (1598), it leads to absurdity; in his novela ''Guzman el Bravo'' (1624), he concludes that the stars were made for man, not man for the stars.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Attitude of Lope de Vega toward Astrology and Astronomy | author=Halstead, Frank G. | journal=Hispanic Review | volume=7 |issue=3 |date=July 1939 |pages=205–219 |jstor=470235 | doi=10.2307/470235}}</ref> [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón de la Barca]] wrote the 1641 comedy ''Astrologo Fingido'' (The Pretended Astrologer); the plot was borrowed by the French playwright [[Thomas Corneille]] for his 1651 comedy ''Feint Astrologue''.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Calderon's Astrologo Fingido in France |author=Steiner, Arpad | journal=Modern Philology | volume=24 |issue=1 |date=August 1926 |pages=27–30 |jstor=433789 | doi=10.1086/387623|s2cid=161217021 }}</ref>

The most famous piece of music influenced by astrology is the orchestral suite ''[[The Planets]]''. Written by the British composer [[Gustav Holst]] (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of ''The Planets'' is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.<ref>Campion, Nicholas.:''A History of Western Astrology: Volume II: The Medieval and Modern Worlds''. (Continuum Books, 2009) pp. 244–245 {{ISBN|978-1-84725-224-1}}</ref> Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet, though the movements are not in the order of the planets from the Sun. The composer [[Colin Matthews]] wrote an eighth movement entitled ''Pluto, the Renewer'', first performed in 2000.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=6045052 | title='Pluto the Renewer' is no swan song | publisher=National Public Radio (NPR) | date=10 September 2006 | access-date=13 June 2013 | author=Adams, Noah}}</ref> In 1937, another British composer, [[Constant Lambert]], wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called ''[[Horoscope (ballet)|Horoscope]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ashtonarchive.com/ballets/1938.htm |title=Frederick Ashton and His Ballets 1938 |publisher=Ashton Archive |year=2004 |access-date=2 August 2016 |author=Vaughan, David |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050514074649/http://www.ashtonarchive.com/ballets/1938.htm |archive-date=14 May 2005 |df=dmy }}</ref> In 1974, the New Zealand composer [[Edwin Carr (composer)|Edwin Carr]] wrote ''The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment'' for orchestra without strings.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sounz.org.nz/works/show/10611 | title=The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment | publisher=Centre for New Zealand Music | access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref> [[Camille Paglia]] acknowledges astrology as an influence on her work of literary criticism ''[[Sexual Personae]]'' (1990).<ref>Paglia, Camille. ''Sex, Art, and American Culture: Essays''. Penguin Books, 1992, p. 114.</ref>

Astrology features strongly in [[Eleanor Catton]]'s ''[[The Luminaries]]'', recipient of the [[2013 Man Booker Prize]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Catton |first1=Eleanor |author-link=Eleanor Catton |title=Eleanor Catton on how she wrote The Luminaries |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/apr/11/eleanor-catton-luminaries-how-she-wrote-booker-prize |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=10 December 2015|date=2014-04-11 }}</ref>
{{-}}

== See also ==
* [[Astrology and science]]
* [[Astrology software]]
* [[Barnum effect]]
* [[List of astrological traditions, types, and systems]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience|List of topics characterised as pseudoscience]]
* [[Jewish astrology]]
* [[Scientific skepticism]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book | last=Barton | first= Tamsyn | title=Ancient Astrology | year=1994 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-415-11029-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Campion | first= Nicholas | title=An Introduction to the History of Astrology | publisher=ISCWA | year=1982}}
* {{cite book | last=Campion | first= Nicholas | title=A History of Western Astrology. The Ancient World (vol. 1) | publisher=London Continuum | year=2008 |isbn=9781441127372 }}
* {{cite book | last=Holden | first= James Herschel | title=A History of Horoscopic Astrology | publisher=AFA | year=2006 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-0-86690-463-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Kay | first= Richard | title=Dante's Christian Astrology | publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press | series=Middle Ages Series | year=1994}}
* {{cite book | last=Long | first=A.A. | title=Science and Speculation. Studies in Hellenistic theory and practice | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2005 | pages=165–191 |editor1=Barnes, Jonathan |editor2=Brunschwig, J. | chapter=6: Astrology: arguments pro and contra}}
* {{cite book | last1=Parker | first1=Derek | last2=Parker | first2=Julia | title=A history of astrology | year=1983 | publisher=Deutsch | isbn=978-0-233-97576-4}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Robbins | editor-first=Frank E. | title=Ptolemy Tetrabiblos | year=1940 | publisher=Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library) | isbn=978-0-674-99479-9 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/tetrabiblos0000ptol }}
* {{cite book | last=Tester | first= S. J. | title=A History of Western Astrology | year=1999 | publisher=Boydell & Brewer}}
* {{cite book | title=Magic and Divination at the Courts of Burgundy and France: Text and Context of Laurens Pignon's "Contre les Devineurs" (1411) | publisher=Brill | author=Veenstra, J.R. | year=1997 | isbn=978-90-04-10925-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Wedel | first= Theodore Otto | title=The Medieval Attitude Toward Astrology: Particularly in England | url=https://archive.org/stream/medivalattitud00wede#page/n9/mode/2up | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1920}}
* {{cite book | last=Wood | first= Chauncey | title=Chaucer and the Country of the Stars: Poetical Uses of Astrological Imagery | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1970 |url=https://archive.org/details/chausercountryof0000unse |url-access=registration |isbn=9780691061726 |oclc=1148223228}}

==External links==
* [http://cura.free.fr/DIAL.html Digital International Astrology Library] (ancient astrological works)
* [http://www.biblioastrology.com/en/index.aspx Biblioastrology (www.biblioastrology.com)] (specialised bibliography)
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/astronomy_astrology/bibliography Paris Observatory]
{{Astrology-footer|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Divination}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{subject bar|Astronomy|Stars|d=y|auto=1}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Astrology| ]]

Homeopathy

2022-04-25T16:59:40Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with '{{Short description|Pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{good article}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}} {{U...'

{{Short description|Pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{good article}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox alternative medicine
| name = Homeopathy
| synonyms = Homoeopathy
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|audio=En-uk-homeopathy.ogg|ˌ|h|oʊ|m|i|ˈ|ɒ|p|ə|θ|i}}
| image = Saxonia Museum fuer saechsische Vaterlandskunde III 19.jpg
| image_size = 250
| alt = Samuel Hahnemann
| caption = [[Samuel Hahnemann]], originator of homeopathy
| claims = "Like cures like", dilution increases potency, disease caused by [[miasm]]s.
| topics = [[Alternative medicine]]
| origyear = 1796
| origprop = [[Samuel Hahnemann]]
| laterprop = [[James Tyler Kent]], [[Royal S. Copeland]], [[George Vithoulkas]]
| seealso = [[Humorism]], [[heroic medicine]]
| MeshID = D006705
}}
{{Alternative medical systems|fringe}}

'''Homeopathy''' or '''homoeopathy''' is a [[pseudoscientific]]<ref name="Tuomela2">{{cite book|author=Tuomela, R|title=Rational Changes in Science: Essays on Scientific Reasoning|publisher=Springer|year=1987|isbn=978-94-010-8181-8|veditors=Pitt JC, Marcello P|series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science|volume=98|pages=83–101|chapter=Chapter 4: Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience|doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4|author-link=Raimo Tuomela}}</ref><ref name="Smith20122">{{cite journal|author=Smith K|year=2012|title=Homeopathy is Unscientific and Unethical|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1035885|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=9|pages=508–12|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01956.x|s2cid=143067523}}</ref><ref name=Baran2014>{{cite book |vauthors=Baran GR, Kiana MF, Samuel SP |journal=Healthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century |publisher=Springer |year=2014 |pages=19–57 |title=Chapter 2: Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ? |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2 |isbn=978-1-4614-8540-7 |quote=within the traditional medical community it is considered to be quackery|chapter=Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ? }}</ref><ref name=Ladyman>{{cite book |author=Ladyman J |veditors=Pigliucci M, Boudry M |year=2013 |pages=48–49 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely). |isbn=978-0-226-05196-3}}</ref> system of [[alternative medicine]]. Its practitioners, called '''homeopaths''', believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people can cure similar symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is called ''[[similia similibus curentur]]'', or "like cures like".<ref name="Hahnemann"/> All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology<ref name="shang" /><ref name="ernst-skeptical-inquirer">{{cite journal|last=Ernst|first=E.|date=December 2012|title=Homeopathy: a critique of current clinical research|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/homeopathy_a_critique_of_current_clinical_research|journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|volume=36|issue=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Homeopathy|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/homeopathy|access-date=October 12, 2014|publisher=American Cancer Society}}</ref><ref name="inquiry_cfm">UK Parliamentary Committee Science and Technology Committee. [http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/science-and-technology-committee/inquiries/homeopathy-/ "Evidence Check 2: Homeopathy"]</ref><ref name="GrimesFACT">{{cite journal|last1=Grimes|first1=D.R.|year=2012|title=Proposed mechanisms for homeopathy are physically impossible|journal=Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=149–55|doi=10.1111/j.2042-7166.2012.01162.x}}</ref><ref name="EASAC2017">{{cite web|date=September 2017|title=Homeopathic products and practices: assessing the evidence and ensuring consistency in regulating medical claims in the EU|url=http://www.easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Homepathy_statement_web_final.pdf|access-date=1 October 2017|work=European Academies' Science Advisory Council|page=1|quote=... we agree with previous extensive evaluations concluding that there are no known diseases for which there is robust, reproducible evidence that homeopathy is effective beyond the placebo effect.}}</ref> gained since at least the mid-19th century<ref name="Holmes" /> contradicts homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are typically [[Biochemistry|biochemically]] inert, and have no effect on any known disease.<ref name="shang" /><ref name="pmid124926032">{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E.|author-link=Edzard Ernst|year=2002|title=A systematic review of systematic reviews of homeopathy|journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=54|issue=6|pages=577–82|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2125.2002.01699.x|pmc=1874503|pmid=12492603}}</ref><ref name="inquiry_4504">{{cite web|date=February 22, 2010|title=Evidence Check 2: Homeopathy – Science and Technology Committee|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmsctech/45/4504.htm|access-date=April 5, 2014|publisher=[[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]] Science and Technology Committee}}</ref> Its theory of disease, centered around principles Hahnemann termed [[#Miasms and disease|miasms]], is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as [[germ theory of disease|causes of disease]]. Clinical trials have been conducted and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations.<ref name="Caulfield20053">{{cite journal|last1=Caulfield|first1=Timothy|author-link=Timothy Caulfield|last2=Debow|first2=Suzanne|year=2005|title=A systematic review of how homeopathy is represented in conventional and CAM peer reviewed journals|journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=5|page=12|doi=10.1186/1472-6882-5-12|pmc=1177924|pmid=15955254}}</ref><ref name="sbm-fun">{{Cite news|last=Gorski|first=David|date=October 13, 2008|title=Fun with homeopaths and meta-analyses of homeopathy trials|language=en-US|website=Science-Based Medicine|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/fun-with-homeopaths-and-meta-analyses-of-homeopathy-trials/|access-date=2019-11-09}}</ref><ref name="Shelton" />{{rp|206|date=November 2012}}<ref name="Ernst20102">{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E.|author-link1=Edzard Ernst|year=2010|title=Homeopathy: What does the "best" evidence tell us?|url=https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2010/192/8/homeopathy-what-does-best-evidence-tell-us|journal=Medical Journal of Australia|volume=192|issue=8|pages=458–60|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.2010.tb03585.x|pmid=20402610|s2cid=42180344}}</ref> The fundamental implausibility of homeopathy as well as a lack of demonstrable effectiveness has led to it being characterized within the scientific and medical communities as [[quackery]] and [[fraud]].<ref name="Baran2014" /><ref name="Walport-Nonsense">{{cite news|last1=Collins|first1=Nick|date=April 18, 2013|title=Homeopathy is nonsense, says new chief scientist|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10003680/Homeopathy-is-nonsense-says-new-chief-scientist.html|url-status=dead|access-date=September 9, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420234704/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10003680/Homeopathy-is-nonsense-says-new-chief-scientist.html|archive-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref><ref name="oxcompus">{{cite book|author=Paul S. Boyer|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0|title=The Oxford companion to United States history|year=2001|isbn=9780195082098|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/630 630]|quote=After 1847, when regular doctors organized the American Medical Association (AMA), that body led the war on "quackery", especially targeting dissenting medical groups such as homeopaths, who prescribed infinitesimally small doses of medicine. Ironically, even as the AMA attacked all homeopathy as quackery, educated homeopathic physicians were expelling untrained quacks from their ranks.|access-date=January 15, 2013|url-access=registration}}</ref>

Homeopathic preparations are termed ''remedies'' and are made using [[homeopathic dilution]]. In this process, the selected substance is repeatedly diluted until the final product is chemically indistinguishable from the diluent. Often not even a single molecule of the original substance can be expected to remain in the product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rpharms.com/resources/quick-reference-guides/homeopathy|title=Homeopathy|website=[[Royal Pharmaceutical Society]]|access-date=2019-11-17}}</ref> Between each dilution homeopaths may hit and/or shake the product, claiming this makes the diluent remember the original substance after its removal. Practitioners claim that such preparations, upon oral intake, can treat or cure disease.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/|title=Homeopathy|date=2017-10-18|website=nhs.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref>

It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician [[Samuel Hahnemann]]. Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 with the first homeopathic school opening in 1835. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. During this period, homeopathy was able to appear relatively successful, as other forms of treatment could be harmful and ineffective. By the end of the century the practice began to wane, with the last exclusively homeopathic medical school in the US closing in 1920. During the 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback, with sales of some homeopathic products increasing tenfold. The trend corresponded with the rise of the [[New Age movement]], and may be in part due to [[chemophobia]], an irrational preference for "natural" products, and the longer consultation times homeopathic practitioners provided.

In the 21st century a series of meta-analyses have shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. As a result, national and international bodies have recommended the withdrawal of government funding for homeopathy in healthcare. National bodies from Australia, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France, as well as the European Academies' Science Advisory Council and the Russian Academy of Sciences have all concluded that homeopathy is ineffective, and recommended against the practice receiving any further funding.<ref name="Conversation-NHMRC">{{cite news | url=http://theconversation.com/no-evidence-homeopathy-is-effective-nhmrc-review-25368 | title=No evidence homeopathy is effective: NHMRC review | work=The Conversation | date=April 8, 2014 | last=Musgrave|first=I | access-date=January 10, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Swiss make New Year's regulations |url = http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-make-new-year-s-regulations/31867422 |publisher = Swiss Info |access-date = December 16, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Homeopathic remedies are 'nonsense and risk significant harm' say 29 European scientific bodies|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/homeopathy-nonsense-risk-harm-29-european-academies-science-advisory-council-remedies-a7963786.html|access-date=October 10, 2017|newspaper=The Independent|date=September 23, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-02-07|title=Memorandum #2. Homeopathy as pseudoscience|url=http://klnran.ru/en/2017/02/memorandum02-homeopathy/|access-date=June 25, 2019|website=[[Commission on Pseudoscience]]}}</ref> The [[NHS England|National Health Service in England]] no longer provides funding for homeopathic remedies and asked the [[Department of Health and Social Care|Department of Health]] to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items.<ref>{{cite news|date=July 21, 2017|title=NHS to ban homeopathy and herbal medicine, as 'misuse of resources'|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/21/nhs-ban-homeopathy-herbal-medicine-misuse-resources/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/21/nhs-ban-homeopathy-herbal-medicine-misuse-resources/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=July 21, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="TNHS">{{cite news|last1=Donnelly|first1=Laura|date=5 June 2018|title=High Court backs NHS decision to stop funding homeopathy|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/06/05/high-court-backs-nhs-decision-stop-funding-homeopathy/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/06/05/high-court-backs-nhs-decision-stop-funding-homeopathy/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=26 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="bbc-blacklist">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-34744858 |title=Homeopathy 'could be blacklisted' |last=Gallagher |first=James |date=2015-11-13 |work=BBC News |access-date=2017-12-05 |language=en-GB}}</ref> France removed funding in 2021,<ref name="GuardianFrance">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/10/france-to-stop-reimbursing-patients-for-homeopathic-treatment |title=France to stop reimbursing patients for homeopathy |last=France-Presse |first=Agence |date=2019-07-10 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2019-07-30 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="FranceEndFunding2021">{{cite web| url = https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sante/medicament/homeopathie/homeopathie-2021-signe-la-fin-du-remboursement_4240961.html| title = Homéopathie : 2021 signe la fin du remboursement}}</ref> while Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies from health centers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/11/14/inenglish/1542203925_514487.html |title=Spain moves to ban pseudo-therapies from universities and health centers |last=Güell |first=Oriol |date=2018-11-14 |work=El País |access-date=2019-07-30 |language=en |issn=1134-6582}}</ref>

==History==
Homeopathy, the longest established [[alternative medicine]] to come out of Europe, was created in 1796 by [[Samuel Hahnemann]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loudon|first=Irvine|date=December 2006|title=A brief history of homeopathy|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=99|issue=12|pages=607–610|doi=10.1177/014107680609901206|issn=0141-0768|pmc=1676328|pmid=17139061}}</ref> Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine of the late 18th century as irrational and inadvisable because it was largely ineffective and often harmful.<ref name=Lasagna>
{{cite book
|author =Lasagna L
|title =The doctors' dilemmas
|location =New York
|publisher =Collier Books
|year =1970
|orig-year =1962
|page =33
|isbn =978-0-8369-1669-0
}}</ref><ref name="isbn0-393-06661-4">{{cite book |author1=Edzard Ernst |author-link1=Edzard Ernst|author2=Singh, Simon |author-link2= Simon Singh|title=Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine |publisher=W. W. Norton |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-393-06661-6 |title-link=Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine }}</ref> He advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, [[vitalism|vitalistic]] view of how living organisms function.<ref name="Pray2003">{{cite book|author=W. Steven Pray|title=a History of Nonprescription Product Regulation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uadgq04eLr0C&pg=PA192|access-date=January 21, 2013|date=August 1, 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7890-1538-9|page=192}}</ref> The term ''homeopathy'' was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807.<ref>
{{cite journal|author=Dean ME|year=2001|title=Homeopathy and "the progress of science"|url=http://www.shpltd.co.uk/dean-homeopathy.pdf|journal=Hist Sci|volume=39|issue=125 Pt 3|pages=255–83|bibcode=2001HisSc..39..255E|doi=10.1177/007327530103900301|pmid=11712570|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101084902/http://www.shpltd.co.uk/dean-homeopathy.pdf|archive-date=January 1, 2006|access-date=March 31, 2009|s2cid=23943688}}
</ref> He also coined the expression "allopathic medicine", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional Western medicine.<ref name="Whorton2004">{{cite book|author=Whorton JC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RU0DndWVSPoC&pg=PA18|title=Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America|publisher=[[Oxford University Press US]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-517162-4|location=New York|pages=18, 52}}</ref>

===Concept===
[[File:Samuel Hahnemann Monument, Scott Circle.jpg|thumb|[[Samuel Hahnemann Monument]], Washington, D.C., with the inscription ''Similia Similibus Curentur'' – "Like cures Like"]]
Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist [[William Cullen]] into German. Being sceptical of Cullen's theory that [[cinchona]] cured [[malaria]] because it was bitter, Hahnemann ingested some bark specifically to investigate what would happen. He experienced fever, shivering and [[arthralgia|joint pain]]: symptoms similar to those of malaria itself. From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat.<ref name="UllmanReichenberg-Ullman1994">{{cite book|author1=Robert W. Ullman|author2=Judyth Reichenberg-Ullman|title=The patient's guide to homeopathic medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/patientsguidetoh00robe |url-access=registration|access-date=January 24, 2013|date=October 1, 1994|publisher=Picnic Point Press|isbn=978-0-9640654-2-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/patientsguidetoh00robe/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> This led to the name ''"homeopathy"'', which comes from the {{lang-grc-gre|ὅμοιος}} ''hómoios'', "-like" and {{lang|el|πάθος}} ''páthos'', "suffering".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Merrell|first1=Woodson C.|last2=Shalts|first2=Edward|date=2002|title=Homeopathy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11795090/|journal=The Medical Clinics of North America|volume=86|issue=1|pages=47–62|doi=10.1016/s0025-7125(03)00071-3|issn=0025-7125|pmid=11795090}}</ref>

The doctrine that those drugs are effective which produce symptoms similar to the symptoms caused by the diseases they treat, called "the law of similars", was expressed by Hahnemann with the Latin phrase ''[[similia similibus curentur]]'', or "like cures like".<ref name="Hahnemann" /> Hahnemann's law of similars is unproven and does not derive from the [[scientific method]].<ref name="Kirk">{{cite journal|date=December 1894|editor2=John Hugh McQuillen|editor3=George Jacob Ziegler|editor4=James William White|editor5=Edward Cameron Kirk|editor6=Lovick Pierce Anthony|title=A wail from the waste-basket|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/dencos/acf8385.0036.001/1050:349?didno=ACF8385.0036.001;rgn=full+text;view=image|journal=[[The Dental Cosmos]]|type=editorial|volume=36|issue=12|pages=1030–32|editor=J. D. White}}</ref> An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]], published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported.<ref name="Holmes" />{{rp|128}} Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains [[quinine]], which kills the ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas.<ref name="Atwood-BTTF1">{{cite web | url=http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/homeopathy-and-evidence-based-medicine-back-to-the-future-part-i/ | title=Homeopathy and evidence-based medicine: back to the future | publisher=[[Science Based Medicine]] | date=January 4, 2008 | access-date=September 9, 2013 | last=Atwood |first=Kimball}}</ref>

====Provings====
Hahnemann began to test what effects various substances may produce in humans, a procedure later called "homeopathic proving". These tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by recording all their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared.<ref name="Haehl1922">{{cite book|author=Richard Haehl|title=Samuel Hahnemann: His Life and Work : Based on Recently Discovered State Papers, Documents, Letters, Etc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q80gR6OxDVsC&pg=PA101|access-date=January 24, 2013|year=1922|publisher=B. Jain Publishers|isbn=978-81-7021-693-3|page=101}}</ref> He published a collection of provings in 1805, and a second collection of 65 preparations appeared in his book, ''Materia Medica Pura'' (1810).<ref name="Kirschmann2004">{{cite book|author=Anne Taylor Kirschmann|title=A vital force: women in American homeopathy |url=https://archive.org/details/vitalforcewomeni0000kirs|url-access=registration|access-date=January 28, 2013|year=2004|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3320-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/vitalforcewomeni0000kirs/page/11 11]}}</ref>

As Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated for extreme dilutions. A technique was devised for making dilutions that Hahnemann claimed would preserve the substance's therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects.<ref name="Dynamization and Dilution">{{cite web |title=Dynamization and dilution |work=Complementary and Alternative Medicine |publisher=[[Creighton University]] Department of Pharmacology |url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/dilution.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020826082134/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/dilution.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2002 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 24, 2009}}</ref> Hahnemann believed that this process enhanced "the spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances".<ref name="Organon_5th_269">{{cite book |author =Hahnemann S |title =The organon of the healing art |year =1833 |edition =5th |at =aphorism 269 |isbn =978-0-87983-228-5}}.
{{cite book |author =Hahnemann S |title =The organon of the healing art |publication-date=1921 |year =1842 |edition =6th |at =aphorism 270 |isbn =978-0-87983-228-5}}</ref> He gathered and published an overview of his new medical system in his book, ''[[The Organon of the Healing Art]]'' (1810), with a sixth edition published in 1921 that homeopaths still use today.<ref name=homhist1>
{{cite web |title = History of Homeopathy |publisher = Creighton University Department of Pharmacology |url =http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/history.htm |access-date = July 23, 2007 |date= July 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070705095116/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/history.htm |archive-date= July 5, 2007}}</ref>

====Miasms and disease====
In the ''Organon'', Hahnemann introduced the concept of "miasms" as the "infectious principles" underlying chronic disease<ref name="ClarkeClarke2001">{{cite book |author= John Henry Clarke |title= Homeopathy explained |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUGIWuo4qc8C&pg=PA22 |access-date=January 12, 2013 |date=January 1, 2001 |publisher= Nanopathy |pages=22–|id= GGKEY:JWCD56EF80T }}</ref> and as "peculiar morbid derangement[s] of vital force".<ref name="Grimes2012">{{cite journal
|author=Grimes, D. R.
|title=Proposed mechanisms for homeopathy are physically impossible
|journal=[[Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies]]
|date=2012
|volume=17
|issue=3
|page=154|doi=10.1111/j.2042-7166.2012.01162.x
}}</ref> Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases. His assertion was that if these symptoms were suppressed by medication, the cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs.<ref name="miasms" /> Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly [[Symptomatic treatment|alleviating their symptoms]], as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all "disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency".<ref>
{{cite journal
|url =http://homeoint.org/cazalet/ward/historycase.htm
|author =Ward JW
|title=Taking the history of the case
|publisher =Pacific Coast Journal of Homeopathy
|date=July 1937
|access-date =October 22, 2007
}}</ref> The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can be corrected only by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force.<ref name="homphilo">
{{cite web
|title=Cause of disease in homeopathy
|publisher=Creighton University Department of Pharmacology
|url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/cause.htm
|access-date=July 23, 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231160035/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/cause.htm
|archive-date=December 31, 2009
}}</ref>

Hahnemann's [[hypotheses]] for miasms originally presented only three local symptoms: psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease).<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Homoeopathy |volume=13 |page=645 |first=William Tod |last=Helmuth}}</ref> Of these the most important was ''psora'', described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin and was claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed it to be the cause of such diseases as [[epilepsy]], [[cancer]], [[jaundice]], [[deafness]], and [[cataracts]].<ref name="Hahnemann_Chronic">
{{cite book
|author =Hahnemann S
|title =Die chronischen Krankheiten, ihre eigenthümliche Natur und homöopathische Heilung [The chronic diseases, their specific nature and homoeopathic treatment]
|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Xfk3AAAAMAAJ
|location =[[Dresden]] and [[Leipzig]]
|publisher =Arnoldische Buchhandlung
|year =1828
}}{{Page needed|date=March 2011}}</ref> Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing illnesses previously attributed to the psora, including [[tuberculosis]] and [[cancer]] miasms.<ref name="miasms">
{{cite web
|work = Classical homeopathy
|title = Miasms in homeopathy
|url = http://homepage.ntlworld.com/homeopathy_advice/Theory/Intermediate/miasm.html
|author = King S
|access-date = March 25, 2009
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090307120146/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/homeopathy_advice/Theory/Intermediate/miasm.html
|archive-date = March 7, 2009
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times. The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed to preserve the system of homeopathy in the face of treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease predispositions, as well as [[genetics]], environmental factors, and the unique disease history of each patient.<ref name="Shelton">{{cite book |last=Shelton |first=JW |year=2004 |title=Homeopathy: How it really works |url=https://archive.org/details/homeopathyhowitr0000shel |url-access=registration |location=Amherst, New York |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-1-59102-109-4}}</ref>{{rp|148–9|date=November 2012}}

===19th century: rise to popularity and early criticism===
[[File:Beydeman Gomeopatiya vzir.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Homeopathy Looks at the Horrors of Allopathy]]'', an 1857 painting by Alexander Beydeman, showing historical figures and personifications of homeopathy observing the [[heroic medicine|brutality of medicine]] of the 19th century]]Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram, a student of Hahnemann.<ref name="Miller">{{cite book | last = Miller | first = Timothy | author-link = Timothy Miller | title = America's alternative religions | publisher = State University of New York Press, Albany | date = 1995 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/americasalternat00mill/page/80 80] | isbn = 978-0-7914-2397-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/americasalternat00mill/page/80 }}</ref> The first homeopathic school in the United States opened in 1835 and the [[American Institute of Homeopathy]] was established in 1844. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States,<ref name="Julian">
{{cite book
|url =http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html
|title=Homeopathy Timeline
|access-date =July 23, 2007
|author =Winston J
|year =2006
|work =The Faces of Homoeopathy
|publisher =Whole Health Now
|isbn =978-0-473-05607-0
}}</ref> and by 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States.<ref name="Time19951125" />

Because medical practice of the time relied on treatments which were often ineffective and harmful, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those being treated by medical practitioners.<ref name="pmid8885813">{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=E. |last2=Kaptchuk |first2=TJ |title=Homeopathy revisited |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=156 |issue=19 |pages=2162–4 |year=1996 |pmid=8885813 |doi=10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162}}</ref> Though ineffective, homeopathic preparations are rarely detrimental, thus users are less likely to be harmed by the treatment that is supposed to be helping them.<ref name="homhist1" /> The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of [[bloodletting]] and purging and begun the move towards more effective, [[science-based medicine]].<ref name="kaufmanm">
{{cite book
|author =Kaufman M
|title =Homeopathy in America: The rise and fall of a medical heresy
|publisher =[[The Johns Hopkins University Press]]
|year =1971
|isbn =978-0-8018-1238-5
}}{{Page needed|date=March 2011}}</ref> One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics.<ref>
{{cite book
|author =Coulter HL
|year =1973
|title =Divided Legacy
|pages =II:544–46; III:267–70, 298–305
|location =Berkeley
|publisher =North Atlantic
|oclc =9538442
}}</ref> During 19th-century epidemics of diseases such as [[cholera]], death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases.<ref>Death rates in conventional hospitals were typically two- to eight-fold higher than in homeopathic hospitals for patients with these infectious diseases; see
{{cite book
|title =The logic of figures or comparative results of homeopathic and other treatments
|author =Bradford TL
|publisher =Kessinger
|year =2007
|orig-year =1900
|isbn =978-1-4304-8892-7
}}{{Page needed|date=March 2011}}</ref>

Even during its rise in popularity, homeopathy was criticized by scientists and physicians. [[John Forbes (physician)|Sir John Forbes]], physician to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless and considered it "an outrage to human reason".<ref name="John_Forbes">
{{cite book
|author =Forbes J
|title =Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic
|location =London
|year =1846
}}</ref> [[James Young Simpson]] said in 1853 of the highly diluted drugs: "No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly."<ref>
{{cite book
|author =Simpson JY
|title =Homoeopathy, its tenets and tendencies, theoretical, theological and therapeutical
|location =Edinburgh
|publisher =Sutherland & Knox
|year =1853
|page =11
}}</ref> 19th-century American physician and author [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay entitled ''[[Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions]]'' (1842).<ref name="Holmes" /> The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some leading homeopaths of Europe not only were abandoning the practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer defending it.<ref>
{{cite journal
|title =Homœopathists vs homœopathy
|editor =Allen JA
|journal =Chic Med J
|pages =268–69
|year =1867
|volume =24
|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=R08VAAAAYAAJ&q=leading+europe+abandoning&pg=PA268
}}</ref> The last school in the US exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920.<ref name="homhist1" />

=== Revival in the 20th century ===
According to academics {{Interlanguage link multi|Paul U. Unschuld|lt=|de||WD=}} and [[Edzard Ernst]], the [[Nazi]] regime in Germany was fond of homeopathy, and spent large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but without gaining a positive result.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ernst|first=Edzard|title=Standing up for the truth about homeopathy and Nazi medicine|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/standing-up-for-the-truth-about-homeopathy-and-nazi-medicine-1.2138835|access-date=2020-10-26|website=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref> Unschuld also states that homeopathy never subsequently took root in the [[United States]], but remained more deeply established in European thinking.<ref name="Unschuld2009">{{cite book|author=Paul Ulrich Unschuld|title=What Is Medicine?: Western and Eastern Approaches to Healing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bPMTlS1pzEUC&pg=PA171|access-date=September 7, 2013|date=August 9, 2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-94470-1|page=171}}</ref> In the United States, the ''[[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act|Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]]'' of 1938 (sponsored by [[Royal S. Copeland|Royal Copeland]], a [[United States Senate|Senator]] from [[New York (state)|New York]] and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 solely homeopathic practitioners in the U.S.<ref>
{{cite news |title =Homeopathic Hassle
|url =http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891760,00.html
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081214115339/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,891760,00.html
|url-status =dead
|archive-date =December 14, 2008
|magazine =[[Time (magazine)|Time]]
|date =August 20, 1956
}}</ref> By the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and the sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold.<ref name="rader">
{{cite news |date =March 1, 1985
|publisher =FDA Consumer Magazine
|author =Rader WM
|url =http://www.homeowatch.org/history/fdac1.html
|title =Riding the coattails of homeopathy's revival
}}</ref>

Some homeopaths credit for the revival to Greek homeopath [[George Vithoulkas]], who conducted a "great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy" in the 1970s,<ref name="pmid12614092">{{Cite journal | volume = 138 | issue = 5 | pages = 393–99 | last = Jonas | first = WB |author2=TJ Kaptchuk |author3=K Linde | title = A critical overview of homeopathy. | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | year = 2003 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-138-5-200303040-00009|pmid=12614092| s2cid = 22787732 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Lockie | title = Encyclopedia of Homeopathy | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahome00lock_433 | url-access = limited | publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley]] | year = 2000 | location = New York | edition = 1st | page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahome00lock_433/page/n20 19] | isbn = 978-0-7566-1871-1 }}</ref> but Ernst and [[Simon Singh]] consider it to be linked to the rise of the [[New Age movement]].<ref name="isbn0-393-06661-4" /> [[Bruce Hood (psychologist)|Bruce Hood]] has argued that the increased popularity of homeopathy in recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to a [[appeal to nature|preference for "natural" products]], which people think are the basis of homeopathic preparations.<ref name="Hood2009">{{cite book|author=Bruce M. Hood|title=SuperSense|url=https://archive.org/details/supersensewhyweb00hood|url-access=registration|access-date=September 7, 2013|date=April 7, 2009|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-186793-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/supersensewhyweb00hood/page/157 157]}}</ref>

Towards the end of the century opposition to homeopathy began to increase again; with [[William T. Jarvis]], the President of the [[National Council Against Health Fraud]], saying that "Homeopathy is a fraud perpetrated on the public with the government's blessing, thanks to the abuse of political power of Sen. Royal S. Copeland."<ref>{{cite web|author=William T. Jarvis|author-link=William T. Jarvis|title=Response to Isadora Stehlin "Homeopathy: real medicine or empty promises?" (originally published in ''FDA Consumer'' April 1997)|date=December 15, 2001|url=http://www.homeowatch.org/articles/fdac2.html}}</ref>

===21st century: renewed criticism===

Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] have further shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification.<ref name="champe">{{cite journal |last1=Crockett |first1=Chambers |title=Death by homeopathy: issues for civil, criminal and coronial law and for health service policy |pmid=22558899 |journal=Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=454–78 |year=2012 }}</ref> This had led to a decrease or suspension of funding by many governments. In a 2010 report, the [[Science and Technology Select Committee|Science and Technology Committee of the United Kingdom House of Commons]] recommended that homeopathy should no longer receive [[National Health Service]] (NHS) funding due its lack of scientific credibility;<ref name="champe" /> NHS funding for homeopathy ceased in 2017.<ref name="TNHS"/> They also asked the [[Department of Health and Social Care|Department of Health]] in the UK to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items.<ref name="bbc-blacklist"/>

In 2015, the [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] of Australia found there were "there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Australian report |url=https://www.hri-research.org/resources/homeopathy-the-debate/the-australian-report-on-homeopathy/ |website=HRI Research |publisher=Hri Research |access-date=13 August 2018|date=April 6, 2017 }}</ref> The federal government only ended up accepting three of the 45 recommendations made by the 2018 review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Abusson|first1=Kate|date=3 May 2018|title=Pharmacies avoid homeopathy ban as government parks recommendations|work=Sydney Morning Herald|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/pharmacies-avoid-homeopathy-ban-as-government-parks-recommendations-20180503-p4zd94.html|access-date=13 August 2018}}</ref> The same year the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) held a hearing requesting public comment on the regulation of homeopathic drugs.<ref name="Science42115">{{cite news|author1=Kelly Servick|date=April 21, 2015|title=FDA takes new look at homeopathy|work=Science|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/health/2015/04/fda-takes-new-look-homeopathy|access-date=April 23, 2015|quote=Under FDA guidelines issued in 1988, a company can sell homeopathic products over the counter without demonstrating their safety or efficacy, and―unlike dietary supplements―their packaging can include claims about treating specific conditions, as long as they are "self-limiting" and not chronic. Such conditions include sprains, colds, or allergies.}}</ref> In 2017 the FDA announced it would strengthen regulation of homeopathic products.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Frazier|first1=Kendrick|author-link=Kendrick Frazier|date=2018|title=FDA to Regulate Some Homeopathic Products; CFI Hails Move|journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|volume=42|issue=2|page=12}}</ref>

The American non-profit [[Center for Inquiry]] (CFI) filed a lawsuit in 2018 against the [[CVS Pharmacy|CVS]] pharmacy for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines.<ref name="CVS">{{cite press release|author=|title=CENTER FOR INQUIRY SUES CVS FOR FRAUD OVER SALE OF HOMEOPATHIC FAKE MEDICINE|url=https://centerforinquiry.org/press_releases/cfi-sues-cvs/|publisher=Center for Inquiry|date=9 July 2018|access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> It claimed that CVS was selling homeopathic products on an easier-to-obtain basis than standard medication.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bellamy|first1=Jann|title=CVS sued for deceiving consumers in sale of homeopathic remedies|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/cvs-sued-for-deceiving-consumers-in-sale-of-homeopathic-remedies/|access-date=22 January 2019|website=Science Based Medicine|date=July 19, 2018}}</ref> In 2019, CFI brought a similar lawsuit against [[Walmart]] for "committing wide-scale consumer fraud and endangering the health of its customers through its sale and marketing of homeopathic medicines".<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Fidalgo|first=Paul|date=September 2019|title=CFI sues Walmart for fraud for selling homeopathic fake medicine|magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|location=Amherst, NY|publisher=Center for Inquiry}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Vyse|first1=Stuart|author-link=Stuart Vyse|title=What Should Become of a Monument to Pseudoscience?|url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/what-should-become-of-a-monument-to-pseudoscience/|access-date=2 December 2019|website=Skeptical Inquirer|date=July 10, 2019|publisher=Center for Inquiry}}</ref> They also conducted a survey in which they found consumers felt ripped off when informed of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, such as those sold by Walmart and CVS.<ref name="CFISurvey SI 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Frazier|first1=Kendrick|date=2019|title=CFI survey on Homeopathy: Consumers feel scammed by Walmart and CVS|journal=Skeptical Inquirer|volume=43|issue=6|page=7}}</ref><ref name="CFI 2019 Survey">{{cite web|last1=Fidalgo|first1=Paul|title=CONSUMERS FEEL "SCAMMED" BY WALMART AND CVS OVER HOMEOPATHIC FAKE MEDICINE, SURVEY SHOWS|url=https://centerforinquiry.org/press_releases/consumers-feel-scammed-by-walmart-and-cvs-over-homeopathic-fake-medicine/|access-date=9 November 2019|website=Center for Inquiry|date=September 17, 2019|publisher=Center for Inquiry}}</ref>

In 2021, the French healthcare minister phased out social security reimbursements for homeopathic drugs.<ref name="GuardianFrance"/><ref name="FranceEndFunding2021"/> France has long had a stronger belief in the virtues of homeopathic drugs than many other countries and the world's biggest manufacturer of alternative medicine drugs, [[Boiron]], is located in that country.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-health-homeopathy/france-will-end-healthcare-refunds-for-homeopathic-drugs-idUSKCN1U42B6| title = France will end healthcare refunds for homeopathic drugs.| website = [[Reuters]]}}</ref> Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies.<ref name=":0"/> In 2016, the [[University of Barcelona]] cancelled its master's degree in Homeopathy citing "lack of scientific basis", after advice from the Spanish Ministry of Health.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ansede|first1=Manuel|date=March 4, 2016|title=La Universidad de Barcelona fulmina su máster de homeopatía|newspaper=El País|url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/01/ciencia/1456856774_534268.html}}</ref> Shortly afterwards the [[University of Valencia]] announced the elimination of its Masters in Homeopathy.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 7, 2016|title=El Máster de Homeopatía de la Universidad de Valencia cancela su edición para el próximo curso.|url=http://www.abc.es/sociedad/abci-master-homeopatia-universidad-valencia-cancela-edicion-para-proximo-curso-201604072200_noticia.html|publisher=Diario ABC}}</ref>

==Preparations and treatment==
{{see also|List of homeopathic preparations}}[[File:Rep1.JPG|thumb|Homeopathic repertory by [[James Tyler Kent]]]]

Homeopathic preparations are referred to as "homeopathic remedies".<ref name="Consumer Reports">{{cite news |date=December 21, 2015 |title=Homeopathic drugs: No better than placebos? |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/homeopathic-drugs-no-better-than-placebos/2015/12/18/037b3976-7750-11e5-a958-d889faf561dc_story.html |access-date=December 22, 2015 }}</ref> Practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing: ''[[Materia medica]]'' and repertories. A homeopathic ''materia medica'' is a collection of "drug pictures", organized alphabetically. A homeopathic repertory is a quick reference version of the ''materia medica'' that indexes the symptoms and then the associated remedies for each. In both cases different compilers may dispute particular inclusions in the references.<ref>Jonas: Mosby's Dictionary of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (c) 2005, Elsevier</ref> The first symptomatic homeopathic ''materia medica'' was arranged by Hahnemann. The first homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr's ''Symptomenkodex'', published in German in 1835, and translated into English as the ''Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica'' in 1838. This version was less focused on disease categories and was the forerunner to later works by [[James Tyler Kent]].<ref name="pmid16322800">{{cite journal|last1=Bellavite|first1=Paolo|last2=Conforti|first2=Anita|last3=Piasere|first3=Valeria|last4=Ortolani|first4=Riccardo|year=2005|title=Immunology and Homeopathy. 1. Historical Background|journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=2|issue=4|pages=441–52|doi=10.1093/ecam/neh141|pmc=1297514|pmid=16322800}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book|author=Mathur KN|title=Prinzipien der homöopathischen Verschreibung: Synopsis weltweiter klinischer Erfahrungen|publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag|year=2003|isbn=978-3-8304-9021-0|pages=122–23|language=de|oclc=76518035}}</ref> There are over 118 repertories published in English, with Kent's being one of the most used.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Repertories today and yesterday|url=http://www.homeopathycenter.org/homeopathy-today/repertories-today-and-yesterday|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414063600/http://www.homeopathycenter.org/homeopathy-today/repertories-today-and-yesterday|archive-date=April 14, 2017|access-date=2020-08-31|website=National Center for Homeopathy}}</ref>

=== Consultation ===
Homeopaths generally begin with a consultation, which can be a 10-15 minute appointment or last for over an hour, where the patient describes their [[medical history]]. The patient describes the "modalities", or if their symptoms change depending on the weather and other external factors.<ref name="Vickers 1115–11182">{{Cite journal|last1=Vickers|first1=Andrew|last2=Zollman|first2=Catherine|date=1999-10-23|title=Homoeopathy|journal=BMJ : British Medical Journal|volume=319|issue=7217|pages=1115–1118|doi=10.1136/bmj.319.7217.1115|issn=0959-8138|pmc=1116906|pmid=10531108}}</ref> The practitioner also solicits information on mood, likes and dislikes, physical, mental and emotional states, life circumstances, and any physical or emotional illnesses.<ref name="Stehlin">
{{cite web|author=Stehlin I|year=1996|title=Homeopathy: Real medicine or empty promises?|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1370/is_n10_v30/ai_18979004/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924121418/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1370/is_n10_v30/ai_18979004/|archive-date=September 24, 2009|access-date=October 1, 2007|publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> This information (also called the "symptom picture") is matched to the "drug picture" in the ''materia medica'' or repertory and used to determine the appropriate homeopathic remedies. In classical homeopathy, the practitioner attempts to match a single preparation to the totality of symptoms (the ''simlilum''), while "clinical homeopathy" involves combinations of preparations based on the illness's symptoms.<ref name="pmid12614092" />

=== Preparation ===
[[File:Ambalaj Oscillococcinum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[Oscillococcinum]]'', a homeopathic remedy in pill form]]Homeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its preparations, generally referring to them using [[Latin]] names.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Safety issues in the preparation of homeopathic medicines|url=https://www.who.int/medicines/areas/traditional/Homeopathy.pdf|website=World Health Organization}}</ref> Examples include ''[[arsenicum album]]'' (arsenic oxide), ''natrum muriaticum'' ([[sodium chloride]] or table salt), ''[[Lachesis muta]]'' (the venom of the [[Lachesis (genus)|bushmaster snake]]), ''[[opium]]'', and ''thyroidinum'' ([[thyroid hormone]]). Homeopaths say this is to ensure accuracy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAQs|url=https://www.theaahp.org/consumer-information/faqs/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=The American Association of Homeopathic Pharmacists|language=en}}</ref> In the USA the common name must be displayed, although the Latin one can also be present.<ref name=":2" /> Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars, typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation is placed and allowed to evaporate.<ref name="Ernst2005">{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E|year=2005|title=Is homeopathy a clinically valuable approach?|url=http://www.dcscience.net/ernst-tips-sept-2005.pdf|journal=Trends in Pharmacological Sciences|volume=26|issue=11|pages=547–48|citeseerx=10.1.1.385.5505|doi=10.1016/j.tips.2005.09.003|pmid=16165225}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sagar|first1=SM|year=2007|title=Homeopathy: Does a teaspoon of honey help the medicine go down?|journal=Current Oncology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=126–27|doi=10.3747/co.2007.150|pmc=1948865|pmid=17710203}}</ref>

Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy in which the preparations come from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue.<ref name="pmid16322800" /> They are called nosodes (from the Greek ''nosos'', disease) with preparations made from "healthy" specimens being termed "sarcodes". Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are a form of isopathy.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kayne SB|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2IFcHJYTSYC|title=Homeopathic pharmacy: theory and practice|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2006|isbn=978-0-443-10160-1|edition=2|page=171}}</ref> Tautopathy is a form of isopathy where the preparations are composed of drugs or vaccines that a person has consumed in the past, in the belief that this can reverse the supposed lingering damage caused by the initial use.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Owen|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZ72uQy385wC&q=Tautopathy&pg=PA56|title=Principles and Practice of Homeopathy: The Therapeutic and Healing Process|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0443100895|pages=56|language=en}}</ref> There is no convincing scientific evidence for isopathy as an effective method of treatment.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lack|first1=Caleb W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Miy2CwAAQBAJ&q=isopathy+pseudoscience&pg=PA206|title=Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience: Why We Can't Trust Our Brains|last2=Rousseau|first2=Jacques|date=2016-03-08|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=9780826194268|pages=206|language=en}}</ref>

Some modern homeopaths use preparations they call "imponderables" because they do not originate from a substance but some other phenomenon presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol or [[lactose]]. Examples include [[X-ray]]s<ref>
{{cite journal
|vauthors=Lee J, Thompson E |title =X-ray drug picture
|journal =The Homeopath
|volume =26
|issue =2
|pages =43–48
|year =2007
|issn =0263-3256
}}</ref> and [[sunlight]].<ref>
{{cite journal
|vauthors=Lee J, Thompson E |title =Postironium – the vastness of the universe knocks me off my feet
|journal =The Homeopath
|volume =26
|issue =2
|pages =49–54
|year =2007
|issn =0263-3256
}}</ref> Another derivative is [[electrohomeopathy]], where an electric bio-energy of therapeutic value is supposedly extracted from plants. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy is extremely pseudo-scientific.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kempf|first1=EJ|year=1906|title=European Medicine: A Résumé of Medical Progress During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries|journal=Medical Library and Historical Journal|volume=4|issue=1|pages=86–100|pmc=1692573|pmid=18340908}}</ref> In 2012, the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh, India, handed down a decree stating that electrohomeopathy was quackery and no longer recognized it as a system of medicine .<ref name="toie">{{cite news|date=5 March 2012|title=Electro-homeopathy clinics to be sealed after Holi|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Holi-Electro-homeopathy-clinics-to-be-sealed-after-the-festival/articleshow/12140070.cms|access-date=13 August 2018}}</ref>

Other minority practices include paper preparations, in which the terms for substances and dilutions are written on pieces of paper and either pinned to the patients' clothing, put in their pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the patients. [[Radionics]], the use of [[electromagnetic radiation]] such as [[radio wave]]s, can also be used to manufacture preparations. Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and verging upon magic and superstition.<ref>
{{cite web
|url =http://www.askdrshah.com/images/lancet.pdf
|title=Call for introspection and awakening
|publisher =Life Force Center
|access-date =July 24, 2007
|author =Shah R
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070202082349/http://www.askdrshah.com/images/lancet.pdf |archive-date = February 2, 2007}}</ref><ref name="Barwell">
{{cite journal
|url = http://www.homeopathy.ac.nz/editorials/2000/vol-20-no-3-june-2000-the-wo-wo-effect/
|title = The wo-wo effect
|access-date = April 2, 2009
|author = Barwell B
|journal = Homoeopathica
|volume = 20
|issue = 3
|year = 2000
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090726180731/http://www.homeopathy.ac.nz/editorials/2000/vol-20-no-3-june-2000-the-wo-wo-effect/
|archive-date = July 26, 2009
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> Flower preparations are produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the [[Bach flower remedies]], which were developed by [[Edward Bach]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vanhaselen|first1=R|year=1999|title=The relationship between homeopathy and the Dr Bach system of flower remedies: A critical appraisal|journal=British Homoeopathic Journal|volume=88|issue=3|pages=121–27|doi=10.1054/homp.1999.0308|pmid=10449052}}</ref>

=== Dilutions ===
{{Main|Homeopathic dilutions}}

[[File:Arnica montana homéopathie zoom.jpg|thumb|This bottle is labelled ''[[Arnica montana]]'' (wolf's bane) D6, i.e. the nominal dilution is one [[parts per million|part in a million]] (10'''-6''').]]Hahnemann claimed that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, and thus that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose.<ref name=":8">
{{cite book|author=Kayne SB|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2IFcHJYTSYC&q=homeopathic%20proving%20method&pg=PA53|title=Homeopathic pharmacy: theory and practice|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2006|isbn=978-0-443-10160-1|edition=2|page=53}}</ref> A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher "potency", and thus are claimed to be stronger and deeper-acting.<ref>
{{cite web|title=Glossary of Homeopathic Terms|url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/Glossary.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016234338/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/glossary.htm|archive-date=October 16, 2012|access-date=February 15, 2009|publisher=Creighton University Department of Pharmacology|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The general method of dilution is [[serial dilution]], where solvent is added to part of the previous mixture, but the "Korsakovian" method may also be used. In the Korsakovian method, the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied, refilled with solvent, with the volume of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch.<ref name="Shelton" />{{rp|270|date=January 2015}} The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 22, 2011|title=Homeopathy: Diluted out of existence?|url=http://www.scilogs.com/in_scientio_veritas/homeopathy-diluted-out-of-existence/|access-date=June 15, 2015|publisher=scilogs.com/in_scientio_veritas}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Homeopathic Medicine Potency or Dilution|url=http://www.ritecare.com/homeopathic/guide_potency.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821064849/http://www.ritecare.com/homeopathic/guide_potency.asp|archive-date=August 21, 2015|access-date=June 15, 2015|publisher=ritecare.com}}</ref> Another method is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Winston|first=Julian|date=1989-04-01|title=A brief history of potentizing machines|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000707858980050X|journal=British Homoeopathic Journal|language=en|volume=78|issue=2|pages=59–68|doi=10.1016/S0007-0785(89)80050-X|issn=0007-0785}}</ref> Insoluble solids, such as [[granite]], [[diamond]], and [[platinum]], are diluted by grinding them with lactose ("[[trituration]]").<ref name="Shelton" />{{rp|23}}

Three main [[Logarithmic scale|logarithmic]] dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. There is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ritecare.com/homeopathic/guide_potency.asp|title=Homeopathic Medicine Potency or Dilution|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821064849/http://www.ritecare.com/homeopathic/guide_potency.asp|archive-date=August 21, 2015|access-date=June 15, 2015}}</ref> The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug 1 part in 50,000.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=U. C.|last2=Adler|first2=M. S.|date=2006|title=Hahnemann's experiments with 50 millesimal potencies: a further review of his casebooks|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16815521/|journal=Homeopathy|volume=95|issue=3|pages=171–181|doi=10.1016/j.homp.2006.03.003|issn=1475-4916|pmid=16815521}}</ref> A 2C dilution works out to one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution. In standard chemistry, this produces a substance with a concentration of 0.01% ([[Concentration#Volume-volume percentage|volume-volume percentage]]). A 6C dilution ends up with the original substance diluted by a factor of 100−6 (one part in one trillion). The end product is usually so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the diluent (pure water, sugar or alcohol).<ref name="Dynamization and Dilution" /><ref name="homsim">
{{cite web
|title = Similia similibus curentur (Like cures like)
|publisher = Creighton University Department of Pharmacology
|url = http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/similia.htm
|access-date = August 20, 2007
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070808051756/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/similia.htm
|archive-date = August 8, 2007
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is approximately 12C.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Page 3|title=Alternative Medicine: Homeopathy-A Review|url=http://www.ijopjournal.com/File_Folder/57-69.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231608/http://www.ijopjournal.com/File_Folder/57-69.pdf|archive-date=September 3, 2015|access-date=August 10, 2015|publisher=International Journal of Pharmacotherapy|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Hahnemann advocated dilutions of 1 part to 1060 or 30C.<ref name="Organon_6th_128">
{{cite book
|author =Hahnemann S
|title =The Organon of the Healing Art
|year =1921
|edition =6th
|at =aphorism 128
|isbn =978-0-87983-228-5
}}</ref> Hahnemann regularly used dilutions of up to 30C but opined that "there must be a limit to the matter".<ref name="Haehl1922" />{{rp|322|date=January 2015}} To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface – a process termed ''succussion'' – was necessary.<ref name=":8" /> Homeopaths are unable to agree on the number and force of strikes needed, and there is no way that the claimed results of succussion can be tested.<ref name="Shelton" />{{rp|67–69|date=January 2015}}

Critics of homeopathy commonly emphasize the dilutions involved in homeopathy, using analogies.<ref name="Appendix2">For further discussion of homeopathic dilutions and the mathematics involved, see [[Homeopathic dilutions]].</ref> One mathematically correct example is that a 12C solution is equivalent to "a pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans".<ref name="Bambridge">
{{cite book|author=Bambridge AD|title=Homeopathy investigated|publisher=Diasozo Trust|year=1989|isbn=978-0-948171-20-8|location=[[Kent, England|Kent]], England}}</ref><ref name="Andrews">
{{cite web|author=Andrews P|year=1990|title=Homeopathy and Hinduism|url=http://www.watchman.org/na/homeopth.htm|publisher=[[Watchman Fellowship]]|periodical=The Watchman Expositor|volume=7|issue=3}}</ref><ref>
A 12C solution produced using [[sodium chloride]] (also called ''natrum muriaticum'' in homeopathy) is the equivalent of dissolving 0.36 mL of table salt, weighing about 0.77 g, into a volume of water the size of the Atlantic Ocean, since the volume of the Atlantic Ocean and its adjacent seas is 3.55×108 km3 or 3.55×1020 L :
{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J0TAAAAYAAJ&q=355+x+106+km3+in+the+whole|title=The geology of the Atlantic Ocean|vauthors=Emery KO, Uchupi E|publisher=Springer|year=1984|isbn=978-0-387-96032-6}}</ref> One-third of a [[Drop (volume)|drop]] of some original substance diluted into all the water on earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C.<ref name="Appendix2"/><ref>The volume of all water on earth is about 1.36×109 km3:
{{cite book
|url = http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html
|title = Earth's water distribution
|work = Water Science for Schools
|publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]]
|date = August 28, 2006
|isbn = 978-0-07-825402-4
|access-date = March 14, 2008
|archive-date = June 29, 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120629055146/http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html
|url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref>Gleick PH, ''Water resources'', In
{{cite book
|title =Encyclopedia of climate and weather
|editor1 =Schneider SH
|publisher =[[Oxford University Press]]
|location =New York
|volume =2
|year =1996
|pages =817–823
}}</ref> A 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name [[Oscillococcinum]], would require 10320 universes worth of molecules to contain just one original molecule in the final substance.<ref>{{cite book
|title =Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science
|url =https://archive.org/details/superstitionbeli00park
|url-access =limited
|author =Robert L. Park
|author-link =Robert L. Park
|publisher =Princeton University Press
|year =2008
|pages =[https://archive.org/details/superstitionbeli00park/page/n157 145]–46
|isbn=978-0-691-13355-3}}</ref> The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=P |title=The Memory of Water: a scientific heresy? |journal=Homeopathy |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=141–2 |year=2007 |pmid=17678808 |doi=10.1016/j.homp.2007.05.008}}</ref>

===Provings===
Homeopaths claim that they can determine the properties of their preparations by following a method which they call "proving".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dantas |first1=F |last2=Fisher |first2=P |last3=Walach |first3=H |last4=Wieland |first4=F |last5=Rastogi |first5=D |last6=Teixeira |first6=H |last7=Koster |first7=D |last8=Jansen |first8=J |last9=Eizayaga |first9=J |title=A systematic review of the quality of homeopathic pathogenetic trials published from 1945 to 1995 |journal=Homeopathy |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=4–16 |year=2007 |pmid=17227742 |doi=10.1016/j.homp.2006.11.005}}</ref> As performed by Hahnemann, provings involved administering various preparations to healthy volunteers. The volunteers were then observed, often for months at a time. They were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be "too exciting", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradford|first1=Thomas Lindsley|title=The Life and Letters of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann|date=1895|publisher=Boericke & Tafel|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1330001509|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofdrs00brad/page/103 103]–04|url=https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofdrs00brad|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref> At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later advocated provings with preparations at a 30C dilution,<ref name="Organon_6th_128" /> and most modern provings are carried out using ultra-dilute preparations.<ref>
{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2IFcHJYTSYC&q=homeopathic+proving+method&pg=PA52|title=Homeopathic pharmacy: theory and practice|author=Kayne SB|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2006|isbn=978-0-443-10160-1|edition=2|page=52}}</ref>

Provings are claimed to have been important in the development of the [[clinical trial]], due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of [[statistics]] in medicine.<ref>
{{cite book
|author=Cassedy JH
|title=American Medicine and Statistical Thinking, 1800–1860
|publisher=iUniverse
|year =1999
|isbn=978-1-58348-428-9
}}{{Page needed|date=March 2011}}</ref> The lengthy records of [[self-experimentation]] by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that [[nitroglycerin]] might be useful as a treatment for [[angina pectoris|angina]] was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time.<ref name="pmid2866851">
{{cite journal
|author=Fye WB
|title=Nitroglycerin: a homeopathic remedy
|journal=Circulation
|volume=73
|issue=1
|pages=21–29
|year=1986
|pmid=2866851
|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.73.1.21
}}</ref> The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 ''Essay on a New Principle''.<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Hahnemann S
|title=Versuch über ein neues Prinzip zur Auffindung der Heilkräfte der Arzneisubstanzen, nebst einigen Blicken auf die bisherigen
|journal=[[Journal der Practischen Heilkunde]]
|editor=C. W. Hufelands
|language=de
|volume=II
|issue=3
|year =1796
}}</ref> His ''Fragmenta de Viribus'' (1805)<ref>
{{cite book
|title=Fragmenta de Viribus medicamentorum Positivis
|author=Hahnemann S
|language=la
|location=Leipzig
|year=1805
}}</ref> contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 ''Materia Medica Pura'' contained 65.<ref>
{{cite book
|title=Materia medica pura; sive, Doctrina de medicamentorum viribus in corpore humano sano observatis; e Germanico sermone in Latinum conversa
|vauthors=Hahnemann S, Stapf E, Gross G, de Brunnow EG |language=la
|location=Dresden
|publisher=Arnold
|year=1826–1828
|oclc=14840659
}}</ref> For James Tyler Kent's 1905 ''Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica'', 217 preparations underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kent|first=James Tyler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-ArAQAAMAAJ|title=Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica|date=1905|publisher=Boericke & Tafel|isbn=978-0-7222-9856-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kent|first=James Tyler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZtEPAAACAAJ|title=Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica: Together With Kent's "New Remedies" Incorporated and Arranged in One Alphabetical Order|date=2020-03-31|publisher=B. Jain Publishers (P) Limited|isbn=978-81-319-0259-2|language=en}}</ref>

Though the proving process has superficial similarities with clinical trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective, not [[Blind test|blinded]], and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically active levels of the substance under proving.<ref name="Creighton">{{cite web |url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/science/validity.htm |title=Are the principles of Homeopathy scientifically valid? |publisher=Creighton University School of Medicine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816233729/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/science/validity.htm |archive-date=August 16, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> As early as 1842, Oliver Holmes had noted that provings were impossibly vague, and the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects.<ref name="Holmes" />

== Evidence and efficacy ==
{{main|Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy}}
Outside of the [[alternative medicine]] community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham<ref name="aaci2">{{cite journal|last1=Caulfield|first1=Timothy|last2=Rachul|first2=Christen|year=2011|title=Supported by science?: What Canadian naturopaths advertise to the public|journal=Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology|volume=7|pages=14|doi=10.1186/1710-1492-7-14|pmc=3182944|pmid=21920039|quote=Within the non-CAM scientific community, homeopathy has long been viewed as a sham|author-link1=Timothy Caulfield}}</ref> or a [[pseudoscience]],<ref name="Tuomela2"/><ref name="Smith20122"/><ref name="Baran20142">{{cite book|title=Chapter 2: Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ?|vauthors=Baran GR, Kiana MF, Samuel SP|journal=Healthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4614-8540-7|pages=19–57|chapter=Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ?|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2|quote=within the traditional medical community it is considered to be quackery}}</ref><ref name="Ladyman2">{{cite book|author=Ladyman J|title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-05196-3|veditors=Pigliucci M, Boudry M|pages=48–49|chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience|quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely).}}</ref> and the medical community regards it as [[quackery]].<ref name="Baran20142" /> There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any [[Biological plausibility|biologically plausible]] pharmacological [[Active ingredient|agent]] or mechanism.<ref name="pmid124926032"/> Proponents argue that homeopathic medicines must work by some, as yet undefined, biophysical mechanism.<ref name="Vickers 1115–11182"/> No homeopathic preparation has been shown to be different from [[placebo]].<ref name="pmid124926032"/>

=== Lack of scientific evidence ===
The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy<ref name="Adler2">{{Cite news|author=Adler J|date=February 4, 2004|title=No way to treat the dying|magazine=[[Newsweek]]|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/105581}}</ref> and its use of preparations without active ingredients have led to characterizations of homeopathy as pseudoscience and quackery,<ref name="Dearden2">{{cite news|last=Dearden|first=Lizzie|date=February 7, 2017|title=Russian Academy of Sciences says homeopathy is dangerous 'pseudoscience' that does not work|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/russia-academy-of-sciences-homeopathy-treaments-pseudoscience-does-not-work-par-magic-a7566406.html|access-date=February 7, 2017}}</ref><ref name="pmid146761792">{{cite journal|last1=Atwood|first1=KC|year=2003|title="Neurocranial restructuring" and homeopathy, neither complementary nor alternative|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery|volume=129|issue=12|pages=1356–57|doi=10.1001/archotol.129.12.1356|pmid=14676179}}</ref><ref name="NdububaQuack2">{{cite journal|last1=Ndububa|first1=VI|year=2007|title=Medical quackery in Nigeria; why the silence?|journal=Nigerian Journal of Medicine|volume=16|issue=4|pages=312–17|doi=10.4314/njm.v16i4.37328|pmid=18080586}}</ref> or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, "placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst".<ref name="Ernst2">{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E|last2=Pittler|first2=MH|year=1998|title=Efficacy of homeopathic arnica: a systematic review of placebo-controlled clinical trials|journal=Archives of Surgery|volume=133|issue=11|pages=1187–90|doi=10.1001/archsurg.133.11.1187|pmid=9820349}}</ref> The [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] considers homeopathy a "dangerous 'pseudoscience' that does not work", and "urges people to treat homeopathy 'on a par with magic{{'"}}.<ref name="Dearden2" /> The Chief Medical Officer for England, [[Sally Davies (doctor)|Dame Sally Davies]], has stated that homeopathic preparations are "rubbish" and do not serve as anything more than placebos.<ref>{{cite news|last=Silverman|first=Rosa|title=Homeopathy is 'rubbish', says chief medical officer|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9822744/Homeopathy-is-rubbish-says-chief-medical-officer.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126102237/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9822744/Homeopathy-is-rubbish-says-chief-medical-officer.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 26, 2013|access-date=January 24, 2013|issn=0307-1235|oclc=49632006}}</ref> In 2013, [[Mark Walport]], the UK [[Government Chief Scientific Adviser]] and head of the [[Government Office for Science]] said "homeopathy is nonsense, it is non-science."<ref name="Collins2">{{cite news|author=Nick Collins|date=April 18, 2013|title=Homeopathy is nonsense, says new chief scientist|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10003680/Homeopathy-is-nonsense-says-new-chief-scientist.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420234704/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10003680/Homeopathy-is-nonsense-says-new-chief-scientist.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref> His predecessor, [[John Beddington]], also said that homeopathy "has no underpinning of scientific basis" and is being "fundamentally ignored" by the Government.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gray|first=Richard|date=April 9, 2013|title=Homeopathy on the NHS is 'mad' says outgoing scientific adviser|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/9982234/Homeopathy-on-the-NHS-is-mad-says-outgoing-scientific-adviser.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/9982234/Homeopathy-on-the-NHS-is-mad-says-outgoing-scientific-adviser.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2020-10-28|website=The Telegraph|language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], says homeopathy "goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics". He adds: "There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment."<ref name="Adler2" /> [[Ben Goldacre]] says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to a [[Scientific literacy|scientifically illiterate]] public, have "... walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument".<ref name="Goldacre20072">{{cite journal|last1=Goldacre|first1=Ben|year=2007|title=Benefits and risks of homoeopathy|journal=The Lancet|volume=370|issue=9600|pages=1672–73|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61706-1|pmid=18022024|s2cid=43588927}}</ref> Homeopaths often prefer to ignore [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] in favour of [[Cherry picking (fallacy)|cherry picked]] positive results, such as by promoting a particular [[observational study]] (one which Goldacre describes as "little more than a customer-satisfaction survey") as if it were more informative than a series of randomized controlled trials.<ref name="Goldacre20072" />

In an article entitled "Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?"<ref name="Baum_&_Ernst2">{{cite journal|last1=Baum|first1=Michael|last2=Ernst|first2=Edzard|year=2009|title=Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?|journal=The American Journal of Medicine|volume=122|issue=11|pages=973–74|doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.03.038|pmid=19854319|quote=Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect... To have an open mind about homeopathy or similarly implausible forms of alternative medicine (e.g., Bach Flower remedies, spiritual healing, crystal therapy) is, therefore, not an option}}</ref> published in the ''[[American Journal of Medicine]]'', [[Michael Baum]] and [[Edzard Ernst]]{{spaced ndash}}writing to other physicians{{spaced ndash}}wrote that "Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect...".

=== Plausibility of dilutions ===
[[File:LedumPalustre15CH.jpg|right|thumb|A homeopathic preparation made from [[marsh tea]]: the "15C" dilution shown here means the original solution was diluted to 1/1030 of its original strength.]]
The exceedingly low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single [[molecule]] of the diluted substance,<ref name="Ernst20052">{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=E|year=2005|title=Is homeopathy a clinically valuable approach?|url=http://www.dcscience.net/ernst-tips-sept-2005.pdf|journal=Trends in Pharmacological Sciences|volume=26|issue=11|pages=547–48|citeseerx=10.1.1.385.5505|doi=10.1016/j.tips.2005.09.003|pmid=16165225}}</ref> has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century.<ref name="GrimesFACT"/> The laws of chemistry give this dilution limit, which is related to [[Avogadro constant|Avogadro's number]], as being roughly equal to 12C homeopathic dilutions (1 part in 1024).<ref name="Appendix2"/><ref name="Sbarrett2">{{cite web|author=Barrett S|date=December 28, 2004|title=Homeopathy: the ultimate fake|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/homeo.html|access-date=July 25, 2007|publisher=[[Quackwatch]]}}</ref><ref name="dynam2">{{cite web|author=Faziola L|title=Dynamization and dilution|url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/dilution.htm|access-date=July 24, 2007|work=Homeopathy Tutorial|publisher=Creighton University School of Medicine|archive-date=August 26, 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020826082134/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/philosophy/dilution.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[James Randi]] and the [[10:23 campaign]] groups have highlighted the lack of [[active ingredient]]s by taking large 'overdoses'.<ref name="Jones2">Sam Jones, [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/jan/29/sceptics-homeopathy-mass-overdose-boots "Homeopathy protesters to take 'mass overdose' outside Boots"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', January 29, 2010</ref> None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and "no one was cured of anything, either".<ref name="Jones2" />

Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of "[[water memory]]", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise.<ref name="NatureWhenToBelieve2">{{cite journal|author=Maddox J|year=1988|title=When to believe the unbelievable|journal=Nature|type=editorial|volume=333|issue=6176|pages=1349–56|bibcode=1988Natur.333Q.787.|doi=10.1038/333787a0|pmid=|s2cid=4369459}}</ref><ref name="delusion2">{{cite journal|last1=Maddox|first1=J|last2=Randi|first2=J|last3=Stewart|first3=W|year=1988|title="High-dilution" experiments a delusion|journal=Nature|volume=334|issue=6180|pages=287–91|bibcode=1988Natur.334..287M|doi=10.1038/334287a0|pmid=2455869|s2cid=9579433}}</ref> Existence of a [[Biological activity|pharmacological effect]] in the absence of any true active ingredient is inconsistent with the [[law of mass action]] and the observed [[dose-response relationship]]s characteristic of therapeutic drugs.<ref name="Levy2">{{cite journal|last1=Levy|first1=G|year=1986|title=Kinetics of drug action: An overview|journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|volume=78|issue=4 Pt 2|pages=754–61|doi=10.1016/0091-6749(86)90057-6|pmid=3534056}}</ref> Homeopaths contend that their methods produce a therapeutically active preparation, selectively including only the intended substance, though critics note that any water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, and homeopaths have not been able to account for a reason why only the selected homeopathic substance would be a special case in their process.<ref name="Smith20122" />

Practitioners also hold that higher dilutions produce stronger medicinal effects. This idea is also inconsistent with observed dose-response relationships, where effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body.<ref name="Levy2" /> Some contend that the phenomenon of [[hormesis]] may support the idea of dilution increasing potency,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Oberbaum, M|author2=Singer, SR|author3=Samuels, N.|date=Jul 2010|title=Hormesis and homeopathy: bridge over troubled waters|journal=Hum Exp Toxicol|volume=29|issue=7|pages=567–71|doi=10.1177/0960327110369777|pmid=20558608|s2cid=8107797}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khuda‐Bukhsh|first1=Anisur Rahman|date=2003|title=Towards understanding molecular mechanisms of action of homeopathic drugs: an overview|journal=Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry|volume=253|issue=1/2|pages=339–45|doi=10.1023/A:1026048907739|pmid=14619985|s2cid=10971539}}</ref> but the dose-response relationship outside the zone of hormesis declines with dilution as normal, and nonlinear pharmacological effects do not provide any credible support for homeopathy.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith, Kevin|date=April 2012|title=Homeopathy is unscientific and unethical|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1035885|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=9|pages=508–12|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01956.x|s2cid=143067523}}</ref>

===Efficacy===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:40%;"
|+ Explanations for efficacy of homeopathic preparations:<ref name=Shelton/>{{rp|155–167|date=November 2012}}<ref name="BrienRheumatology">{{cite journal | url= | title=Homeopathy has clinical benefits in rheumatoid arthritis patients that are attributable to the consultation process but not the homeopathic remedy: a randomized controlled clinical trial |author1=Brien S |author2=Lachance S |author3=Prescott P |author4=McDermott C |author5=Lewith G | journal=Rheumatology | date=June 2011 | volume=50 | issue=6 | pages=1070–82 | doi=10.1093/rheumatology/keq234 | pmid=21076131 | pmc=3093927}}</ref>
|-
| The [[placebo effect]]
| The intensive consultation process and expectations for the homeopathic preparations may cause the effect
|-
| Therapeutic effect of the consultation
| The care, concern, and reassurance a patient experiences when opening up to a compassionate caregiver can have a positive effect on the patient's well-being.
|-
| Unassisted [[healing|natural healing]]
| Time and the body's ability to heal without assistance can eliminate many diseases of their own accord.
|-
| Unrecognized treatments
| An unrelated food, exercise, environmental agent, or treatment for a different ailment, may have occurred.
|-
| [[Regression toward the mean|Regression towards the mean]]
| Since many diseases or conditions are cyclical, symptoms vary over time and patients tend to seek care when discomfort is greatest; they may feel better anyway but because of the timing of the visit to the homeopath they attribute improvement to the preparation taken.
|-
| Non-homeopathic treatment
| Patients may also receive standard medical care at the same time as homeopathic treatment, and the former is responsible for improvement.
|-
| Cessation of unpleasant treatment
| Often homeopaths recommend patients stop getting medical treatment such as surgery or drugs, which can cause unpleasant side-effects; improvements are attributed to homeopathy when the actual cause is the cessation of the treatment causing side-effects in the first place, but the underlying disease remains untreated and still dangerous to the patient.
|}

No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo.<ref name="pmid124926032" /> The [[Methodology|methodological]] quality of the early primary research was low, with problems such as weaknesses in [[study design]] and reporting, small [[sample size]], and [[selection bias]]. Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect.<ref name="Caulfield20053"/><ref name="Shelton2">{{cite book|last=Shelton|first=JW|url=https://archive.org/details/homeopathyhowitr0000shel|title=Homeopathy: How it really works|publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]|year=2004|isbn=978-1-59102-109-4|location=Amherst, New York|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|206|date=November 2012}}<ref name="Linde19992">{{cite journal|last1=Linde|first1=K|last2=Scholz|first2=M|last3=Ramirez|first3=G|last4=Clausius|first4=N|last5=Melchart|first5=D|last6=Jonas|first6=WB|year=1999|title=Impact of study quality on outcome in placebo-controlled trials of homeopathy|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=52|issue=7|pages=631–36|doi=10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00048-7|pmid=10391656}}</ref> A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of "best evidence" produced by the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] concluded that "the most reliable evidence – that produced by Cochrane reviews – fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo."<ref name="Ernst20102"/>

In 2009 the United Kingdom's [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] Science and Technology Committee concluded that there was no compelling evidence of effect other than placebo.<ref name="inquiry_cfm"/> The Australian [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] completed a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of homeopathic preparations in 2015, in which it concluded that "there were no health conditions for which there was reliable evidence that homeopathy was effective."<ref name="NHMRC2">{{cite book|author1=National Health and Medical Research Council|url=https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/cam02|title=NHMRC statement on homeopathy and NHMRC information paper – Evidence on the effectiveness of homeopathy for treating health conditions|date=2015|publisher=National Health and Medical Research Council|isbn=978-1-925129-29-8|location=Canberra|page=16|quote=There is no reliable evidence that homoeopathy is effective for treating health conditions.|author1-link=National Health and Medical Research Council|access-date=August 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419065845/https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/cam02|archive-date=April 19, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published its official analysis in 2017 finding a lack of evidence that homeopathic products are effective, and raising concerns about quality control.<ref name="EASAC2017"/> In contrast a 2011 book was published, purportedly financed by the Swiss government, that concluded that homeopathy was effective and cost efficient.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bonhöft|first1=Gudrun|title=Homeopathy in healthcare: effectiveness, appropriateness, safety, costs.|last2=Matthiessen|first2=Peter|publisher=Springer|year=2012}}</ref> Although hailed by proponents as proof that homeopathy works,<ref name="ShawMisconduct2">{{cite journal|author=Shaw, David|date=May 2012|title=The Swiss report on homeopathy: a case study of research misconduct|journal=Swiss Medical Weekly|volume=142|pages=w13594|doi=10.4414/smw.2012.13594|pmid=22653406}}</ref> it was found to be scientifically, logically and ethically flawed, with most authors having a [[conflict of interest]].<ref name="ShawMisconduct2" /> The [[Swiss Federal Office of Public Health]] later released a statement saying the book was published without the consent of the Swiss government.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gurtner, Felix|date=December 2012|title=The report "Homeopathy in healthcare: effectiveness, appropriateness, safety, costs" is not a "Swiss report"|journal=Swiss Medical Weekly|volume=142|pages=w13723|doi=10.4414/smw.2012.13723|pmid=23255156}}</ref>

[[Meta-analysis|Meta-analyses]], essential tools to summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy,<ref name="PRISMA2">{{cite journal|last1=Liberati|first1=A|last2=Altman|first2=DG|last3=Tetzlaff|first3=J|last4=Mulrow|first4=C|last5=Gøtzsche|first5=PC|last6=Ioannidis|first6=J PA|last7=Clarke|first7=M|last8=Devereaux|first8=PJ|last9=Kleijnen|first9=J|last10=Moher|first10=D|year=2009|title=The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=6|issue=7|pages=e1000100|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000100|pmc=2707010|pmid=19621070}}</ref> and [[systematic review]]s have found that the methodological quality in the majority of randomized trials in homeopathy have shortcomings and that such trials were generally of lower quality than trials of conventional medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jonas|first1=WB|last2=Anderson|first2=RL|last3=Crawford|first3=CC|last4=Lyons|first4=JS|date=2001|title=A systematic review of the quality of homeopathic clinical trials|journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=1|pages=12|doi=10.1186/1472-6882-1-12|pmc=64638|pmid=11801202}}</ref><ref name="pmid114160762">{{cite journal|last1=Linde|first1=K|last2=Jonas|first2=WB|last3=Melchart|first3=D|last4=Willich|first4=S|year=2001|title=The methodological quality of randomized controlled trials of homeopathy, herbal medicines and acupuncture|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=30|issue=3|pages=526–31|doi=10.1093/ije/30.3.526|pmid=11416076|author-link1=Klaus Linde}}</ref> A major issue has been [[publication bias]], where positive results are more likely to be published in journals.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jeffrey D. Scargle|year=2000|title=Publication Bias: The "file-drawer problem" in scientific inference|url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_14_1_scargle.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Scientific Exploration]]|volume=14|issue=2|pages=94–106|arxiv=physics/9909033|bibcode=1999physics...9033S|access-date=January 19, 2011|archive-date=January 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122021757/http://scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_14_1_scargle.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2020}}<ref name="pmid160607222">{{cite journal|last1=Ioannidis|first1=John P. A.|year=2005|title=Why most published research findings are false|journal=PLOS Medicine|volume=2|issue=8|pages=e124|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124|pmc=1182327|pmid=16060722}}</ref><ref name="pmid18258002">{{cite journal|last1=Kleijnen|first1=J|last2=Knipschild|first2=P|last3=Ter Riet|first3=G|year=1991|title=Clinical trials of homoeopathy|journal=BMJ|volume=302|issue=6772|pages=316–23|doi=10.1136/bmj.302.6772.316|pmc=1668980|pmid=1825800}}</ref> This has been particularly marked in alternative medicine journals, where few of the published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report [[null result]]s.<ref name="Goldacre20072" /> A systematic review of the available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo.<ref name="pmid124926032" /> The same conclusion was also reached in 2005 in a meta-analysis published in ''The Lancet''. A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most reliable evidence did not support the effectiveness of non-individualized homeopathy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mathie|first1=Robert T.|last2=Ramparsad|first2=Nitish|last3=Legg|first3=Lynn A.|last4=Clausen|first4=Jürgen|last5=Moss|first5=Sian|last6=Davidson|first6=Jonathan R. T.|last7=Messow|first7=Claudia-Martina|last8=McConnachie|first8=Alex|date=March 24, 2017|title=Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of non-individualised homeopathic treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Systematic Reviews|volume=6|issue=1|pages=63|doi=10.1186/s13643-017-0445-3|issn=2046-4053|pmc=5366148|pmid=28340607}}</ref>

Health organizations, including the UK's [[National Health Service]],<ref name="nhs_choices2">{{cite web|title=Health A-Z -- Homeopathy|url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Homeopathy/Pages/Introduction.aspx|access-date=April 22, 2013|publisher=National Health Service}}</ref> the [[American Medical Association]],<ref name="amapseudo2">{{cite web|author=AMA Council on Scientific Affairs|year=1997|title=Alternative medicine: Report 12 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (A–97)|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13638.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614085504/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13638.shtml|archive-date=June 14, 2009|access-date=March 25, 2009|publisher=[[American Medical Association]]}}</ref> the [[FASEB]],<ref name="Weissmann2">{{cite journal|last1=Weissmann|first1=G|year=2006|title=Homeopathy: Holmes, Hogwarts, and the Prince of Wales|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=20|issue=11|pages=1755–58|doi=10.1096/fj.06-0901ufm|pmid=16940145|s2cid=9305843}}</ref> and the [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] of Australia,<ref name="NHMRC2" /> have issued statements saying that there is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for any health condition.<ref name="nhs_choices2" /> In 2009, [[World Health Organization]] official [[Mario Raviglione]] criticized the use of homeopathy to treat [[tuberculosis]]; similarly, another WHO spokesperson argued there was no evidence homeopathy would be an effective treatment for [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]].<ref>{{cite news|date=August 20, 2009|title=Homeopathy not a cure, says WHO|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8211925.stm|access-date=October 20, 2014}}</ref> They warned against the use of homeopathy for serious conditions such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], [[HIV/AIDS|HIV]] and [[malaria]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mashta|first=O|date=August 24, 2009|title=WHO warns against using homoeopathy to treat serious diseases|journal=BMJ|volume=339|issue=aug24 2|pages=b3447|doi=10.1136/bmj.b3447|pmid=19703929|s2cid=9303173}}</ref> The [[American College of Medical Toxicology]] and the [[American Academy of Clinical Toxicology]] recommend that no one use homeopathic treatment for disease or as a preventive health measure.<ref name="toxicfive2">{{cite web|author1=American College of Medical Toxicology|author1-link=American College of Medical Toxicology|author2=American Academy of Clinical Toxicology|author2-link=American Academy of Clinical Toxicology|date=February 2013|title=Five things physicians and patients should question|url=http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-college-of-medical-toxicology-and-the-american-academy-of-clinical-toxicology/|access-date=December 5, 2013|work=[[Choosing Wisely]]: an initiative of the [[ABIM Foundation]]|publisher=American College of Medical Toxicology and American Academy of Clinical Toxicology}}, which cites {{cite journal|last1=Woodward|first1=KN|date=May 2005|title=The potential impact of the use of homeopathic and herbal remedies on monitoring the safety of prescription products|journal=Human & Experimental Toxicology|volume=24|issue=5|pages=219–33|doi=10.1191/0960327105ht529oa|pmid=16004184|s2cid=34767417}}</ref> These organizations report that no evidence exists that homeopathic treatment is effective, but that there is evidence that using these treatments produces harm and can bring indirect health risks by delaying conventional treatment.<ref name="toxicfive2" />

===Purported effects in other biological systems===
While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of [[grain]]<ref>{{cite book
|author =Kolisko L
|trans-title=Physiological and physical evidence of the effectiveness of the smallest entities |title=Physiologischer und physikalischer Nachweis der Wirksamkeit kleinster Entitäten
|language =de
|location =Stuttgart
|year =1959
}}</ref> and [[enzyme|enzyme reactions]], such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed.<ref name="pmid11316508">{{cite journal |last1=Walach |first1=H |last2=Köster |first2=H |last3=Hennig |first3=T |last4=Haag |first4=G |title=The effects of homeopathic belladonna 30CH in healthy volunteers – a randomized, double-blind experiment |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=155–60 |year=2001 |pmid=11316508 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00224-5}}</ref><ref name="pmid8255290">{{cite journal |last1=Hirst |first1=SJ |last2=Hayes |first2=NA |last3=Burridge |first3=J |last4=Pearce |first4=FL |last5=Foreman |first5=JC |title=Human basophil degranulation is not triggered by very dilute antiserum against human IgE |journal=Nature |volume=366 |issue=6455 |pages=525–27 |year=1993 |pmid=8255290 |doi=10.1038/366525a0|bibcode = 1993Natur.366..525H |s2cid=4314547 }}</ref><ref name="pmid1376282">{{cite journal |last1=Ovelgönne |first1=J. H. |last2=Bol |first2=AWJM |last3=Hop |first3=WCJ |last4=Wijk |first4=R |title=Mechanical agitation of very dilute antiserum against IgE has no effect on basophil staining properties |journal=Experientia |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=504–08 |year=1992 |pmid=1376282 |doi=10.1007/BF01928175|s2cid=32110713 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16722785">{{cite journal |last1=Witt |first1=Claudia M |last2=Bluth |first2=M |last3=Hinderlich |first3=S |last4=Albrecht |first4=H |last5=Ludtke |first5=R |last6=Weisshuhn |first6=Thorolf ER |last7=Willich |first7=Stefan N |title=Does potentized HgCl2 (mercurius corrosivus) affect the activity of diastase and amylase? |journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=12 |pages=359–65 |year=2006 |doi=10.1089/acm.2006.12.359 |pmid=16722785 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="pmid16036166">{{cite journal |last1=Guggisberg |first1=A |last2=Baumgartner |first2=S |last3=Tschopp |first3=C |last4=Heusser |first4=P |title=Replication study concerning the effects of homeopathic dilutions of histamine on human basophil degranulation in vitro |journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=91–100 |year=2005 |pmid=16036166 |doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2005.04.003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vickers|first1=AJ|title=Independent replication of pre-clinical research in homeopathy: a systematic review.|journal=Forschende Komplementärmedizin|date=December 1999|volume=6|issue=6|pages=311–20|doi=10.1159/000021286|pmid=10649002|s2cid=22051466}}</ref> In 2001 and 2004, [[Madeleine Ennis]] published a number of studies that reported that homeopathic dilutions of [[histamine]] exerted an effect on the activity of [[basophil]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=V|last2=Ennis|first2=M|date=April 2001|title=Flow-cytometric analysis of basophil activation: inhibition by histamine at conventional and homeopathic concentrations|journal=Inflammation Research|volume=50 Suppl 2|pages=S47–48|doi=10.1007/PL00022402|doi-broken-date=February 28, 2022|pmid=11411598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cumps|first1=J.|last2=Ennis|first2=M.|last3=Mannaioni|first3=P. F.|last4=Roberfroid|first4=M.|last5=Sainte-Laudy|first5=J.|last6=Wiegant|first6=F.A.C.|last7=Belon|first7=P.|date=April 1, 2004|title=Histamine dilutions modulate basophil activation|journal=Inflammation Research|volume=53|issue=5|pages=181–88|doi=10.1007/s00011-003-1242-0|pmid=15105967|s2cid=8682416}}</ref> In response to the first of these studies, ''[[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]]'' aired a programme in which British scientists attempted to replicate Ennis' results; they were unable to do so.<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeopathy: The Test|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathytrans.shtml|access-date=April 29, 2015|publisher=BBC}}</ref> A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of the experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Witt|first1=CM|last2=Bluth|first2=M|last3=Albrecht|first3=H|last4=Weisshuhn|first4=TE|last5=Baumgartner|first5=S|last6=Willich|first6=SN|title=The in vitro evidence for an effect of high homeopathic potencies--a systematic review of the literature|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|date=June 2007|volume=15|issue=2|pages=128–38|pmid=17544864|doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2007.01.011}}</ref>

In 1988, French immunologist [[Jacques Benveniste]] published a paper in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' while working at [[INSERM]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Davenas|first1=E.|last2=Beauvais|first2=F.|last3=Amara|first3=J.|last4=Oberbaum|first4=M.|last5=Robinzon|first5=B.|last6=Miadonnai|first6=A.|last7=Tedeschi|first7=A.|last8=Pomeranz|first8=B.|last9=Fortner|first9=P.|last10=Belon|first10=P.|last11=Sainte-Laudy|first11=J.|date=1988|title=Human basophil degranulation triggered by very dilute antiserum against IgE|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/333816a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=333|issue=6176|pages=816–818|doi=10.1038/333816a0|pmid=2455231|bibcode=1988Natur.333..816D|s2cid=12992106|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. Skeptical of the findings, ''Nature'' assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research. After investigation the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded, "We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported."<ref name="delusion">
{{cite journal | last1 = Maddox | first1 = J | last2 = Randi | first2 = J | last3 = Stewart | first3 = W | title = "High-dilution" experiments a delusion | journal = Nature | volume = 334 | issue = 6180 | pages = 287–91 | year = 1988 | pmid = 2455869 | doi = 10.1038/334287a0 | bibcode = 1988Natur.334..287M | s2cid = 9579433 }}</ref><ref name=wsullivan>
{{cite news
|author= Sullivan W
|title =Water that has a memory? Skeptics win second round
|date =July 27, 1988
|work=[[The New York Times]]
|url =https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/27/us/water-that-has-a-memory-skeptics-win-second-round.html
|access-date =October 3, 2007
|author-link =Walter S. Sullivan
}}</ref><ref>Benveniste defended his results by comparing the inquiry to the Salem witch hunts and asserting that "It may be that all of us are wrong in good faith. This is no crime but science as usual and only the future knows."</ref>

== Ethics and safety ==
[[File:Rhustox.jpg|thumb|Homeopathic preparation ''Rhus toxicodendron'', derived from [[Toxicodendron radicans|poison ivy]]]]The provision of homeopathic preparations has been described as unethical.<ref name="unethical">{{cite journal | last1 = Shaw | first1 = DM | title = Homeopathy is where the harm is: Five unethical effects of funding unscientific 'remedies' | journal = Journal of Medical Ethics | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 130–31 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20211989 | doi = 10.1136/jme.2009.034959 | s2cid = 206996446 }}</ref> [[Michael Baum]], Professor Emeritus of Surgery and visiting Professor of Medical Humanities at [[University College London]] (UCL), has described homeopathy as a "cruel deception".<ref name=Janes>{{cite news |author=Hilly Janes |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article4682309.ece |title=The Lifestyle 50: The top fifty people who influence the way we eat, exercise and think about ourselves |work=[[The Times]] |date=September 6, 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110727183929/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article4682309.ece |archive-date= July 27, 2011}}</ref> [[Edzard Ernst]], the first Professor of [[alternative medicine|Complementary Medicine]] in the United Kingdom and a former homeopathic practitioner,<ref name="Ernst_memo">[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmsctech/memo/homeopathy/ucm1602.htm Memorandum submitted by Edzard Ernst HO 16] to the [[House of Lords]]</ref><ref>
{{cite news
|title=The alternative professor
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2003/sep/25/scienceinterviews.health
|author=Boseley S
|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]
|date=July 21, 2008
|location=London
}}</ref><ref name="Con?">{{cite news
|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/features/complementary-therapies-the-big-con-813248.html
|title=Complementary therapies: The big con?
|work=The Independent
|access-date=May 4, 2010
|location=London
|date=April 22, 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427070400/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/features/complementary-therapies-the-big-con-813248.html
|archive-date=April 27, 2009
}}</ref> has expressed his concerns about [[pharmacist]]s who violate their ethical code by failing to provide customers with "necessary and relevant information" about the true nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell.<ref>
{{cite news
|title=Pharmacists urged to 'tell the truth' about homeopathic remedies
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/jul/21/pharmacists.homeophathy
|author=Sample I
|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]
|date=July 21, 2008
|location=London
}}</ref> In 2013 the [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|UK Advertising Standards Authority]] concluded that the [[Society of Homeopaths]] were targeting vulnerable ill people and discouraging the use of essential medical treatment while making misleading claims of efficacy for homeopathic products.<ref name="ASA">{{cite web|date=July 3, 2013|title=ASA adjudication on Society of Homeopaths|url=http://www.asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/2013/7/Society-of-Homeopaths/SHP_ADJ_157043.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130706020223/http://asa.org.uk/Rulings/Adjudications/2013/7/Society-of-Homeopaths/SHP_ADJ_157043.aspx|archive-date=July 6, 2013|access-date=July 4, 2013|publisher=ASA|df=mdy-all}}</ref> In 2015 the [[Federal Court of Australia]] imposed penalties on a homeopathic company for making false or misleading statements about the efficacy of the whooping cough vaccine and recommending homeopathic remedies as an alternative.<ref name="ACCC">{{cite web|title=Court imposes penalty for false or misleading claims by Homeopathy Plus and Ms Frances Sheffield |url=https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/court-imposes-penalty-for-false-or-misleading-claims-by-homeopathy-plus-and-ms-frances-sheffield|publisher=ACCC|access-date=March 31, 2016|date=October 14, 2015}}</ref>[[File:1belladonna.jpg|thumb|Old homeopathic [[Deadly nightshade|belladonna]] preparation|alt=|left]]A 2000 review by homeopaths reported that homeopathic preparations are "unlikely to provoke severe adverse reactions".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dantas|first1=F|last2=Rampes|first2=H|year=2000|title=Do homeopathic medicines provoke adverse effects? A systematic review|journal=British Homoeopathic Journal|volume=89|pages=S35–S38|doi=10.1054/homp.1999.0378|pmid=10939781}}</ref> In 2012, a systematic review evaluating evidence of homeopathy's possible [[adverse effect]]s concluded that "homeopathy has the potential to harm patients and consumers in both direct and indirect ways".<ref name="sr2012">{{cite journal|last1=Posadzki|first1=P|last2=Alotaibi|first2=A|last3=Ernst|first3=E|year=2012|title=Adverse effects of homeopathy: A systematic review of published case reports and case series|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|volume=66|issue=12|pages=1178–88|doi=10.1111/ijcp.12026|pmid=23163497|s2cid=2930768}}</ref> A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that, in homeopathic clinical trials, adverse effects were reported among the patients who received homeopathy about as often as they were reported among patients who received placebo or conventional medicine.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stub|first1=T|last2=Musial|first2=F|last3=Kristoffersen|first3=AA|last4=Alræk|first4=T|last5=Liu|first5=J|date=June 2016|title=Adverse effects of homeopathy, what do we know? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|url=https://munin.uit.no/bitstream/10037/10908/4/article.pdf|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|volume=26|pages=146–63|doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2016.03.013|pmid=27261996|hdl=10037/10908}}</ref>

Some homeopathic preparations involve poisons such as [[Atropa belladonna|Belladonna]], [[arsenic]], and [[Toxicodendron radicans|poison ivy]]. In rare cases, the original ingredients are present at detectable levels. This may be due to improper preparation or intentional low dilution. Serious adverse effects such as seizures and death have been reported or associated with some homeopathic preparations.<ref name="sr2012" /> Instances of [[arsenic poisoning]] have occurred.<ref name="pmid14705842" /> In 2009, the FDA advised consumers to stop using three discontinued cold remedy [[Zicam]] products because it could cause permanent damage to users' sense of smell.<ref>Sources:

* {{cite news|author=Julianne Pepitone|date=June 16, 2009|title=Zicam may damage sense of smell – FDA|publisher=[[CNNMoney.com]]|url=https://money.cnn.com/2009/06/16/news/companies/zicam_sense_of_smell/index.htm?section=money_latest}}
* {{cite web|date=June 16, 2009|title=Information on Zicam Cold Remedy nasal gel, Zicam Cold Remedy nasal swabs, and Zicam Cold Remedy swabs, kids size|url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm166834.htm|publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|FDA]]}}</ref> In 2016 the FDA issued a safety alert to consumers<ref name="FDAconsumers">{{cite web | url=https://www.fda.gov/safety/medwatch/safetyinformation/safetyalertsforhumanmedicalproducts/ucm523435.htm | title=Homeopathic Teething Tablets and Gels: FDA Warning – Risk to Infants and Children | publisher=FDA | date=September 30, 2016 | access-date=October 17, 2016}}</ref> warning against the use of homeopathic teething gels and tablets following reports of adverse events after their use.<ref name="FDANewsRelease">{{cite web | url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm523468.htm | title=FDA warns against the use of homeopathic teething tablets and gels | publisher=FDA | date=September 30, 2016 | access-date=October 17, 2016}}</ref> A previous FDA investigation had found that these products were improperly diluted and contained "unsafe levels of belladonna" and that the reports of serious adverse events in children using this product were "consistent with belladonna toxicity".<ref name="arstechnicaFDA">{{cite web | url=http://arstechnica.co.uk/science/2016/10/fda-homeopathic-teething-gels-may-have-killed-10-babies-sickened-400/ | title=FDA: Homeopathic teething gels may have killed 10 babies, sickened 400 | publisher=Ars Technica UK | date=October 13, 2016 | access-date=October 17, 2016 | author=Mole, Beth}}</ref>

Patients who choose to use homeopathy rather than [[evidence-based medicine]] risk missing timely diagnosis and effective treatment, thereby worsening the outcomes of serious conditions such as cancer.<ref name="pmid17285788" /><ref name="pmid12974558">{{cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=IA |last2=Gopalan |first2=S |title=Use of CAM results in delay in seeking medical advice for breast cancer |journal=European Journal of Epidemiology |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=817–22 |year=2002 |pmid=12974558 |doi=10.1023/A:1025343720564 |s2cid=19059757 |quote=CAM use [in the developing countries this study solely considered] was associated with delay in seeking medical advice (OR: 5.6; 95% CI: 2.3, 13.3) and presentation at an advanced stage of disease}}</ref><ref name="pmid8554846" /><ref name="malaria2" /> The Russian [[Commission on Pseudoscience]] has said homeopathy is not safe because ''"patients spend significant amounts of money, buying medicines that do not work and disregard already known effective treatment."''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-02-07|title=Memorandum #2. Homeopathy as pseudoscience|url=http://klnran.ru/en/2017/02/memorandum02-homeopathy/|access-date=March 19, 2021|website=[[Commission on Pseudoscience]]}}</ref> Critics have cited cases of patients failing to receive proper treatment for diseases that could have been easily managed with conventional medicine and who have died as a result.<ref name="Baby_Gloria">Case of Baby Gloria, who died in 2002:
*{{cite news
|title = Homeopath Thomas Sam guilty of daughter Gloria's death
|newspaper = [[The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)|The Daily Telegraph]]
|date = June 5, 2009
|url = http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/homeopath-thomas-sam-guilty-of-daughter-glorias-death/story-e6freuy9-1225723018271
|access-date = March 17, 2010
|archive-date = November 18, 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121118064506/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/homeopath-thomas-sam-guilty-of-daughter-glorias-death/story-e6freuy9-1225723018271
|url-status = dead
}}
*{{cite news
|title = Parents guilty of manslaughter over daughter's eczema death
|newspaper = [[The Canberra Times]]
|date = June 5, 2009
|url = http://www.canberratimes.com.au/news/national/national/general/parents-guilty-of-manslaughter-over-daughters-eczema-death/1533293.aspx
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100625160931/http://www.canberratimes.com.au/news/national/national/general/parents-guilty-of-manslaughter-over-daughters-eczema-death/1533293.aspx
|archive-date = June 25, 2010
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref><ref name="Dingle">{{cite web |author1=Alastair Neil Hope |author2=State Coroner |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/68731728/Coroner-Dingle-Finding |title=Coroner's inquest into the death of Penelope Dingle. Ref No: 17/10 }}</ref> They have also condemned the "marketing practice" of criticizing and downplaying the effectiveness of medicine.<ref name="Goldacre20072"/><ref name="Dingle" /> Homeopaths claim that use of conventional medicines will "push the disease deeper" and cause more serious conditions, a process referred to as "suppression".<ref>
{{cite book
|author= Schmukler AV
|year=2006
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1fVzLCmk5gC&q=suppression+homeopathy&pg=PA16
|title=Homeopathy: An A to Z Home Handbook
|publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide
|page=16
|isbn= 978-0-7387-0873-7
}}</ref> In 1978, [[Anthony Campbell (physician)|Anthony Campbell]], a consultant physician at the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital, criticized statements by [[George Vithoulkas]] claiming that [[syphilis]], when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the [[central nervous system]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Campbell A|date=October 1978|title=The science of homoeopathy, by G. Vithoulkas|journal=British Homoeopathic Journal|type=book review|volume=67|issue=4|pages=299–301|doi=10.1016/S0007-0785(78)80061-1}}</ref> Vithoulkas' claims echo the idea that treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms would only drive it deeper into the body and conflict with scientific studies, which indicate that [[penicillin]] treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases.<ref name="Birnbaum">{{cite journal|vauthors=Birnbaum NR, Goldschmidt RH, Buffett WO|year=1999|title=Resolving the common clinical dilemmas of syphilis|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/990415ap/2233.html|journal=American Family Physician|volume=59|issue=8|pages=2233–40, 2245–46|pmid=10221308|access-date=September 3, 2007|archive-date=June 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606033808/http://www.aafp.org/afp/990415ap/2233.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The use of homeopathy as a preventive for serious infectious diseases, called [[homeoprophylaxis]], is especially controversial.<ref name="BBC-malaria">{{cite news|date=January 5, 2011|title=Is bad homeopathic advice putting travellers at risk?|work=Newsnight|agency=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/9341713.stm|access-date=January 10, 2015}}</ref> Some homeopaths (particularly those who are non-physicians) advise their patients against [[vaccine|immunization]].<ref name="pmid8554846" /><ref name="pmid9243229">{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=E. |title=The attitude against immunisation within some branches of complementary medicine |journal=European Journal of Pediatrics |volume=156 |issue=7 |pages=513–15 |year=1997 |pmid=9243229 |doi=10.1007/s004310050650|s2cid=25420567 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=E |title=Rise in popularity of complementary and alternative medicine: reasons and consequences for vaccination |journal=Vaccine |volume=20 |pages=S90–93; discussion S89 |year=2001 |doi =10.1016/S0264-410X(01)00290-0 |pmid=11587822}}</ref> Others have suggested that vaccines be replaced with homeopathic "nosodes".<ref>
{{cite journal
|author =Pray WS
|title =The challenge to professionalism presented by homeopathy
|journal =American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education
|volume =60
|pages =198–204
|year =1996
}}</ref> While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths often use them although there is no evidence to indicate they have any beneficial effects.<ref>
{{cite journal
|title =A challenge to the credibility of homeopathy
|journal =American Journal of Pain Management
|year =1992
|author=Pray WS
|issue =2
|pages =63–71
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=English |first1=J |title=The issue of immunization |journal=British Homoeopathic Journal |volume=81 |pages=161–63 |year=1992 |doi=10.1016/S0007-0785(05)80171-1 |issue=4}}</ref> Promotion of homeopathic alternatives to vaccines has been characterized as dangerous, inappropriate and irresponsible.<ref name="CBC-Irresponsible">{{cite web|date=November 28, 2014|title=Vaccine alternatives offered by homeopaths 'irresponsible'|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/vaccine-alternatives-offered-by-homeopaths-irresponsible-1.2852408|access-date=January 10, 2015|work=Marketplace|publisher=CBC}}</ref><ref name="BBC-Poling">{{cite news|author=Poling, Samantha|date=September 13, 2010|title=Doctors warn over homeopathic 'vaccines'|agency=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11277990|access-date=January 10, 2015}}</ref> In December 2014, the Australian homeopathy supplier [[Homeopathy Plus!]] was found to have acted deceptively in promoting homeopathic alternatives to vaccines.<ref name="ACCC-HPlus">{{cite web|date=December 23, 2014|title=Court finds Homeopathy Plus! vaccine claims misleading|url=https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/court-finds-homeopathy-plus-vaccine-claims-misleading|access-date=January 10, 2015|publisher=Australian Competition and Consumer Commission}}</ref> In 2019, an investigative journalism piece by the [[The Daily Telegraph|''Telegraph'']] revealed that homeopathy practitioners were actively discouraging patients from vaccinating their children.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Rushton|first1=Katherine|last2=Foggo|first2=Daniel|last3=Barnes|first3=Sophie|date=2019-11-01|title=Homeopaths warning mothers not to have children vaccinated, investigation reveals|language=en-GB|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/11/01/homeopaths-warning-mothers-not-have-children-vaccinated-investigation/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/11/01/homeopaths-warning-mothers-not-have-children-vaccinated-investigation/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2019-11-03|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Cases of homeopaths advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs have also been identified,<ref name=malaria2/><ref name=malaria1 /><ref name="pmid11082104"/> putting visitors to the tropics in severe danger.<ref name=malaria2>
{{cite news
|author =Jones M
|title =Malaria advice 'risks lives'
|date =July 14, 2006
|periodical =[[Newsnight]]
|publisher =[[BBC Television]]
|url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/5178122.stm
|access-date =March 24, 2009
}}</ref><ref name=malaria1>
{{cite news
|author =Jha A
|title =Homeopaths 'endangering lives' by offering malaria remedies
|date =July 14, 2006
|url =https://www.theguardian.com/science/story/0,,1820103,00.html
|newspaper =[[The Guardian]]
| location=London
}}</ref><ref name="pmid11082104">{{cite journal |last1=Starr |first1=M. |title=Malaria affects children and pregnant women most |journal=BMJ |volume=321 |page=1288 |year=2000 |doi=10.1136/bmj.321.7271.1288 |issue=7271|pmc=1119021 |pmid=11082103}}</ref><ref name=Coffman>{{cite web|author=Coffman, Becky |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/stories/homeopathic_drugs.html |title=A cautionary tale: the risks of unproven antimalarials |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control]] |date=January 28, 2019 }}</ref>

A 2006 review recommends that pharmacy colleges include a required course where ethical dilemmas inherent in recommending products lacking proven safety and efficacy data be discussed and that students should be taught where unproven systems such as homeopathy depart from evidence-based medicine.<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=Pray WS
|title=Ethical, scientific, and educational concerns with unproven medications
|journal=American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education
|volume=70
|issue=6
|page=141
|year=2006
|pmid=17332867
|pmc=1803699
|doi=10.5688/aj7006141
}}</ref>

==Regulation and prevalence==
{{Main|Regulation and prevalence of homeopathy}}
[[File:Bristol Homeopathic.jpg|thumb|Hampton House, the former site of [[Bristol Homeopathic Hospital]].]]

Homeopathy is fairly common in some countries while being uncommon in others; is highly regulated in some countries and mostly unregulated in others. It is practiced worldwide and professional qualifications and licences are needed in most countries.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2001|title=Legal Status of Traditional Medicine and Complementary/Alternative Medicine: A Worldwide Review|url=http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/h2943e/h2943e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927001352/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/h2943e/h2943e.pdf|archive-date=September 27, 2009|access-date=2020-09-01|website=World Health Organization}}</ref> A 2019 WHO report found that 100 out of 133 Member States surveyed in 2012 acknowledged that their population used homeopathy, with 22 saying the practice was regulated and 13 providing health insurance coverage.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=4 June 2019|title=WHO global report on traditional and complementary medicine 2019|url=https://www.who.int/traditional-complementary-integrative-medicine/WhoGlobalReportOnTraditionalAndComplementaryMedicine2019.pdf?ua=1|access-date=2020-09-04|website=WHO|language=en}}</ref> In some countries, there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of homeopathy, while in others, licences or degrees in conventional medicine from accredited universities are required. In 2001 homeopathy had been integrated into the national health care systems of many countries, including India, Mexico, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the United Kingdom.<ref name=":3" />

=== Regulation ===
Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the public health service of several European countries, including Scotland,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Green |first1=Chris |title=Scotland urged to stop funding homeopathy on NHS |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/health/scotland-urged-stop-funding-homeopathy-nhs-522057 |access-date=18 January 2020 |publisher=iNews |date=2 August 2017}}</ref> and [[Luxembourg]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clarinval |first1=France |title=Homeopathy to remain reimbursable in Luxembourg |url=https://today.rtl.lu/news/luxembourg/a/1393668.html |website=today.rt.lu |publisher=RTL Today |access-date=4 May 2020}}</ref> It used to be covered in France until 2021.<ref name="FranceEndFunding2021"/> In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not covered. In Austria, the public health service requires scientific proof of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments and homeopathy is listed as not reimbursable,<ref>
{{cite web|author=[[Central Association of Austrian Social Insurance Authorities|Hauptverband der österreichischen Sozialversicherungsträger]]|date=March 31, 2004|title=Liste nicht erstattungsfähiger Arzneimittelkategorien gemäß § 351c Abs. 2 ASVG (List of treatments not reimbursable by social service providers in Austria)|url=https://www.avsv.at/avi/dokument/dokumentanzeige.xhtml?dokid=2004%3D34&dokStat=0&csrId=1736&tlId=1231413537940|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706091417/https://www.avsv.at/avi/dokument/dokumentanzeige.xhtml?dokid=2004%3D34&dokStat=0&csrId=1736&tlId=1231413537940|archive-date=July 6, 2011|language=de|df=mdy-all}}</ref> but exceptions can be made;<ref>
{{cite court|litigants=Rechtssatz (legal rule)|court=Oberster Gerichtshof (Austrian supreme court)|opinion=RS0083796 {{in lang|de}}|date=February 28, 1994|url=http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Justiz/JJR_19940228_OGH0002_010OBS00103_9300000_001/JJR_19940228_OGH0002_010OBS00103_9300000_001.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> private health insurance policies sometimes include homeopathic treatments.<ref name=":3" /> In 2018, Austria's [[Medical University of Vienna]] stopped teaching homeopathy.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=2020-03-16|title=In Germany, a Heated Debate Over Homeopathy|url=https://undark.org/2020/03/16/homeopathy-globuli-germany/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=Undark Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> The Swiss government withdrew coverage of homeopathy and four other complementary treatments in 2005, stating that they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria,<ref name="EndofHomeopathy">{{cite journal|authors=|year=2005|title=The end of homoeopathy|journal=The Lancet|volume=366|issue=9487|page=690|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67149-8|pmid=16125567|s2cid=6115077}}</ref> but following a referendum in 2009 the five therapies were reinstated for a further 6-year trial period.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dacey J|date=January 14, 2011|title=Alternative therapies are put to the test|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss_news/Alternative_therapies_are_put_to_the_test.html?cid=29242484|access-date=January 17, 2011|publisher=swissinfo.ch}}</ref> In Germany, homeopathic treatments are covered by 70 percent of government medical plans, and available in almost every pharmacy.<ref name=":5" />

The English NHS recommended against prescribing homeopathic preparations in 2017.<ref name=":4" /> In 2018 prescriptions worth £55,000 were written in defiance of the guidelines, representing less than 0.001% of the total NHS prescribing budget.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-10-18|title=Homeopathy|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/|access-date=2020-01-18|website=nhs.uk|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Donnelly|first1=Laura|last2=Taylor|first2=Rosie|date=2019-04-05|title=NHS still spending £55,000 a year on homeopathy, despite ban|language=en-GB|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/05/nhs-still-spending-55000-year-homeopathy-despite-ban/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/05/nhs-still-spending-55000-year-homeopathy-despite-ban/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2020-01-18|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2016 the UK's [[Committee of Advertising Practice]] compliance team wrote to homeopaths<ref name="NightingaleASA_CAP">{{cite web|date=September 29, 2016|title=Diluting misleading claims – ASA update|url=http://www.nightingale-collaboration.org/news/185-diluting-misleading-claims-asa-update.html|access-date=September 30, 2016|publisher=Nightingale Collaboration}}</ref> in the UK to "remind them of the rules that govern what they can and can't say in their marketing materials".<ref name="ASA_CAP">{{cite web|date=September 29, 2016|title=Advertising standards for homeopathy|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/News-resources/Media-Centre/2016/Advertising-standards-for-homeopathy.aspx|access-date=September 30, 2016|publisher=Advertising Standards Authority}}</ref> The letter told homeopaths to "ensure that they do not make any direct or implied claims that homeopathy can treat medical conditions" and asks them to review their marketing communications "including websites and social media pages" to ensure compliance.<ref name="LetterToHomeopaths">{{cite web|author=CAP Compliance Team|date=September 28, 2016|title=Advertising standsards for homeopaths|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/News-resources/Media-Centre/2016/~/media/Files/CAP/News/Letter%20to%20Homeopaths.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003143347/https://www.asa.org.uk/News-resources/Media-Centre/2016/~/media/Files/CAP/News/Letter%20to%20Homeopaths.pdf|archive-date=October 3, 2016|access-date=September 30, 2016|publisher=Committee of Advertising Practice|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Homeopathic services offered at [[Bristol Homeopathic Hospital]] in the UK ceased in October 2015,<ref name="GoodThinking">{{cite web|date=June 5, 2015|title=Bristol Homeopathic Hospital To Cease Offering Homeopathic Treatments|url=http://goodthinkingsociety.org/bristol-homeopathic-hospital-cease-offering-homeopathic-treatments/|access-date=April 29, 2016|publisher=Good Thinking}}</ref><ref name="BristolPost-10-06-2015">{{cite news|last1=Cardwell|first1=Mark|date=June 10, 2015|title=Homeopathy services will no longer be available at Bristol NHS Trust hospitals|work=Bristol Post|url=http://www.bristolpost.co.uk/Homeopathy-services-longer-available-NHS-Bristol/story-26666377-detail/story.html|url-status=dead|access-date=April 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928025310/http://www.bristolpost.co.uk/Homeopathy-services-longer-available-NHS-Bristol/story-26666377-detail/story.html|archive-date=September 28, 2015|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Member states or the [[European Union]] are required to ensure that homeopathic products are registered, although this process does not require any proof of efficacy.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Commander|first=Emily|date=2018-10-01|title=Snake oil or science? Homeopathy in Europe|url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/10/01/snake-oil-or-science-homeopathy-in-europe|access-date=2020-09-04|website=euronews|language=en}}</ref> In Spain the [[Association for the protection of patients from pseudo-scientific therapies]] is lobbying to get rid of the easy registration procedure for homeopathic remedies.<ref name=":6" /> In Bulgaria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Slovenia homeopathy, by law, can only be practiced by medical practitioners. However, in Slovenia if doctors practice homeopathy their medical license will be revoked.<ref name=":6" /> In Germany, to become a homeopathic physician, one must attend a three-year training program, while France, Austria and Denmark mandate licences to diagnose any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any illness.<ref name=":3" /> Homeopaths in the UK are under no legal regulations, meaning anyone can call themselves homeopaths and administer homeopathic remedies.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2017-10-18|title=Homeopathy|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=nhs.uk|language=en}}</ref>[[File:India - Varanasi pharmacy - 0830.jpg|left|thumb|Homeopathics at a homeopathic pharmacy in [[Varanasi]], India]]
The [[Indian government]] recognizes homeopathy as one of its national systems of medicine and they are sold with medical claims.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://india.gov.in/citizen/health/healthcare_system.php
|title = Alternative System of Health Care
|publisher = Government of India
|access-date = January 15, 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100102154756/http://india.gov.in/citizen/health/healthcare_system.php
|archive-date = January 2, 2010
|url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> It has established the [[Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy]] (AYUSH) under the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (India)|Ministry of Health & Family Welfare]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianmedicine.nic.in/index.asp?lang=1|title=AYUSH|publisher=[[Government of India]]. website|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130822171213/http://indianmedicine.nic.in/index.asp?lang=1|archive-date=August 22, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The south Indian state of [[Kerala]] also has a cabinet-level AYUSH department.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.homoeoscan.com/2015/06/Kerala-AYUSH-department-Final-nod.html|title=Kerala AYUSH department- Final nod|date=June 4, 2015|website=Homoeoscan|access-date=October 1, 2017}}</ref> The [[Central Council of Homoeopathy]] was established in 1973 to monitor higher education in homeopathy, and the [[National Institute of Homoeopathy]] in 1975.<ref>{{cite web|title=Professional Councils |url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/pcouncil.html#CCH |publisher=[[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] (UGC) website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106075646/http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/pcouncil.html |archive-date=January 6, 2010 }}</ref> Principals and standards for homeopathic products are covered by the ''[[Homoeopathic pharmacopoeia of India]]''.<ref name=":2" /> A minimum of a recognized diploma in homeopathy and registration on a state register or the Central Register of Homoeopathy is required to practice homeopathy in India.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cchindia.com/central_act3.htm
|title = The Homoeopathy Central Council Act, 1973, s. 15 and Sch. II
|publisher = Central Council of Homeopathy, India
|access-date = January 18, 2010
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091123105853/http://www.cchindia.com/central_act3.htm
|archive-date = November 23, 2009
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref>

Some [[medical school]]s in Pakistan,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/436504-govt-asked-to-set-up-university-to-promote-homoeopathy |title = Govt asked to set up university to promote homoeopathy}}</ref> India,<ref>{{cite news|last1=MANDHANI|first1=APOORVA|title=Gujarat HC Quashes Rules Permitting Common Counselling By State For Management Quota Seats in Ayurveda Colleges [Read Judgment]|url=http://www.livelaw.in/gujarat-hc-quashes-rules-permitting-common-counselling-state-management-quota-seats-ayurveda-colleges-read-judgment/|publisher=Live Law|date=August 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Alternative Medicine: Emerging Careers|url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/alternative-medicine-emerging-careers/|publisher=northeasttoday.in|date=March 23, 2017|access-date=March 4, 2021|archive-date=January 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108062819/https://www.northeasttoday.in/alternative-medicine-emerging-careers/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Bangladesh,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7u8QjjEwif4C&q=bachelor+of+homoeopathy+medicine+and+surgery+in+bangladesh |title = Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh|year = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.homoeopathicboardbd.org/ | title=Bangladesh Homoeopathy Board – Bangladesh Homoeopathy Board}}</ref> offer an undergraduate degree programme in homeopathy.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RYrDwAAQBAJ&q=Bachelor+of+Homoeopathy+Medicine+and+Surgery&pg=PT77 | title=Educational Equivalency Analysis: India & USA Degrees : 108 India Degrees and Equivalency to USA degrees| isbn=9789352781171| last1=Raghu Korrapati| first1=Dr| date=2017-07-06}}</ref> Upon completion the college may award a ''{{visible anchor|Bachelor of Homoeopathy Medicine and Surgery}}'' (''B.H.M.S.'').

In the United States each state is responsible for the laws and licensing requirements for homeopathy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Practicing & Studying Homeopathy|url=https://www.homeopathycenter.org/practicing-studying-homeopathy/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=The National Center for Homeopathy|language=en|archive-date=April 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135845/https://www.homeopathycenter.org/practicing-studying-homeopathy/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, the FDA held a hearing on homeopathic product regulation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Frazier|first1=Kendrick|year=2015|title=CFI testimony urges FDA to regulate homeopathic products|journal=Skeptical Inquirer|volume=39|issue=4|pages=6–7}}</ref> Representatives from the [[Center for Inquiry]] and the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] gave a testimonial which summarized the harm that is done to the general public from homeopathics and proposed regulatory actions:<ref name="fdahearing">{{cite web|author=De Dora, Michael|date=April 20, 2015|title=Homeopathic product regulation: evaluating the Food and Drug Administration's regulatory framework after a quarter-century. Testimony of the Center for Inquiry to the Food and Drug Administration|url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/NewsEvents/UCM443495.pdf|publisher=FDA}}</ref> In 2016 the United States [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) issued an "Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs" which specified that the FTC will apply the same standard to homeopathic drugs that it applies to other products claiming similar benefits.<ref name="FTC2016">{{cite web|title=FTC: Enforcement Policy Statement on Marketing Claims for OTC Homeopathic Drugs|url=https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/996984/p114505_otc_homeopathic_drug_enforcement_policy_statement.pdf|access-date=November 18, 2016|publisher=Federal Trade Commission}}</ref> A related report concluded that claims of homeopathy effectiveness "are not accepted by most modern medical experts and do not constitute competent and reliable scientific evidence that these products have the claimed treatment effects."<ref name="WSReport">{{cite web|title=Homeopathic Medicine & Advertising Workshop Report|url=https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/federal-trade-commission-staff-report-homeopathic-medicine-advertising-workshop/p114505_otc_homeopathic_medicine_and_advertising_workshop_report.pdf|access-date=November 18, 2016|publisher=Federal Trade Commission}}</ref> In 2019 the FDA removed an enforcement policy that permitted unapproved homeopathics to be sold.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FDA Toughens Enforcement of Homeopathic Products|url=https://www.natlawreview.com/article/fda-toughens-enforcement-homeopathic-products|access-date=2020-09-02|website=The National Law Review|language=en}}</ref> Currently no homeopathic products are approved by the FDA.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Research|first=Center for Drug Evaluation and|date=2020-07-22|title=Homeopathic Products|url=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/information-drug-class/homeopathic-products|journal=FDA|language=en}}</ref>

Homeopathic remedies are regulated as natural health products in Canada.<ref name=":2" /> [[Ontario]] became the first province in the country to regulate the practice of homeopathy, a move that was widely criticized by scientists and doctors.<ref>{{Cite news|title='A pseudo-science': Outrage after Ontario government funds college program in homeopathy|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/a-diploma-in-magical-thinking-critics-want-funding-pulled-for-ontario-colleges-homeopathy-course|access-date=2020-09-02|website=National Post|date=February 8, 2018|language=en-CA|last1=Kirkey|first1=Sharon}}</ref> [[Health Canada]] requires all products to have a licence before being sold and applicants have to submit evidence on "the safety, efficacy and quality of a homeopathic medicine".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Canada|first=Health|date=2006-10-26|title=Evidence for Homeopathic Medicines|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/natural-non-prescription/legislation-guidelines/guidance-documents/evidence-homeopathic-medicines.html|access-date=2020-09-04|website=aem}}</ref> In 2015 the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] tested the system by applying for and then receiving a government approved licence for a made-up drug aimed at kids.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Mar 13, 2015|title=Drugstore remedies: Licence to Deceive|url=https://www.cbc.ca/marketplace/episodes/2014-2015/drugstore-remedies-licence-to-deceive|website=CBC}}</ref>

In Australia, the sale of homeopathic products is regulated by the [[Therapeutic Goods Administration]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-09-01|title=Regulation of homoeopathic and anthroposophic medicines in Australia|url=https://www.tga.gov.au/consultation/regulation-homoeopathic-and-anthroposophic-medicines-australia|access-date=2020-09-01|website=Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)|language=en}}</ref> In 2015, the [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] of Australia concluded that there is "no reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective and should not be used to treat health conditions that are chronic, serious, or could become serious". They recommended anyone considering using homeopathy should first get advice from a registered health practitioner.<ref name="NHMRC2"/> A 2017 review into Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation recommended that products be banned from pharmacies;<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation Final Report|url=https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/7E5846EB2D7BA299CA257F5C007C0E21/$File/review-of-pharmacy-remuneration-and-regulation-final-report.pdf}}</ref> while noting the concerns the government did not adopt the recommendation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018|title=AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO THE REVIEW OF PHARMACY REMUNERATION AND REGULATION|url=https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/7E5846EB2D7BA299CA257F5C007C0E21/%24File/Pharmacy-Review-Aus-Gov-Response-3-May-2018.pdf}}</ref> In New Zealand there are no regulations specific to homeopathy<ref>{{Cite web|title=Natural health products|url=https://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/regulation-health-and-disability-system/natural-health-products|access-date=2020-09-01|website=Ministry of Health NZ|language=en}}</ref> and the [[New Zealand Medical Association]] does not oppose the use of homeopathy,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Doctors and CAM (complementary and alternative medicine)|url=https://www.mcnz.org.nz/assets/standards/7eb60db2d2/Doctors-and-CAM-Complementary-and-alternative-medicine.pdf|website=MEDICAL COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND}}</ref> a stance that has been called unethical by some doctors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Holt|first=Shaun|author2=Gilbey, Andrew|author3=Colquhoun|author4=David|author5=Baum, Michael|author6=Ernst, Edzard|date=15 April 2011|title=Call for doctors not to practice homeopathy or refer to homeopaths|journal=New Zealand Medical Journal|volume=124|issue=1332|pages=87–88|pmid=21747430|issn=1175-8716}}</ref>

=== Prevalence ===

Homeopathy is one of the most commonly used forms of alternative medicines and it has a large worldwide market.<ref name=":2" /> The exact size is uncertain, but information available on homeopathic sales suggests it forms a large share of the medical market.<ref name=":2" />

In 1999, about 1000 UK doctors practiced homeopathy, most being general practitioners who prescribe a limited number of remedies. A further 1500 homeopaths with no medical training are also thought to practice. Over ten thousand German and French doctors use homeopathy.<ref name="Vickers 1115–11182"/> In the United States a National Health Interview Survey estimated 5 million adults and 1 million children used homeopathy in 2011. An analysis of this survey concluded that most cases were self-prescribed for colds and musculoskeletal pain.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Homeopathy|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/homeopathy|access-date=2020-09-02|website=NCCIH|language=en}}</ref> Major retailers like [[Walmart]], [[CVS Pharmacy|CVS]], and [[Walgreens]] sell homeopathic products that are packaged to resemble conventional medicines.<ref name=":5" />

The homeopathic drug market in Germany is worth about 650 million euro with a 2014 survey finding that 60 percent of Germans reported trying homeopathy.<ref name=":5" /> A 2009 survey found that only 17 percent of respondents knew how homeopathic medicine was made.<ref name=":5" /> France spent more than US$408 million on homeopathic products in 2008.<ref name=":2" /> In the United States the homeopathic market is worth about $3 billion-a-year;<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fox|first=Maggie|date=2017|title=Homeopathic products useless and often even harmful, FDA says|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/fda-crack-down-snake-oil-homeopathy-n830756|access-date=2020-09-04|website=NBC News|language=en}}</ref> with 2.9 billion spent in 2007.<ref name=":2" /> Australia spent US$7.3 million on homeopathic medicines in 2008.<ref name=":2" />

In India, a 2014 national health survey found that homeopathy was used by about 3% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudra |first1=Shalini |last2=Kalra |first2=Aakshi |last3=Kumar |first3=Abhishek |last4=Joe |first4=William |date=2017 |title=Utilization of alternative systems of medicine as health care services in India: Evidence on AYUSH care from NSS 2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12|issue=5 |pages= e0176916 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916 |pmid=28472197 |pmc=5417584 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1276916R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Homeopathy is used in China, although it arrived a lot later than in many other countries, partly due to the restriction on foreigners that persisted until late in the nineteenth century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lu|first=Di|date=2019-09-20|title='Homoeopathy flourishes in the far East': A forgotten history of homeopathy in late nineteenth-century China|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.2018.0041|journal=Notes and Records: The Royal Society Journal of the History of Science|volume=73|issue=3|pages=329–351|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2018.0041|s2cid=80714173}}</ref> Throughout Africa there is a high reliance on traditional medicines, which can be attributed to the cost of modern medicines and the relative prevalence of practitioners. Many African countries do not have any official training facilities.<ref name=":3" />

==Veterinary use==
[[File:Homeopathic cures for small animals.jpg|thumb|Homeopathic cures for small animals on the [[Isle of Man]]]]
The idea of using homeopathy as a treatment for animals is termed "veterinary homeopathy" and dates back to the inception of homeopathy; Hahnemann himself wrote and spoke of the use of homeopathy in animals other than humans.<ref name="Saxton2007">{{cite journal|last1=Saxton|first1=J|year=2007|title=The diversity of veterinary homeopathy|journal=Homeopathy|volume=96|issue=1|page=3|doi=10.1016/j.homp.2006.11.010|pmid=17227741}}</ref> The use of homeopathy in the [[organic farming]] industry is heavily promoted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doehring|first1=C.|last2=Sundrum|first2=A.|date=2016-12-17|title=Efficacy of homeopathy in livestock according to peer-reviewed publications from 1981 to 2014|journal=The Veterinary Record|volume=179|issue=24|pages=628|doi=10.1136/vr.103779|issn=0042-4900|pmc=5256414|pmid=27956476}}</ref> Given that homeopathy's effects in humans are due to the placebo effect and the counseling aspects of the consultation, such treatments are even less effective in animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lees|first1=P.|last2=Pelligand|first2=L.|last3=Whiting|first3=M.|last4=Chambers|first4=D.|last5=Toutain|first5=P-L.|last6=Whitehead|first6=M.L.|date=2017-08-19|title=Comparison of veterinary drugs and veterinary homeopathy: part 2|journal=[[The Veterinary Record]]|volume=181|issue=8|pages=198–207|doi=10.1136/vr.104279|issn=0042-4900|pmc=5738588|pmid=28821700|quote=In human medicine, there may be a place for the counselling/psychotherapeutic aspects of homeopathic consults and the placebo effects generated by homeopathic products in patients who believe in such treatments, but in veterinary medicine these factors are unlikely to benefit patients, and the use of homeopathic products in veterinary medicine is contrary to best evidence, irrational, and inconsistent with current scientific and medical knowledge}}</ref> Studies have also found that giving animals placebos can play active roles in influencing pet owners to believe in the effectiveness of the treatment when none exists.<ref name="Hektoen" /> This means that animals given homeopathic remedies will continue to suffer, resulting in [[animal welfare]] concerns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lees|first1=P.|last2=Pelligand|first2=L.|last3=Whiting|first3=M.|last4=Chambers|first4=D.|last5=Toutain|first5=P-L.|last6=Whitehead|first6=M. L.|date=2017-08-12|title=Comparison of veterinary drugs and veterinary homeopathy: part 1|journal=The Veterinary Record|volume=181|issue=7|pages=170–176|doi=10.1136/vr.104278|issn=0042-4900|pmc=5738587|pmid=28801498}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Whitehead|first1=M L|last2=Lees|first2=P|last3=Toutain|first3=P L|date=2018|title=Veterinary homeopathy regulation in the UK – a cause for concern.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329152074|journal=Regulatory Rapporteur|volume=15|pages=21–25}}</ref>

Little existing research on the subject is of a high enough scientific standard to provide reliable data on efficacy.<ref name="Hektoen">{{cite journal|last1=Hektoen|first1=L|year=2005|title=Review of the current involvement of homeopathy in veterinary practice and research|journal=[[Veterinary Record]]|volume=157|issue=8|pages=224–29|doi=10.1136/vr.157.8.224|pmid=16113167|s2cid=12525634}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mathie|first1=RT|last2=Clausen|first2=J|date=October 18, 2014|title=Veterinary homeopathy: systematic review of medical conditions studied by randomised placebo-controlled trials|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/f44b96f6ca21523fbb04cd2c17f9d3606f411e25|journal=The Veterinary Record|volume=175|issue=15|pages=373–81|doi=10.1136/vr.101767|pmid=25324413|s2cid=22894207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mathie|first1=RT|last2=Clausen|first2=J|date=September 15, 2015|title=Veterinary homeopathy: systematic review of medical conditions studied by randomised trials controlled by other than placebo.|journal=[[BMC Veterinary Research]]|volume=11|pages=236|doi=10.1186/s12917-015-0542-2|pmc=4570221|pmid=26371366}}</ref> A 2016 review of peer-reviewed articles from 1981 to 2014 by scientists from the [[University of Kassel]], Germany, concluded that there is not enough evidence to support homeopathy as an effective treatment of infectious diseases in livestock.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doehring|first1=C.|last2=Sundrum|first2=A.|date=December 12, 2016|title=Efficacy of homeopathy in livestock according to peer-reviewed publications from 1981 to 2014|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=179|issue=24|pages=vetrec–2016–103779|doi=10.1136/vr.103779|issn=2042-7670|pmc=5256414|pmid=27956476}}</ref> The UK's [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] (Defra) has adopted a robust position against use of "alternative" pet preparations including homeopathy.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.gov.uk/government/news/alternative-pet-remedies-government-clampdown| title = Alternative pet remedies: Government clampdown}}</ref> The British Veterinary Association's position statement on alternative medicines says that it "cannot endorse" homeopathy,<ref name="BVA">{{cite web|title=Veterinary medicines|url=http://www.bva.co.uk/News-campaigns-and-policy/Policy/Medicines/Veterinary-medicines/|access-date=January 5, 2015|publisher=British Veterinary Association}}</ref> and the Australian Veterinary Association includes it on its list of "ineffective therapies".<ref name="AVA">{{cite web|title=Ineffective therapies|url=http://www.ava.com.au/12057|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207080041/http://www.ava.com.au/12057|archive-date=February 7, 2015|access-date=January 5, 2015|publisher=Australian veterinary association}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Fringe science]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[Scientific skepticism]]

==References==
{{Reflist| refs=
<ref name="Hahnemann">{{cite book | title=The homœopathic medical doctrine, or "Organon of the healing art" | publisher=W. F. Wakeman | author=Hahnemann, Samuel | author-link=Samuel Hahnemann | year=1833 | location=Dublin | pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EnEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 iii], [https://books.google.com/books?id=EnEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA48 48–49] | quote=Observation, reflection, and experience have unfolded to me that the best and true method of cure is founded on the principle, ''[[similia similibus curentur]]''. To cure in a mild, prompt, safe, and durable manner, it is necessary to choose in each case a medicine that will excite an affection similar (''{{lang|el|ὅμοιος πάθος}}'') to that against which it is employed.}} Translator: Charles H. Devrient, Esq.</ref>
<ref name=Holmes>
{{cite book
|author=Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.
|title=Homoeopathy and its kindred delusions: Two lectures delivered before the Boston Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
|url=https://archive.org/details/64340260R.nlm.nih.gov
|location=Boston
|year=1842
|author-link=Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr
}} as reprinted in
{{cite book
|author=Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.
|title=Currents and counter-currents in medical science
|year=1861
|publisher=Ticknor and Fields
|pages=72–188
|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011611362
|oclc=1544161
|ol=14731800M
|author-link=Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr
}}</ref>
<ref name="Time19951125">{{cite news |vauthors=Toufexis A, Cole W, Hallanan DB |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983466,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614091356/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983466,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 14, 2009 |title=Is homeopathy good medicine? |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=September 25, 1995}}</ref>
<ref name="shang">{{cite journal |last1=Shang |first1=Aijing |last2=Huwiler-Müntener |first2=Karin |last3=Nartey |first3=Linda |last4=Jüni |first4=Peter |last5=Dörig |first5=Stephan |last6=Sterne |first6=Jonathan AC |last7=Pewsner |first7=Daniel |last8=Egger |first8=Matthias |title=Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy |journal=The Lancet |volume=366 |pages=726–32 |year=2005 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67177-2 |pmid=16125589 |issue=9487|s2cid=17939264 }}</ref>
<ref name=pmid14705842>{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborti |first1=D |last2=Mukherjee |first2=SC |last3=Saha |first3=KC |last4=Chowdhury |first4=UK |last5=Rahman |first5=MM |last6=Sengupta |first6=MK |title=Arsenic toxicity from homeopathic treatment |journal=Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=963–67 |year=2003 |pmid=14705842 |doi=10.1081/CLT-120026518|s2cid=25453468 }}</ref>

<ref name=pmid17285788>{{cite journal |last1=Altunc |first1=U. |last2=Pittler |first2=M. H. |last3=Ernst |first3=E | title=Homeopathy for childhood and adolescence ailments: systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |year=2007 |pmid=17285788 |doi=10.4065/82.1.69 |quote=However, homeopathy is not totally devoid of risks... it may delay effective treatment or diagnosis|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.5352 }}</ref>
<ref name="pmid8554846">{{cite journal |last1=Ernst |first1=E | author-link=Edzard Ernst |last2=White |first2=AR |title=Homoeopathy and immunization |journal=The British Journal of General Practice |volume=45 |issue=400 |pages=629–30 |year=1995 |pmid=8554846 |pmc=1239445}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Homoeopathy}}
* [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/ Homeopathy] ([[NHS Choices]], UK)

{{Homoeopathy}}
{{pseudoscience}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Homeopathy| ]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Obsolete medical theories]]
[[Category:1796 introductions]]
[[Category:Consumer fraud]]

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Synapsid

2022-04-25T16:52:43Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with ''

Larry Sanger

2022-04-25T16:52:13Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with ''

Italy

2022-04-25T16:51:40Z

Tachyony: ←Created page with ''