View source for Conspiracy theory

{{Short description|Explanation that invokes a conspiracy}}
{{for multi|other uses|Conspiracy theory (disambiguation)|a list of conspiracy theories|List of conspiracy theories}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Dollarnote siegel hq.jpg|thumb|The [[Eye of Providence]], or the all-seeing eye of God, seen here on the US$1 bill, has been taken by some to be evidence of a conspiracy involving the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|founders of the United States]] and the [[Illuminati]].<ref name=Barkun2003/>{{rp|58}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Micah|last1=Issitt|first2=Carlyn|last2=Main|title=Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61069-478-0}}</ref>{{rp|47–49}}]]

A '''conspiracy theory''' is an explanation for an event or situation that invokes a [[conspiracy]] by sinister and powerful groups, often political in motivation,<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Harambam |first1=Jaron |last2=Aupers |first2=Stef |date=August 2021 |title=From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims |journal=[[European Journal of Cultural Studies]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=990–1008 |doi=10.1177/1367549419886045 |doi-access=free |issn=1460-3551}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Ted |last=Goertzel |date=December 1994 |title=Belief in conspiracy theories |journal=[[Political Psychology]] |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] on behalf of the [[International Society of Political Psychology]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=731–742 |doi=10.2307/3791630 |issn=1467-9221 |jstor=3791630 |quote=''"explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups"''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite OED |conspiracy theory}} ''"the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; ''spec''. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event"''</ref> when [[Occam's razor|other explanations are more probable]].<ref name="Harambam-Aupers 2021"/><ref name="BrothertonFrench2013">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|last3=Pickering|first3=Alan D.|title=Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=4|year=2013|page=279|issn=1664-1078|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279|pmid=23734136|pmc=3659314|s2cid=16685781| quote=A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="probability">Additional sources:
*{{cite book |last1=Aaronovitch |first1=David |title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History |date=2009 |publisher=Jonathan Cape |isbn=9780224074704 |page=253 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icxkMJK-WmgC|access-date=17 August 2019 |language=en |quote=It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|title=Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|pages=238–248|issn=0888-4080|doi=10.1002/acp.2995| quote=A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Jonason |first1=Peter Karl |last2=March |first2=Evita |last3=Springer |first3=Jordan |title=Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=12 |year=2019 |pages=e0225964 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 |pmid=31794581 |pmc=6890261 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1425964M |quote=Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Thresher-Andrews |first1=Christopher |title=An introduction into the world of conspiracy |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=5–8 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |quote=Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.}}</ref> The term has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal to a conspiracy is based on prejudice or insufficient evidence.<ref name=Byford>{{Cite book |title=Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction |last=Byford |first=Jovan |date=2011 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=9780230349216 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |oclc=802867724}}</ref> A conspiracy theory is not the same as a [[conspiracy]]; instead, it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, such as an opposition to the mainstream consensus among those people (such as [[scientist]]s or [[historians]]) who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy.<ref name="Andrade2020">{{cite journal |last=Andrade |first=Gabriel |date=April 2020 |title=Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] on behalf of the [[European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=505–518 |doi=10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6 |doi-access=free |issn=1572-8633 |pmc=7161434 |pmid=32301040 |s2cid=215787658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508193924/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2020 |access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2016"/><ref name="Brotherton2013-q"/>

Conspiracy theories resist [[Falsifiability|falsification]] and are reinforced by [[circular reasoning]]: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth,<ref name="Byford" /><ref name="Keeley1999">{{Cite journal |last=Keeley |first=Brian L. |date=March 1999 |title=Of Conspiracy Theories |journal=The Journal of Philosophy |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=109–126 |doi=10.2307/2564659|jstor=2564659 }}</ref> whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven.<ref name="Barkun2003">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|pages=3–4|title-link=A Culture of Conspiracy}}</ref><ref name="Barkun2011">{{cite book|last1=Barkun|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Barkun|title=Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11|date=2011|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|page=10}}</ref> Some researchers suggest that '''conspiracist ideation'''—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological<ref name="Freeman 595–604">{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Daniel|last2=Bentall|first2=Richard P.|date=29 March 2017|title=The concomitants of conspiracy concerns|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|language=en|volume=52|issue=5|pages=595–604|doi=10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4|issn=0933-7954|pmc=5423964|pmid=28352955}}</ref><ref name="Barron 156–159">{{Cite journal|last1=Barron|first1=David|last2=Morgan|first2=Kevin|last3=Towell|first3=Tony|last4=Altemeyer|first4=Boris|last5=Swami|first5=Viren|date=November 2014|title=Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=70|pages=156–159|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/14570/1/1-s2.0-S0191886914003821-main.pdf}}</ref> and that it is correlated with lower [[analytical thinking]], low [[intelligence]], [[psychological projection]], [[paranoia]], and [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|date=12 April 2011|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=544–552|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x|pmid=21486312|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories and finding a conspiracy where there is none to a number of psychopathological conditions such as [[paranoia]], [[schizotypy]], [[narcissism]], and [[insecure attachment]],<ref name="Andrade2020"/> or to a form of [[cognitive bias]] called "[[illusory pattern perception]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/conspiracy-theory-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception-cognitive-science |first=Signe |last=Dean |publisher=[[Journal of Biological Sciences|Science Alert]] |date=23 October 2017 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/37463-conspiracy-beliefs-illusory-pattern-perception |first=Sarah |last=Sloat |publisher=[[Bustle (magazine)|Inverse]] |date=17 October 2017 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> However, the current [[scientific consensus]] holds that most conspiracy theorists are not pathological, precisely because their beliefs ultimately rely on cognitive tendencies that are neurologically hardwired in the [[human species]] and probably have deep [[Evolutionary psychology|evolutionary origins]], including natural inclinations towards [[Evolutionary origin of anxiety|anxiety]] and [[Agent detection|agency detection]].<ref name="Andrade2020"/>

Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to [[prejudice]], [[propaganda]], [[witch hunt]]s, [[war]]s, and [[genocide]]s.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="HR">{{cite journal |author-last=Frankfurter |author-first=David |date=February 2021 |title=Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity |editor1-last=Copp |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Wedemeyer |editor2-first=Christian K. |editor2-link=Christian K. Wedemeyer |journal=[[History of Religions (journal)|History of Religions]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] for the [[University of Chicago Divinity School]] |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=188–208 |doi=10.1086/711943 |issn=0018-2710 |jstor=00182710 |s2cid=233429880 |lccn=64001081 |oclc=299661763}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Nefes |author-first=Turkay |year=2018 |chapter=Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series |editor1-last=Asprem |editor1-first=Egil |editor2-last=Dyrendal |editor2-first=Asbjørn |editor3-last=Robertson |editor3-first=David G. |title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=17 |doi=10.1163/9789004382022_020 |isbn=978-90-04-38150-6 |issn=1874-6691 |pages=407–422 |s2cid=158560266 |quote=Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.}}</ref> They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of [[terrorist]] attacks, and were used as justification by [[Timothy McVeigh]] and [[Anders Breivik]], as well as by governments such as [[Nazi Germany]], the [[Soviet Union]],<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> and [[Conspiracy theories in Turkey|Turkey]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Göknar |first1=Erdağ |title=Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review) |journal=The Middle East Journal |date=2019 |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=336–337 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/730239 |language=en |issn=1940-3461}}</ref> [[AIDS denialism]] by the government of [[South Africa]], motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS,<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SimelelaVenter2015"/><ref name="BurtonGiddy2015"/> [[QAnon]] and denialism about the [[2020 United States presidential election]] results led to the [[2021 United States Capitol attack]],<ref name="Nature 2021">{{cite magazine |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=4 February 2021 |title=Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down |url=https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf |url-status=live |magazine=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=590 |pages=192–193 |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y |doi-access=free |issn=1476-4687 |lccn=12037118 |pmid=33542489 |s2cid=231818589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427105931/https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=7 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Crossley 2021">{{cite journal |last=Crossley |first=James |date=September 2021 |title=The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID |journal=[[Journal for the Study of the New Testament]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=93–111 |doi=10.1177/0142064X211025464 |doi-access=free |issn=1745-5294 |s2cid=237329082 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=QAnon Capitol Siege Trump |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/13/qanon-capitol-siege-trump/ |access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> while belief in [[GMO conspiracy theories|conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods]] led the government of [[Zambia]] to reject food aid during a [[famine]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/> at a time when three million people in the country were suffering from [[hunger]].<ref name="BrossardShanahan2007"/> Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in [[public health]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/> encouraging opposition to [[vaccination]] and [[water fluoridation]] among others, and have been linked to outbreaks of [[vaccine-preventable disease]]s.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/><ref name="PrematungeCorace2012"/> Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in [[scientific evidence]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> radicalization and ideological reinforcement of [[Extremism|extremist]] groups,<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-2"/> and negative consequences for the [[economy]].<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/>

Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in [[mass media]], the [[internet]], and [[social media]],<ref name="Andrade2020"/> emerging as a [[cultural phenomenon]] of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}}<ref name="Camp 1997" /><ref name="Goldberg 2001" /><ref name="Fenster 2008" /> They are widespread around the world and are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-i"/> Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an [[open society]] and improving the [[analytical thinking]] skills of the general public.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/>

== Etymology and usage ==
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' defines ''conspiracy theory'' as "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; ''spec.'' a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event." It cites a 1909 article in ''[[The American Historical Review]]'' as the earliest usage example,<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM'' (v. 4.0), Oxford University Press, 2009, s.v. '''4'''</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Johnson | first = Allen | title = Reviewed Work: ''The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise: Its Origin and Authorship'' by P. Orman Ray | journal = [[The American Historical Review]] | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 835–836 | doi = 10.2307/1837085 | jstor = 1837085 | date = July 1909 | hdl = 2027/loc.ark:/13960/t27948c87 | url = https://archive.org/details/missouricomp00rayprich | quote = The claim that [David R.] Atchison was the originator of the [Missouri Compromise] repeal may be termed a recrudescence of the conspiracy theory first asserted by Colonel John A. Parker of Virginia in 1880. | hdl-access = free }}</ref> although it also appeared in print for several decades before.<ref name="JoMS-1870">{{cite journal |journal=The Journal of Mental Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsRMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA141 |last1=Robertson |first1=Lockhart<!--author Robertson as listed on page 134 of the journal--> |author2=Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane (London, England) |author3=Medico-psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland |author4=Royal Medico-psychological Association<!-- authors 2-4 as listed at WorldCat oclc=1194357571--> |title=The Report of a Quarterly Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association, held in London at the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society, by permission of the President and Council, on the 27th January, 1870. [in Part IV. Psychological News.] |editor1-last=Maudsley |editor1-first=Henry |editor2-last=Sibbald |editor2-first=John |volume=XVI |number=73 |location=London |date=April 1870 |publisher=[[Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts]]<!--frontispiece lists [[J. & A. Churchill]]; google books and WorldCat both list Longman--> |issn=0368-315X |oclc=4642826321 |quote=The theory of Dr. Sankey as to the manner in which these injuries to the chest occurred in asylums deserved our careful attention. It was at least more plausible that the conspiracy theory of Mr. Charles Reade, and the precautionary measure suggested by Dr. Sankey of using a padded waistcoat in recent cases of mania with general paralysis—in which mental condition nearly all these cases under discussion were—seemed to him of practical value.}}</ref> 

The earliest known usage was by the American author [[Charles Astor Bristed]], in a letter to the editor published in ''[[The New York Times]]'' on January 11, 1863.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |last1=Bristed |first1=C. A. |title=English Insincerity on the Slavery Question. |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96772461/first-use-of-conspiracy-theory-by/ |access-date=2 March 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=11 January 1863 |pages=3}}</ref> He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally [[United Kingdom and the American Civil War|weakening the United States during the American Civil War]] in order to advance their financial interests.

{{blockquote |text=England has had quite enough to do in Europe and Asia, without going out of her way to meddle with America. It was a physical and moral impossibility that she could be carrying on a gigantic conspiracy against us. But our masses, having only a rough general knowledge of foreign affairs, and not unnaturally somewhat exaggerating the space which we occupy in the world's eye, do not appreciate the complications which rendered such a conspiracy impossible. They only look at the sudden right-about-face movement of the English Press and public, which is most readily accounted for on the ''conspiracy theory''.<ref name="nyt" />}}

The word "conspiracy" derives from the Latin ''con-'' ("with, together") and ''spirare'' ("to breathe").

Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory.<ref name="CSICOP">{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/nope_it_was_always_already_wrong|title=Nope, It Was Always Already Wrong|last1=Blaskiewicz|first1=Robert|website=The Skeptical Inquirer|publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|access-date=11 December 2015|date=8 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212122454/http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/nope_it_was_always_already_wrong|archive-date=12 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term ''conspiracy theory'' simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized.<ref>McKenzie-McHarg, Andrew (2019) "Conspiracy Theory: The Nineteenth-Century Prehistory of a Twentieth-Century Concept," pp. 78, 76. In Joseph E. Uscinski (ed) ''Conspiracy Theories & the People Who Believe Them''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which claims the term was popularized by the [[CIA]] in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the [[Warren Commission]], by making them a target of ridicule.<ref name="Brotherton2015-4">{{cite book |author=Robert Brotherton |title=Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories |chapter=Chapter 4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1}}</ref> In his 2013 book ''Conspiracy Theory in America'', political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith suggested that the term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the [[Kennedy assassination]], with ''The New York Times'' running five stories that year using the term.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC|title=Conspiracy Theory in America|last1=deHaven-Smith|first1=Lance|date=15 April 2013|isbn=9780292743793|pages=3|quote=The term "conspiracy theory" did not exist as a phrase in everyday American conversation before 1964. ... In 1964, the year the Warren Commission issued its report, ''The New York Times'' published five stories in which "conspiracy theory" appeared.|access-date=27 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906032935/https://books.google.com/books?id=TilCeCKDujQC&printsec=frontcover|archive-date=6 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> However, deHaven-Smith's suggestion has been criticized by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the [[University of Tübingen]], on the grounds that a CIA document which deHaven-Smith referenced, ''Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report'', which was publicly released in 1976 after a [[Freedom of Information Act]] request, does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only mentions "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation {{sic}}, for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butter |first1=Michael |title=There's a conspiracy theory that the CIA invented the term 'conspiracy theory' – here's why |url=https://theconversation.com/theres-a-conspiracy-theory-that-the-cia-invented-the-term-conspiracy-theory-heres-why-132117 |website=The Conversation |publisher=The Conversation Trust (UK) Limited |access-date=23 November 2020 |date=16 March 2020}}</ref>

==Difference from conspiracy==
A conspiracy theory is not simply about a [[conspiracy]], which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people.<ref name="Barkun2016"/> In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to ''hypothesized'' conspiracies that have specific characteristics. For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as [[scientist]]s or [[historians]].<ref name="Brotherton2013-q">{{cite journal |last1=Brotherton |first1=Robert |title=Towards a definition of 'conspiracy theory' |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=9–14 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |quote=A conspiracy theory is not merely one candidate explanation among other equally plausible alternatives. Rather, the label refers to a claim which runs counter to a more plausible and widely accepted account...[Conspiratorial beliefs are] invariably at odds with the mainstream consensus among scientists, historians, or other legitimate judges of the claim's veracity.}}</ref> Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or a stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account.<ref name="Barkun2016">{{cite journal |author-last=Barkun |author-first=Michael |author-link=Michael Barkun |date=October 2016 |title=Conspiracy Theories as Stigmatized Knowledge |editor1-last=Campion-Vincent |editor1-first=Véronique |editor2-last=Renard |editor2-first=Jean-Bruno |journal=[[Diogenes (journal)|Diogenes]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] on behalf of the [[International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies]] |volume=62 |issue=3–4: ''Conspiracy Theories Today'' |pages=114–120 |doi=10.1177/0392192116669288 |issn=0392-1921 |lccn=55003452 |s2cid=152217672}}</ref> [[Michael Barkun]] describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events".<ref name="Barkun2016"/>

Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as [[Bureaucracy|bureaucracies]], can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences. Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators.<ref name="Brotherton2013">{{cite journal |last1=Brotherton |first1=Robert |title=Towards a definition of 'conspiracy theory' |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=9–14 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf}}</ref>

In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> As described by Robert Brotherton:

{{quote|The malevolent intent assumed by most conspiracy theories goes far beyond everyday plots borne out of self-interest, corruption, cruelty, and criminality. The postulated conspirators are not merely people with selfish agendas or differing values. Rather, conspiracy theories postulate a black-and-white world in which good is struggling against evil. The general public is cast as the victim of organised persecution, and the motives of the alleged conspirators often verge on pure maniacal evil. At the very least, the conspirators are said to have an almost inhuman disregard for the basic liberty and well-being of the general population. More grandiose conspiracy theories portray the conspirators as being Evil Incarnate: of having caused all the ills from which we suffer, committing abominable acts of unthinkable cruelty on a routine basis, and striving ultimately to subvert or destroy everything we hold dear.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/>}}

==Examples==
{{See|List of conspiracy theories}}

A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and "[[false flag]]" terrorism. Among the longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the 1969 Apollo moon landings, and the 9/11 terrorist attacks, as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups both real and imaginary.<ref>{{Cite news|title=History's greatest conspiracy theories|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/16/historys-greatest-conspiracy-theories/|date=12 November 2008|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312171616/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/03/16/historys-greatest-conspiracy-theories/|archive-date=12 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Popularity==
Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/> In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and the Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/> In [[China]], one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the [[rise of Hitler]], the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]], and [[climate change]] were planned by the [[Rothschild family]], which may have led to effects on discussions about [[Monetary policy of China|China's currency policy]].<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Byford2011">{{cite book |author=J. Byford |title=Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5Er9ELOwQkC |date=12 October 2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-34921-6 |pages=7–8}}</ref>

Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in [[mass media]], contributing to conspiracism emerging as a [[cultural phenomenon]] in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}}<ref name="Camp 1997">{{Cite book|title=Selling Fear: Conspiracy Theories and End-Times Paranoia|author=Camp, Gregory S.|publisher=Commish Walsh|year=1997|asin=B000J0N8NC}}</ref><ref name="Goldberg 2001">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/enemieswithincul00gold_0|title=Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America|author=Goldberg, Robert Alan|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-300-09000-0|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217045836/https://archive.org/details/enemieswithincul00gold_0|archive-date=17 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fenster 2008">{{Cite book|title=Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture|author=Fenster, Mark|publisher=University of Minnesota Press; 2nd edition|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8166-5494-9}}</ref> The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines.  Conspiratorial thinking is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters.<ref>Adam M. Enders, "Conspiratorial Thinking and Political Constraint." ''Public Opinion Quarterly'' 83.3 (2019): 510–533.</ref>

Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-i">{{cite book |author=Robert Brotherton |title=Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories |chapter=Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1}}</ref> A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories.<ref>{{cite book |last1=West |first=Harry G. |last2=Sanders |first2=Todd |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeMdeV_LvAMC&pg=PP9 |title=Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new world order |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3024-0 |page=4 |access-date=18 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122093329/https://books.google.com/books?id=HeMdeV_LvAMC&pg=PP9 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> For instance, a study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the [[chemtrail conspiracy theory]] is "completely true" and 20-30% think it is "somewhat true".<ref name=Gizearth /> This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp."<ref name=Gizearth>{{cite news|last= Kahn|first= Brian|date= 2 November 2017|title= There's a Damn Good Chance Your Neighbor Thinks Chemtrails Are Real|url= https://earther.gizmodo.com/theres-a-damn-good-chance-your-neighbor-thinks-chemtrai-1820077077|work= Gizmodo Earther|access-date= 5 March 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190307173758/https://earther.gizmodo.com/theres-a-damn-good-chance-your-neighbor-thinks-chemtrai-1820077077|archive-date= 7 March 2019|url-status= live}}</ref> Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in [[folklore]].

Conspiracy theories are widely present on the [[World Wide Web|Web]] in the form of [[blog]]s and [[YouTube]] videos, as well as on [[social media]]. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Wood, M. |title= Has the Internet been good for conspiracy theorising? |journal= Psychology Postgraduate Affairs Group (PsyPAG) Quarterly |year= 2015 |number= 88 |pages= 31–33 |url= http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |access-date= 12 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150813062541/http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf |archive-date= 13 August 2015 |url-status= live }}</ref> The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in [[search engine]] results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in the results.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Ballatore, A. |title= Google chemtrails: A methodology to analyze topic representation in search engine results |journal= [[First Monday (journal)|First Monday]] |year= 2015 |volume= 20 |number= 7 |url= http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/5597 |doi= 10.5210/fm.v20i7.5597 |access-date= 12 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102123/http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/5597 |archive-date= 24 September 2015 |url-status= live }}</ref>

One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Enders|first1=Adam M.|last2=Smallpage|first2=Steven M.|last3=Lupton|first3=Robert N.|date=9 July 2018|title=Are All 'Birthers' Conspiracy Theorists? On the Relationship Between Conspiratorial Thinking and Political Orientations|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=50|issue=3|pages=849–866|doi=10.1017/s0007123417000837|s2cid=149762298|issn=0007-1234}}</ref> claimed that he was [[Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories|born in Kenya instead of Hawaii]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sweek|first=Joel|date=October 2006|title=Michael Barkun. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. xii+243 pp. $24.95 (cloth).|journal=The Journal of Religion|volume=86|issue=4|pages=691–692|doi=10.1086/509680|issn=0022-4189}}</ref>—where he was born. Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama [[Mike Huckabee]] made headlines in 2011<ref>{{Cite news|last=News|first=Albert R. Hunt {{!}} Bloomberg|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/04/us/04iht-letter04.html|title=Republicans Ride Theories of the Fringe|date=3 April 2011|work=The New York Times|access-date=23 April 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408044013/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/04/us/04iht-letter04.html|archive-date=8 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> when he, among other members of [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status.

{|class=wikitable
|colspan=3 align=center|'''Belief in conspiracy theories in the United States, December 2020 -  NPR/Ipsos poll, ±3.3%'''<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.npr.org/2020/12/30/951095644/even-if-its-bonkers-poll-finds-many-believe-qanon-and-other-conspiracy-theories| title = Even If It's 'Bonkers,' Poll Finds Many Believe QAnon And Other Conspiracy Theories}}</ref>
|-
! Conspiracy theory
! Believe
! Not sure
|-
|"A group of Satan-worshipping elites who run a child sex ring are trying to control our politics and media" ([[QAnon]])
| 17%
| 37%
|-
| "Several mass shootings in recent years were staged hoaxes" ([[crisis actor]] theory)
| 12%
| 27%
|-
| [[Barack Obama]] was not born in the United States ([[birtherism]])
| 19%
| 22%
|-
| [[Moon landing conspiracy theories]]
| 8%
| 20%
|-
| [[9/11 conspiracy theories]]
| 7%
| 20%
|}

== Types ==

A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history.<ref name="Barkun2016"/> According to Ruseell Muirhead and Nancy Rosenblum, historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed a "theory", but over time, "conspiracy" and "theory" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Muirhead|first1=Russell|last2=Rosenblum|first2=Nancy L.|date=2021-02-01|title=Will Reality Bite Back: Conspiratorial Fictions and the Assault on Democracy|journal=The Forum|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=415–433|doi=10.1515/for-2020-2016|issn=1540-8884|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Muirhead|first1=Russell|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv941trn|title=A Lot of People Are Saying: The New Conspiracism and the Assault on Democracy|last2=Rosenblum|first2=Nancy L.|date=2019|publisher=Princeton University Press|jstor=j.ctv941trn|isbn=978-0-691-18883-6}}</ref>

===Walker's five kinds===
[[Jesse Walker]] (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories:
* The "Enemy Outside" refers to theories based on figures alleged to be scheming against a community from without.
* The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens.
* The "Enemy Above" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain.
* The "Enemy Below" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order.
* The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people.<ref>[[Jesse Walker]], ''The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory'' (2013) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0062135554 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512054322/https://www.amazon.com/United-States-Paranoia-Conspiracy-Theory/dp/0062135554 |date=12 May 2019 }}</ref>

===Barkun's three types===
[[Michael Barkun]] has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory:

* ''Event conspiracy theories''.  This refers to limited and well-defined events.  Examples may include such conspiracies theories as those concerning the [[Kennedy assassination conspiracies|Kennedy assassination]], [[9/11]], and the [[discredited AIDS origins theories|spread of AIDS]].{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=6}}
* ''Systemic conspiracy theories''.  The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of [[International Jewish conspiracy|Jews]], [[Masonic conspiracy theories|Freemasons]], [[Red Scare|Communism]], or the [[Vatican conspiracy theories|Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=6}}
* ''Superconspiracy theories''. For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically.  At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force.  His cited examples are the ideas of [[David Icke]] and [[Milton William Cooper]].{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=6}}

=== Rothbard: shallow vs. deep ===
[[Murray Rothbard]] argues in favor of a model that contrasts "deep" conspiracy theories to "shallow" ones. According to Rothbard, a "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks ''[[Cui bono]]''? ("Who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events.  On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia.<ref>As quoted by B.K. Marcus in "[https://mises.org/journals/jls/20_2/20_2_2.pdf Radio Free Rothbard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817054514/http://mises.org/journals/jls/20_2/20_2_2.pdf |date=17 August 2014 }}," ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'', Vol 20, No 2. (SPRING 2006): pp 17–51. Retrieved 16 May 2013.</ref>

==Lack of evidence==
Belief in conspiracy theories is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=7}} [[Noam Chomsky]] contrasts conspiracy theory to [[institutional analysis]] which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or [[mainstream media]] reports.<ref name="WintonickQuébec)1994">{{cite book |editor-last=Achbar |editor-first=Mark |year=1994 |title=Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media |url=https://archive.org/details/manufacturingcon00achb |url-access=registration |publisher=Black Rose Books Ltd. |isbn=978-1-55164-002-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/manufacturingcon00achb/page/131 131]}}</ref> Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities.<ref>{{cite book | title = Conspiracy Panics: Political Rationality and Popular Culture | author = Jack Z. Bratich | publisher = State University of New York Press, Albany | pages = 98–100 | access-date = 16 June 2015 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CaDA2uhr8lkC | isbn = 9780791473344 | date = 7 February 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133830/https://books.google.com/books?id=CaDA2uhr8lkC&printsec=frontcover | archive-date = 18 April 2019 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Conspiracy Theories: A Critical Introduction | author = Jovan Byford | publisher = Palgrave MacMillan | pages = 25–27 | access-date = 16 June 2015 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m5Er9ELOwQkC | isbn = 9780230349216 | date = 12 October 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180033/http://books.google.com/books?id=m5Er9ELOwQkC&printsec=frontcover | archive-date = 25 January 2014 | url-status = live }}</ref> Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the [[conjunction fallacy]].<ref name="BrothertonFrench2014">{{cite journal|last1=Brotherton|first1=Robert|last2=French|first2=Christopher C.|title=Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=28|issue=2|year=2014|pages=238–248|issn=0888-4080|doi=10.1002/acp.2995|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Clare Birchall]] at [[King's College London]] describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation".{{efn|Birchall 2006: "[W]e can appreciate conspiracy theory as a unique form of popular knowledge or interpretation, ''and'' address what this might mean for any knowledge we produce about it or how we interpret it."<ref name=Birchall2006>{{cite book | last = Birchall | first = Clare | contribution = Cultural studies on/as conspiracy theory | editor-last = Birchall | editor-first = Clare | title = Knowledge goes pop from conspiracy theory to gossip | publisher = Berg | location = Oxford, New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-84520-143-2 }}</ref>{{rp|66}}}} The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing.{{efn|Birchall 2006: "What we quickly discover&nbsp;... is that it becomes impossible to map conspiracy theory and academic discourse onto a clear illegitimate/legitimate divide."<ref name=Birchall2006/>{{rp|72}}}} The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Birchall | first = Clare | title = Just because you're paranoid, doesn't mean they're not out to get you | journal = Culture Machine, Deconstruction Is/In Cultural Studies | volume = 6 | year = 2004 |url= http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/view/12/11 | access-date = 11 March 2015 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211857/http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/view/12/11 | archive-date = 23 September 2015 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the [[Watergate scandal]], are usually referred to as "investigative journalism" or "historical analysis" rather than conspiracy theory.<ref name="knight-2003">{{cite book|author=Peter Knight|title=Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&pg=PA730|date=1 January 2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-812-9|pages=730–|access-date=27 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906162011/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC&pg=PA730|archive-date=6 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Ron Rosenbaum|title=Ah, Watergate|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/104169/ah-watergate|year=2012|magazine=New Republic|access-date=29 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806155414/https://newrepublic.com/article/104169/ah-watergate|archive-date=6 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also attempts to analyze the theory of conspiracy theories (conspiracy theory theory) to ensure that the term "conspiracy theory" is used to refer to narratives that have been debunked by experts, rather than as a generalized dismissal.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bigliardi |first=Stefano |date=July–August 2020 |title=Who's Afraid Of Conspiracy Theory Theory? |url= |magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |location=Amherst, New York |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |access-date=}}</ref>

==Rhetoric==

Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important [[cognitive bias]]es, including [[proportionality bias]], [[attribution bias]], and [[confirmation bias]].<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013">{{cite journal |last1=Thresher-Andrews |first1=Christopher |title=An introduction into the world of conspiracy |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=5–8 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf}}</ref> Their arguments are often take the form of asking reasonable questions, but without providing an answer based on strong evidence.<ref>Novella, Steven, et al.  ''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake''.  Grand Central Publishing, 2018. p. 208.</ref> Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism.  These proponents may not necessarily believe the conspiracy theory, instead using it in an attempt to gain public approval. Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via [[appeal to emotion]].<ref name="Goertzel2010"/>

Conspiracy theories typically justify themselves by focusing on gaps or ambiguities in knowledge, and then arguing that the true explanation for this [[Argument from ignorance|must be a conspiracy]].<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> In contrast, any evidence that directly supports their claims is generally of low quality.  For example, conspiracy theories are often dependent on [[eyewitness testimony]], despite its unreliability, while disregarding objective analyses of the evidence.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/> 

Conspiracy theories are not able to be [[falsifiability|falsified]] and are reinforced by [[fallacious arguments]]. In particular, the logical fallacy [[circular reasoning]] is used by conspiracy theorists: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth,<ref name="Byford" /><ref name="Keeley1999"/> whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved.<ref name="Barkun2003"/><ref name="Barkun2011"/> The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called "cascade logic": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of the cover-up.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="Brotherton2013"/> Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> Similarly, the continued lack of evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims is portrayed as confirming the existence of a conspiracy of silence; the fact that other people have not found or exposed any conspiracy is taken as evidence that those people are part of the plot, rather than considering that it may be because no conspiracy exists.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="Brotherton2013"/> This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called "epistemic self-insulation".<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="Brotherton2013"/>

Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of [[false balance]] in the media. They may claim to be presenting a legitimate alternative viewpoint that deserves equal time to argue its case; for example, this strategy has been used by the [[Teach the Controversy]] campaign to promote [[intelligent design]], which often claims that there is a conspiracy of scientists suppressing their views. If they successfully find a platform to present their views in a debate format, they focus on using rhetorical ''[[ad hominem]]s'' and attacking perceived flaws in the mainstream account, while avoiding any discussion of the shortcomings in their own position.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/> 

The typical approach of conspiracy theories is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications. Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/>

In science, conspiracists may suggest that a [[scientific theory]] can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/> Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]] in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting a procedural objection to the report's creation. Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/>

==Consequences==
Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to [[prejudice]], [[witch hunt]]s, [[war]]s, and [[genocide]]s.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Goertzel2010"/> They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of [[terrorist]] attacks, and were used as justification by [[Timothy McVeigh]], [[Anders Breivik]] and [[Brenton Tarrant]], as well as by governments such as [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> [[AIDS denialism]] by the government of [[South Africa]], motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS,<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SimelelaVenter2015">{{cite journal |last1=Simelela |first1=Nono |last2=Venter |first2=W. D. Francois |last3=Pillay |first3=Yogan |last4=Barron |first4=Peter |title=A Political and Social History of HIV in South Africa |journal=Current HIV/AIDS Reports |volume=12 |issue=2 |year=2015 |pages=256–261 |issn=1548-3568 |doi=10.1007/s11904-015-0259-7|pmid=25929959 |s2cid=23483038 }}</ref><ref name="BurtonGiddy2015">{{cite journal |last1=Burton |first1=Rosie |last2=Giddy |first2=Janet |last3=Stinson |first3=Kathryn |title=Prevention of mother-to-child transmission in South Africa: an ever-changing landscape |journal=Obstetric Medicine |volume=8 |issue=1 |year=2015 |pages=5–12 |issn=1753-495X |doi=10.1177/1753495X15570994|pmid=27512452 |pmc=4934997 }}</ref> while belief in [[GMO conspiracy theories|conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods]] led the government of [[Zambia]] to reject food aid during a [[famine]],<ref name="Goertzel2010"/> at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from [[hunger]].<ref name="BrossardShanahan2007">{{cite book|author1=Dominique Brossard|author2=James Shanahan|author3=T. Clint Nesbitt|title=The Media, the Public and Agricultural Biotechnology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dq1frsw9alkC|year=2007|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-1-84593-204-6|pages=343, 353}}</ref>

Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in [[public health]].<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/> People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow [[medical advice]], and more likely to use [[alternative medicine]] instead.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> Conspiratorial [[anti-vaccination]] beliefs, such as [[Big Pharma conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies]], can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of [[vaccine-preventable disease]]s.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="Goertzel2010">{{cite journal|last1=Goertzel|first1=Ted|title=Conspiracy theories in science|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=11|issue=7|year=2010|pages=493–499|issn=1469-221X|doi=10.1038/embor.2010.84|pmid=20539311|pmc=2897118}}</ref><ref name="PrematungeCorace2012">{{cite journal |last1=Prematunge |first1=Chatura |last2=Corace |first2=Kimberly |last3=McCarthy |first3=Anne |last4=Nair |first4=Rama C. |last5=Pugsley |first5=Renee |last6=Garber |first6=Gary |title=Factors influencing pandemic influenza vaccination of healthcare workers—A systematic review |journal=Vaccine |volume=30 |issue=32 |year=2012 |pages=4733–4743 |issn=0264-410X |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.05.018|pmid=22643216 }}</ref><ref name="GlickBooth2014">{{cite journal |last1=Glick |first1=Michael |last2=Booth |first2=H. Austin |title=Conspiracy ideation |journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association |volume=145 |issue=8 |year=2014 |pages=798–799 |issn=0002-8177 |doi=10.1016/S0002-8177(14)60181-1|pmid=25082925 }}</ref> Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to [[water fluoridation]], and contributed to the impact of the [[Lancet MMR autism fraud]].<ref name="Goertzel2010"/><ref name="GlickBooth2014"/>

Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="Brotherton2015-2"/> These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as the [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the far right and far left.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make the group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies.<ref name="Brotherton2015-2">{{cite book |author=Robert Brotherton |title=Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories |chapter=Chapter 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1}}</ref>

Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences. For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/> Comparisons have also been made with the effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019">{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Karen M. |last2=Uscinski |first2=Joseph E. |last3=Sutton |first3=Robbie M. |last4=Cichocka |first4=Aleksandra |last5=Nefes |first5=Turkay |last6=Ang |first6=Chee Siang |last7=Deravi |first7=Farzin |title=Understanding Conspiracy Theories |journal=Political Psychology |volume=40 |issue=S1 |year=2019 |pages=3–35 |issn=0162-895X |doi=10.1111/pops.12568|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="DiFonzoBordia1994">{{cite journal |last1=DiFonzo |first1=Nicholas |last2=Bordia |first2=Prashant |last3=Rosnow |first3=Ralph L. |title=Reining in rumors |journal=Organizational Dynamics |volume=23 |issue=1 |year=1994 |pages=47–62 |issn=0090-2616 |doi=10.1016/0090-2616(94)90087-6}}</ref>

Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues.<ref name="Jolley2013">{{cite journal |last1=Jolley |first1=Daniel |title=The detrimental nature of conspiracy theories |journal=PsyPAG Quarterly |volume=88 |year=2013 |pages=35–39 |url=http://www.psypag.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Issue-88.pdf}}</ref><ref name="SciAm2013"/> In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to the general public or in a legal context. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is.<ref name="Goertzel2010"/>

It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage [[government transparency]].<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/><ref name="Jolley2013"/> However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within the system, such as [[whistleblower]]s and [[journalist]]s, and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected.<ref name="Brotherton2015-2"/> The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread misinformation about important societal issues.<ref name="Brotherton2015-e">{{cite book |author=Robert Brotherton |title=Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories |chapter=Epilogue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awrcCQAAQBAJ |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-1564-1}}</ref>

==Interventions==

The primary defense against conspiracy theories is to maintain an [[open society]], in which many sources of reliable information are available, and government sources are known to be credible rather than propaganda. Additionally, independent nongovernmental organizations are able to correct misinformation without requiring people to trust the government.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009"/> Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs. For example, interventions that promote [[analytical thinking]] in the general public are likely to be effective. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease negative emotions, and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018">{{cite journal |last1=van Prooijen |first1=Jan-Willem |last2=Douglas |first2=Karen M. |title=Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |volume=48 |issue=7 |year=2018 |pages=897–908 |issn=0046-2772 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2530|pmid=30555188 |pmc=6282974 }}</ref>

Joseph Pierre has also noted that mistrust in authoritative institutions is the core component underlying many conspiracy theories and that this mistrust creates an epistemic vacuum and makes individuals searching for answers vulnerable to misinformation. Therefore, one possible solution is offering consumers a seat at the table to mend their mistrust in institutions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pierre|first1=JM |title=Mistrust and misinformation: A two-component, socio-epistemic model of belief in conspiracy theories |journal=J Soc Polit Psychol |volume=8 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=617–641 |doi=10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1362|doi-access=free }}</ref> Regarding the challenges of this approach, Dr. Pierre has said, "The challenge with acknowledging areas of uncertainty within a public sphere is that doing so can be weaponized to reinforce a post-truth view of the world in which everything is debatable, and any counter-position is just as valid. Although I like to think of myself as a middle of the road kind of individual, it is important to keep in mind that the truth does not always lie in the middle of a debate, whether we are talking about climate change, vaccines, or antipsychotic medications."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aftab|first1=Awais |title=There and Back Again: Joseph Pierre, M.D. |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=38 |issue=1 |year=2021 |url = https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/there-back-joseph-pierre}}</ref>

It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive. For example, since conspiracy theories can reinterpret disconfirming information as part of their narrative, refuting a claim can result in accidentally reinforcing it.<ref name="Brotherton2013"/><ref name="SciAm2019"/> In addition, publishing criticism of conspiracy theories can result in legitimizing them.<ref name="Jolley2013"/> In this context, possible interventions include carefully selecting which conspiracy theories to refute, requesting additional analyses from independent observers, and introducing cognitive diversity into conspiratorial communities by undermining their poor epistemology.<ref name="Jolley2013"/> Any legitimization effect might also be reduced by responding to more conspiracy theories rather than fewer.<ref name="SunsteinVermeule2009">{{cite journal|last1=Sunstein |first1=Cass R. |last2=Vermeule |first2=Adrian |title=Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures |journal=Journal of Political Philosophy |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=202–227 |issn=0963-8016 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x}}</ref>

However, presenting people with factual corrections, or highlighting the logical contradictions in conspiracy theories, has been demonstrated to have a positive effect in many circumstances.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/><ref name="SciAm2019"/> For example, this has been studied in the case of informing believers in [[9/11 conspiracy theories]] about statements by actual experts and witnesses.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/> One possibility is that criticism is most likely to backfire if it challenges someone's worldview or identity. This suggests that an effective approach may be to provide criticism while avoiding such challenges.<ref name="SciAm2019">{{Cite web| title = People Drawn to Conspiracy Theories Share a Cluster of Psychological Features| last = Moyer | first = Melinda Wenner| work = Scientific American| date = 1 March 2019| access-date = 16 October 2020| url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/people-drawn-to-conspiracy-theories-share-a-cluster-of-psychological-features/}}</ref>

== Psychology ==
The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when [[John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories|a number of conspiracy theories]] arose regarding [[John F. Kennedy assassination|the assassination]] of U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]]. [[Sociologist]] Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the "real but hidden" power relations in social groups.<ref name="Turkay Nefes"/><ref name="Nefes"/> The term "conspiracism" was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s.  According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":<ref name=Mintz1985>{{cite book| last = Mintz| first = Frank P.| title = The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture| publisher = Greenwood | location = Westport, CT | isbn = 978-0-313-24393-6| year = 1985}}</ref>{{rp|4}}

{{quote|"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology."<ref name=Mintz1985/>{{rp|199}}}}

Research suggests, on a psychological level, '''conspiracist ideation'''—belief in conspiracy theories—can be harmful or pathological,<ref name="Freeman 595–604"/><ref name="Barron 156–159"/> and is highly correlated with [[psychological projection]], as well as with [[paranoia]], which is predicted by the degree of a person's [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|date=12 April 2011|title=Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|journal=British Journal of Social Psychology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=544–552|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x|pmid=21486312|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103180834/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/26187/1/Douglas%20%26%20Sutton%202011%20BJSP.pdf|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The propensity to believe in conspiracy theories is strongly associated with the mental health disorder of [[schizotypy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barron|first1=David|last2=Furnham|first2=Adrian|last3=Weis|first3=Laura|last4=Morgan|first4=Kevin D.|last5=Towell|first5=Tony|last6=Swami|first6=Viren|date=January 2018|title=The relationship between schizotypal facets and conspiracist beliefs via cognitive processes|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=259|pages=15–20|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2017.10.001|issn=1872-7123|pmid=29024855|s2cid=43823184|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/20297/1/1-s2.0-S0165178117312301-main-1.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Darwin|first1=Hannah|last2=Neave|first2=Nick|last3=Holmes|first3=Joni|date=1 June 2011|title=Belief in conspiracy theories. The role of paranormal belief, paranoid ideation and schizotypy|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=50|issue=8|pages=1289–1293|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.027|issn=0191-8869}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barron|first1=David|last2=Morgan|first2=Kevin|last3=Towell|first3=Tony|last4=Altemeyer|first4=Boris|last5=Swami|first5=Viren|date=1 November 2014|title=Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=70|pages=156–159|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040|issn=0191-8869|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/14570/1/1-s2.0-S0191886914003821-main.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Relationship Between Schizotypal Facets and Conspiracist Beliefs via Cognitive Processes|last1=D|first1=Barron|last2=A|first2=Furnham|date=January 2018|language=en|pmid=29024855|last3=L|first3=Weis|last4=Kd|first4=Morgan|last5=T|first5=Towell|last6=V|first6=Swami|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=259|pages=15–20|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2017.10.001|s2cid=43823184|url=http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/20297/1/1-s2.0-S0165178117312301-main-1.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dagnall|first1=Neil|last2=Drinkwater|first2=Kenneth|last3=Parker|first3=Andrew|last4=Denovan|first4=Andrew|last5=Parton|first5=Megan|date=2015|title=Conspiracy theory and cognitive style: a worldview|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=6|pages=206|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00206|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4340140|pmid=25762969|doi-access=free}}</ref> Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in [[mass media]], emerging as a [[cultural phenomenon]] of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}}<ref name="Camp 1997" /><ref name="Goldberg 2001" /><ref name="Fenster 2008" /> Exposure to conspiracy theories in news media and popular entertainment increases receptiveness to conspiratorial ideas, and has also increased the social acceptability of fringe beliefs.<ref name="DouglasUscinski2019"/><ref name="StojanovHalberstadt2020">{{cite journal |last1=Stojanov |first1=Ana |last2=Halberstadt |first2=Jamin |title=Does lack of control lead to conspiracy beliefs? A meta‐analysis |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |volume=50 |issue=5 |year=2020 |pages=955–968 |issn=0046-2772 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2690|s2cid=219744361 }}</ref>

Conspiracy theories often make use of complicated and detailed arguments, including ones which appear to be analytical or scientific. However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion.<ref name="van ProoijenDouglas2018"/> One of the most widely confirmed facts about conspiracy theories is that belief in a single conspiracy theory tends to promote belief in other unrelated conspiracy theories as well.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SuttonDouglas2020">{{cite journal |last1=Sutton |first1=Robbie M |last2=Douglas |first2=Karen M |title=Conspiracy theories and the conspiracy mindset: implications for political ideology |journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences |volume=34 |year=2020 |pages=118–122 |issn=2352-1546 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.02.015|s2cid=214735855 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This even applies when the conspiracy theories directly contradict each other, e.g. believing that [[Osama bin Laden]] was already dead before his compound in Pakistan was attacked makes the same person more likely to believe that he is still alive. One conclusion from this finding is that the content of a conspiracist belief is less important than the idea of a coverup by the authorities.<ref name="Thresher-Andrews2013"/><ref name="SciAm2013">{{Cite web| title = Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories| last = Linden | first = Sander van der| work = Scientific American| date = 30 April 2013| access-date = 16 October 2020| url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-people-believe-conspiracy-theories/}}</ref><ref name="BilewiczCichocka2015">{{cite book |author1=Michal Bilewicz |author2=Aleksandra Cichocka |author3=Wiktor Soral |title=The Psychology of Conspiracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJhCQAAQBAJ |date=15 May 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-59952-4}}</ref> [[Analytical thinking]] aids in reducing belief in conspiracy theories, in part because it emphasizes rational and critical cognition.<ref name="Douglas 538–542">{{Cite journal|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|last3=Cichocka|first3=Aleksandra|date=1 December 2017|title=The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|language=en|volume=26|issue=6|pages=538–542|doi=10.1177/0963721417718261|issn=0963-7214|pmc=5724570|pmid=29276345}}</ref> 

Some psychological scientists assert that explanations related to conspiracy theories can be, and often are "internally consistent" with strong beliefs that had previously been held prior to the event that sparked the conspiracy.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> People who believe in conspiracy theories tend to believe in other unsubstantiated claims – including [[pseudoscience]] and [[paranormal]] phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bensley |first1=D. Alan |last2=Lilienfeld |first2=Scott O. |last3=Rowan |first3=Krystal A. |last4=Masciocchi |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Grain |first5=Florent |title=The generality of belief in unsubstantiated claims |journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology |date=2020 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=16–28 |doi=10.1002/acp.3581 |hdl=11343/286891 |s2cid=197707663 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/acp.3581 |issn=1099-0720}}</ref>

===Attractions===

Psychological motives for believing in conspiracy theories can be categorized as epistemic, existential, or social. These motives are particularly acute in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations. However, it does not appear that the beliefs help to address these motives; in fact, they may be self-defeating, acting to make the situation worse instead.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/><ref name="SciAm2019"/> For example, while conspiratorial beliefs can result from a perceived sense of powerlessness, exposure to conspiracy theories immediately suppresses personal feelings of autonomy and control. Furthermore, they also make people less likely to take actions that could improve their circumstances.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/><ref name="SciAm2019"/>

This is additionally supported by the fact that conspiracy theories have a number of disadvantageous attributes.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/> For example, they promote a negative and distrustful view of other people and groups, who are allegedly acting based on antisocial and cynical motivations. This is expected to lead to increased [[Social alienation|alienation]] and [[anomie]], and reduced [[social capital]]. Similarly, they depict the public as ignorant and powerless against the alleged conspirators, with important aspects of society determined by malevolent forces, a viewpoint which is likely to be disempowering.<ref name="Douglas 538–542"/>

Each person may endorse conspiracy theories for one of many different reasons.<ref name="GoreisVoracek2019"/> The most consistently demonstrated characteristics of people who find conspiracy theories appealing are a feeling of [[Social alienation|alienation]], unhappiness or dissatisfaction with their situation, an unconventional worldview, and a feeling of [[disempowerment]].<ref name="GoreisVoracek2019"/> While various aspects of personality affect susceptibility to conspiracy theories, none of the [[Big Five personality traits]] are associated with conspiracy beliefs.<ref name="GoreisVoracek2019">{{cite journal |last1=Goreis |first1=Andreas |last2=Voracek |first2=Martin |title=A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Psychological Research on Conspiracy Beliefs: Field Characteristics, Measurement Instruments, and Associations With Personality Traits |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |year=2019 |page=205 |issn=1664-1078 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00205|pmid=30853921 |pmc=6396711 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The political scientist [[Michael Barkun]], discussing the usage of "conspiracy theory" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=3}}<ref name="New Internationalist 1 2004"/> According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold:

* First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what [[institutional analysis]] cannot. They appear to make sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing. 
* Second, they do so in an appealingly simple way, by dividing the world sharply between [[Manichaeism|the forces of light, and the forces of darkness]]. They trace all evil back to a single source, the conspirators and their agents. 
* Third, conspiracy theories are often presented as special, [[esotericism|secret knowledge]] unknown or unappreciated by others. For conspiracy theorists, the masses are a [[sheeple|brainwashed herd]], while the conspiracy theorists in the know can congratulate themselves on penetrating the plotters' deceptions."<ref name="New Internationalist 1 2004"/>

This third point is supported by research of Roland Imhoff, professor in [[Social Psychology]] at the [[Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz]]. The research suggests that the smaller the minority believing in a specific theory, the more attractive it is to conspiracy theorists.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Imhoff |first1=Roland |title=Conspiracy Theorists Just Want to Feel Special |url=https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/9kg8j3/conspiracy-theorists-just-want-to-feel-special |website=motherboard.vice.com |access-date=6 July 2018 |date=17 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428135251/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/9kg8j3/conspiracy-theorists-just-want-to-feel-special |archive-date=28 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychologists]] argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists. This is because it is a consolation to imagine that difficulties in human affairs are created by humans, and remain within human control.  If a cabal can be implicated, there may be a hope of breaking its power or of joining it.  Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny.<ref name="Baigent, Leigh & Lincoln 1987">{{cite book|author1=Baigent, Michael |author2=Leigh, Richard |author3=Lincoln, Henry | title = The Messianic Legacy | publisher = Henry Holt & Co | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-8050-0568-4}}</ref>

People formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces.{{efn|[[Michael Barkun|Barkun]] 2003: "The essence of conspiracy beliefs lies in attempts to delineate and explain evil. At their broadest, conspiracy theories 'view history as controlled by massive, demonic forces.'&nbsp;... For our purposes, a ''conspiracy belief'' is the belief that an organization made up of individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve a malevolent end."{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=3}}}}<ref name="New Internationalist 1 2004">{{cite journal |author= Berlet, Chip |author-link= Chip Berlet |title= Interview: Michael Barkun |date= September 2004 |url= http://www.publiceye.org/antisemitism/nw_barkun.html |quote= The issue of conspiracism versus rational criticism is a tough one, and some people (Jodi Dean, for example) argue that the former is simply a variety of the latter. I don't accept this, although I certainly acknowledge that there have been conspiracies. They simply don't have the attributes of almost superhuman power and cunning that conspiracists attribute to them. |access-date= 1 October 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090402214330/http://www.publiceye.org/antisemitism/nw_barkun.html |archive-date= 2 April 2009 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Turkay Nefes">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1467-954X.12016 | volume=61 | issue=2 | title=Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey | year=2013 | journal=The Sociological Review | pages=247–264 | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay S| s2cid=145632390 }}</ref><ref name="Nefes">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x | volume=25 | issue=3 | title=The History of the Social Constructions of Dönmes (Converts)* | year=2012 | journal=Journal of Historical Sociology | pages=413–439 | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay S.}}</ref> Proposed psychological origins of conspiracy theorising include projection; the personal need to explain "a significant event [with] a significant cause;" and the product of various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable mental illnesses. Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering [[randomness|random]], unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events.<ref name="business.time.com">Justin Fox: [http://business.time.com/2009/10/01/wall-streeters-like-conspiracy-theories-always-have/ "Wall Streeters like conspiracy theories. Always have"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226100601/http://business.time.com/2009/10/01/wall-streeters-like-conspiracy-theories-always-have/ |date=26 February 2016 }}, ''Time'', 1 October 2009.</ref><ref name="Goertzel 1994 733–744">{{cite journal | author = Goertzel | year = 1994 | title = Belief in Conspiracy Theories | doi = 10.2307/3791630 |url= http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/conspire.doc <!--| pages = 733–44--> | pages = 731–742 | access-date = 7 August 2006 | jstor = 3791630 | journal = Political Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060831210103/http://crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc | archive-date = 31 August 2006 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Douglas 2008 210–222">{{cite journal |first1=Karen |last1=Douglas |first2=Robbie |last2=Sutton |year=2008 |title=The hidden impact of conspiracy theories: Perceived and actual influence of theories surrounding the death of Princess Diana |journal=Journal of Social Psychology |volume=148 |issue=2 |pages=210–22 |doi=10.3200/SOCP.148.2.210-222 |pmid=18512419 |s2cid=8717161 }}</ref><ref name="harpers=1964"/><ref name="Hodapp 2008">{{cite book |title=Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies |first=Christopher |last=Hodapp |author2=Alice Von Kannon |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-18408-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470184080 }}</ref><ref name="Cohen">{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Cohen |title=The Captive Arab Mind |newspaper=The New York Times |date=20 December 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/21/opinion/21iht-edcohen21.html |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625080138/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/21/opinion/21iht-edcohen21.html |archive-date=25 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm".<ref>{{cite book
| last = Berlet
| first = Chip
| author-link = Chip Berlet
| author2 = Lyons, Matthew N.
| title = Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort
|url= https://archive.org/details/rightwingpopulis00berlrich
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Guilford Press
| location = New York
| year = 2000
| isbn = 978-1-57230-562-5
| access-date = 9 November 2019
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191216201705/https://archive.org/details/rightwingpopulis00berlrich
| archive-date = 16 December 2019
| url-status = live
}}{{page needed|date=September 2011}}</ref>

===Origins===
Some psychologists believe that a search for meaning is common in conspiracism. Once cognized, [[confirmation bias]] and avoidance of [[cognitive dissonance]] may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become embedded within a social group, [[communal reinforcement]] may also play a part.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swami|first1=Viren|last2=Coles|first2=Rebecca|last3=Stieger|first3=Stefan|last4=Pietschnig|first4=Jakob|last5=Furnham|first5=Adrian|last6=Rehim|first6=Sherry|last7=Voracek|first7=Martin|date=2011|title=Conspiracist ideation in Britain and Austria: Evidence of a monological belief system and associations between individual psychological differences and real-world and fictitious conspiracy theories|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=443–463|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.2010.02004.x|pmid=21751999|issn=2044-8295}}</ref>

Inquiry into possible motives behind the accepting of irrational conspiracy theories has linked<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Prooijen|first1=Jan-Willem|last2=Jostmann|first2=Nils B.|date=17 December 2012|title=Belief in conspiracy theories: The influence of uncertainty and perceived morality|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|volume=43|issue=1|pages=109–115|doi=10.1002/ejsp.1922|issn=0046-2772}}</ref> these beliefs to distress resulting from an event that occurred, such as the [[September 11 attacks|events of 9/11.]] Additionally, research<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dagnall|first1=Neil|last2=Drinkwater|first2=Kenneth|last3=Parker|first3=Andrew|last4=Denovan|first4=Andrew|last5=Parton|first5=Megan|date=2015|title=Conspiracy theory and cognitive style: a worldview|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=en|volume=6|page=206|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00206|pmid=25762969|pmc=4340140|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> done by [[Manchester Metropolitan University]] suggests that "delusional ideation" is the most likely condition that would indicate an elevated belief in conspiracy theories. Studies<ref name="BrothertonFrench2014"/> also show that an increased attachment to these irrational beliefs lead to a decrease in desire for civic engagement. Belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with low intelligence, lower analytical thinking, [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[paranoia]], and [[authoritarian]] beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bullock|first1=John G.|last2=Lenz|first2=Gabriel|date=2019-05-11|title=Partisan Bias in Surveys|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=325–342|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-050904|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Scientists find a link between low intelligence and acceptance of 'pseudo-profound bulls***'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scientists-find-link-between-low-intelligence-and-acceptance-pseudo-profound-bulls-a6757731.html|newspaper=The Independent|last=Bolton|first=Doug|date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Psychology of Conspiracy Theories|volume=26|issue=6|doi=10.1177/0963721417718261|last1=Douglas|first1=Karen M.|last2=Sutton|first2=Robbie M.|last3=Cichocka|first3=Aleksandra|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=7 December 2017|pages=538–542|pmid=29276345|pmc=5724570}}</ref>

Professor [[Quassim Cassam]] argues that conspiracy theorists hold their beliefs due to flaws in their thinking and more precisely, their intellectual character. He cites philosopher [[Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski]] and her book ''Virtues of the Mind'' in outlining intellectual virtues (such as humility, caution and carefulness) and intellectual vices (such as gullibility, carelessness and closed-mindedness). Whereas intellectual virtues help in reaching sound examination, intellectual vices "impede effective and responsible inquiry", meaning that those who are prone to believing in conspiracy theories possess certain vices while lacking necessary virtues.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cassam |first1=Quassim |title=Bad Thinkers |url=https://aeon.co/essays/the-intellectual-character-of-conspiracy-theorists |publisher=Aeon |date=13 March 2015}}</ref>

Some researchers have suggested that conspiracy theories could be partially caused by psychological mechanisms the human brain possesses for detecting dangerous coalitions. Such a mechanism could have been useful in the small-scale environment humanity evolved in but are mismatched in a modern, complex society and thus "misfire", perceiving conspiracies where none exist.<ref>van Prooijen, Jan-Willem, and Van Vugt, Mark (2018) "Conspiracy theories: Evolved functions and psychological mechanisms" ''[[Perspectives on Psychological Science]]'' v.13, n.6, pp.770-788</ref>

====Projection====
Some historians have argued that [[psychological projection]] is prevalent amongst conspiracy theorists. This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators. Historian Richard Hofstadter stated that:

{{quote|This enemy seems on many counts a projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. A fundamental paradox of the paranoid style is the imitation of the enemy. The enemy, for example, may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship, even of pedantry.&nbsp;...&nbsp;The Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The [[John Birch Society]] emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication, discipline, and strategic ingenuity the Communist cause calls forth.<ref name="harpers=1964"/>}}

Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments."<ref name="harpers=1964">{{cite book|author=Hofstadter, Richard|author-link=Richard Hofstadter|year=1965|title=The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-0-674-65461-7|pages=32–33|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XcLSoljnmBcC&q=0674654617|access-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133817/https://books.google.com/books?id=XcLSoljnmBcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=0674654617#v=onepage&q=This%20enemy%20seems%20to%20be%20on%20many%20counts%20a%20projection|archive-date=18 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Sociology==
In addition to psychological factors such as conspiracist ideation, sociological factors also help account for who believes in which conspiracy theories. Such theories tend to get more traction among election losers in society, for example, and the emphasis of conspiracy theories by elites and leaders tends to increase belief among followers who have higher levels of conspiracy thinking.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Uscinski |first1=Joseph E. |author-link1=Joseph Uscinski |title=Conspiring for the Common Good |url=https://skepticalinquirer.org/2019/07/conspiring-for-the-common-good/ |website=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |access-date=9 February 2020 |date=2 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402135711/https://skepticalinquirer.org/2019/07/conspiring-for-the-common-good/ |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Christopher Hitchens]] described conspiracy theories as the "exhaust fumes of democracy":<ref name="Hodapp 2008"/> the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people.

Conspiracy theories may be emotionally satisfying, by assigning blame to a group to which the theorist does not belong and so absolving the theorist of moral or political responsibility in society.<ref>{{cite news |first=Shankar |last=Vedantam |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/04/AR2006060400618.html |title=Born With the Desire to Know the Unknown |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=A02 |date=5 June 2006 |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501144444/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/04/AR2006060400618.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live }} Sociologist Theodore Sasson has remarked, "Conspiracy theories explain disturbing events or social phenomena in terms of the actions of specific, powerful individuals. By providing simple explanations of distressing events—the conspiracy theory in the Arab world, for example, that the [[11 September attacks]] were planned by the Israeli Mossad—they deflect responsibility or keep people from acknowledging that tragic events sometimes happen inexplicably."</ref> Likewise, [[Roger Cohen]] writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'' has said that, "captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world."<ref name="Cohen"/>

Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of [[World War I]], "Those events that are most important are hardest to understand because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Keith|title=Forging the Collective Memory: Government and International Historians through Two World Wars|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78238-828-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojipBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|date=1 November 1996}}</ref>

[[Justin Fox]] of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine argues that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market's day-to-day movements.<ref name="business.time.com"/>

===Influence of critical theory===
French sociologist [[Bruno Latour]] suggests that the widespread popularity of conspiracy theories in mass culture may be due, in part, to the pervasive presence of [[Marxist]]-inspired [[critical theory]] and similar ideas in academia since the 1970s.<ref name="critiquesteam">{{Citation | last = Latour | first = Bruno | author-link = Bruno Latour | title = Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern. | journal = Critical Inquiry | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 225–48 | date =Winter 2004 |url= http://www.bruno-latour.fr:80/sites/default/files/89-CRITICAL-INQUIRY-GB.pdf | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120916045752/http://www.bruno-latour.fr/sites/default/files/89-CRITICAL-INQUIRY-GB.pdf | archive-date = 16 September 2012 | access-date = 16 September 2012 | doi = 10.1086/421123 | s2cid = 159523434 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Latour notes that about 90% of contemporary social criticism in academia displays one of two approaches, which he terms "the ''fact position'' and the ''fairy position''".{{r|critiquesteam|page1=237}}

* The "fairy position" is [[fetish (disambiguation)|anti-fetishist]], arguing that "objects of belief" (e.g., religion, arts) are merely concepts onto which power is projected; Latour contends that those who use this approach show biases towards confirming their own dogmatic suspicions as most "scientifically supported". While the complete facts of the situation and correct methodology are ostensibly important to them, Latour proposes that the scientific process is instead laid on as a patina to one's pet theories to lend a sort of reputation high ground.
* The "fact position" argues that external forces (e.g., economics, gender) dominate individuals, often covertly and without their awareness.{{r|critiquesteam|page2=238}}

Latour concludes that each of these two approaches in academia has led to a polarized, inefficient atmosphere highlighted (in both approaches) by its causticness. "Do you see now why it feels so good to be a critical mind?" asks Latour: no matter which position you take, "You're always right!"{{r|critiquesteam|page3=238–39}}

Latour notes that such social criticism has been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including [[climate change denial|climate-change denial]]ists and the [[9/11 Truth movement]]: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique."{{r|critiquesteam|page4= 230}}

===Fusion paranoia===
[[Michael Kelly (editor)|Michael Kelly]], a ''[[The Washington Post]]'' journalist and critic of [[anti-war]] movements on both the left and right, coined the term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and [[civil liberties]], which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared [[Anti-statism|anti-government]] views.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995/06/19/the-road-to-paranoia|title=THE ROAD TO PARANOIA|last=Kelly|first=Michael|date=12 June 1995|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=9 April 2018|issn=0028-792X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409110230/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995/06/19/the-road-to-paranoia|archive-date=9 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in [[mass media]],{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=230}} thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for [[apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] or [[millenarianism|millenarian]] scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|pp=207, 210, 211}} Barkun notes the occurrence of lone-wolf conflicts with law enforcement acting as proxy for threatening the established political powers.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|pp=193, 197}}

==Viability ==
As evidence against the reality of an alleged conspiracy grows, the number of alleged conspirators also grow in the minds of conspiracy theorists.  This is because alleged conspirators often have competing interests.  For example, if Republican President George W. Bush is allegedly responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the Democratic party did not pursue exposing this alleged plot, that must mean that both the Democratic and Republican parties are conspirators in the alleged plot.  It also assumes that alleged conspirators are so competent that they can fool the entire world, but so incompetent that the conspiracy theorists can find alleged mistakes they make that prove the fraud.  At some point, the number of alleged conspirators, combined with the contradictions within the alleged conspirators' interests and competence, becomes so great that maintaining the theory becomes an obvious exercise in absurdity.<ref>Novella, Steven, et al.  ''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake''.  Grand Central Publishing, 2018. pp. 206-207.</ref>

The physicist [[David Robert Grimes]] estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved.<ref name="pbs_plos_one">{{cite web|last1=Barajas|first1=Joshua|title=How many people does it take to keep a conspiracy alive?|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/math-formula-charts-the-lifespan-of-hoaxes/|website=PBS NEWSHOUR|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|access-date=22 July 2016|date=15 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013022744/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/math-formula-charts-the-lifespan-of-hoaxes/|archive-date=13 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Grimes_PLOS_ONE">{{cite journal|last1=Grimes|first1=David R|author-link1=David Robert Grimes|title=On the Viability of Conspiratorial Beliefs|journal=PLOS ONE|date=26 January 2016|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0147905|pmid=26812482|volume=11|issue=1|pmc=4728076|pages=e0147905|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1147905G|doi-access=free}}</ref> His calculations used data from the [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM surveillance program]], the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]], and the [[FBI Laboratory#Controversy|FBI forensic scandal]]. Grimes estimated that:
* A [[Moon landing conspiracy theories|Moon landing hoax]] would require the involvement of 411,000 people and would be exposed within 3.68 years;
* [[Global warming conspiracy theory|Climate-change fraud]] would require a minimum of 29,083 people (published climate scientists only) and would be exposed within 26.77 years, or up to 405,000 people, in which case it would be exposed within 3.70 years;
* A vaccination conspiracy would require a minimum of 22,000 people (without drug companies) and would be exposed within at least 3.15 years and at most 34.78 years depending on the number involved;
* A conspiracy to [[Big Pharma conspiracy theory|suppress a cure for cancer]] would require 714,000 people and would be exposed within 3.17 years.
Grimes's study did not consider exposure by sources outside of the alleged conspiracy.  It only considered exposure from within the alleged conspiracy through whistleblowers or through incompetence.<ref>Novella, Steven, et al.  ''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake''.  Grand Central Publishing, 2018. pp. 209-210.</ref>

==Politics==
{{globalize|date=June 2021}}

The philosopher [[Karl Popper]] described the central problem of conspiracy theories as a form of [[fundamental attribution error]], where every event is generally perceived as being intentional and planned, greatly underestimating the effects of randomness and unintended consequences.<ref name="SciAm2013"/> In his book ''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'', he used the term "the conspiracy theory of society" to denote the idea that social phenomena such as "war, unemployment, poverty, shortages ... [are] the result of direct design by some powerful individuals and groups."<ref>{{cite book |last=Popper|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Popper|title=Open Society and Its Enemies, Book II|year=1945|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|location=London|chapter=14}}</ref> Popper argued that [[totalitarianism]] was founded on conspiracy theories which drew on imaginary plots which were driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on [[tribalism]], [[chauvinism]], or [[racism]].  He also noted that conspirators very rarely achieved their goal.<ref name="dohloo">{{cite web |url=http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_open_society.html |title=Extracts from "The Open Society and Its Enemies Volume 2: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath" by Karl Raimund Popper (Originally published 1945) |publisher=Lachlan Cranswick, quoting Karl Raimund Popper |access-date=5 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903232539/http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_open_society.html |archive-date=3 September 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historically, real conspiracies have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators, in contrast to conspiracy theories which often posit grand, sinister organizations, or world-changing events, the evidence for which has been erased or obscured.<ref name="Cumings1999" /><ref name="SciAmShermer">{{cite web |last1=Shermer |first1=Michael |title=The Conspiracy Theory Detector |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-conspiracy-theory-director/ |website=scientificamerican.com |publisher=Scientific American |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> As described by [[Bruce Cumings]], history is instead "moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities".<ref name="Cumings1999">{{cite book|last = Cumings|first = Bruce|title = The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. II, The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947–1950|publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]|location = Princeton, NJ|year = 1999}}{{page needed|date=September 2011}}</ref>

===Middle East===
{{Main|Conspiracy theories in the Arab world}}
{{See also|Conspiracy theories in Turkey}}

Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of [[Arab]] culture and politics.<ref name=Gray>{{cite book|title=Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World|author=Matthew Gray|isbn=978-0-415-57518-8|year=2010}}</ref> Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, [[Zionism]], superpowers, oil, and the [[war on terrorism]], which may be referred to as a [[war against Islam]].<ref name=Gray/> For example, '' [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', an infamous [[hoax]] document purporting to be a Jewish plan for world domination, is commonly read and promoted in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/26/world/anti-semitic-elders-of-zion-gets-new-life-on-egypt-tv.html|title=Anti-Semitic 'Elders of Zion' Gets New Life on Egypt TV|last=Wakin|first=Daniel J.|date=26 October 2002|work=The New York Times|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140816063157/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/26/world/anti-semitic-elders-of-zion-gets-new-life-on-egypt-tv.html|archive-date=16 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/pdfdocs/KSAtextbooks06.pdf |title=2006 Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823125127/http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/pdfdocs/KSAtextbooks06.pdf |archive-date=23 August 2006}} Report by Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House. 2006</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB113046423225782130 "The Booksellers of Tehran"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410052122/https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB113046423225782130 |date=10 April 2017 }}, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', 28 October 2005</ref> [[Roger Cohen]] has suggested that the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is "the ultimate refuge of the powerless".<ref name=Cohen/> Al-Mumin Said has noted the danger of such theories, for they "keep us not only from the truth but also from confronting our faults and problems".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://old.nationalreview.com/comment/stalinsky200405060835.asp|title=A Vast Conspiracy|date=6 May 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220251/http://old.nationalreview.com/comment/stalinsky200405060835.asp|archive-date=4 October 2013|work=National Review|author=Steven Stalinsky}}</ref>

[[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] have used conspiracy theories about the [[United States]] to gain support for [[al-Qaeda]] in the Arab world, and as rhetoric to distinguish themselves from similar groups, although they may not have believed the conspiratorial claims themselves.<ref name="Gray158-159">{{cite book|author=Matthew Gray|title=Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World: Sources and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpxdBwAAQBAJ|date=12 July 2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-96751-1|pages=158–159}}</ref>

===United States===
{{See also|American political conspiracy theories}}
The historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] addressed the role of [[paranoia]] and conspiracism throughout [[History of the United States|U.S. history]] in his 1964 essay "[[The Paranoid Style in American Politics]]". [[Bernard Bailyn|Bernard Bailyn's]] classic ''[[The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution]]'' (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in North America during the time preceding the [[American Revolution]]. Conspiracism labels people's attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.<ref>{{cite book| last = Bailyn| first = Bernard| title = 'The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution| publisher = [[Harvard University Press]]| location = Cambridge| id = ASIN: B000NUF6FQ| isbn = 978-0-674-44302-0| year = 1992| orig-year = 1967}}{{page needed|date=September 2011}}</ref>

Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories. West also compares those theories to [[hypernationalism]] and [[religious fundamentalism]].<ref>{{cite book |title = Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order | author = Harry G. West|publisher=Duke University Press Books|pages=4, 207–08|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>[[Michael Shermer|Shermer, Michael]], and Pat Linse.  ''Conspiracy Theories''.  Altadena, CA: Skeptics Society, n.d.  Print.</ref>

Theologian Robert Jewett and philosopher [[John Shelton Lawrence]] attribute the enduring popularity of conspiracy theories in the U.S. to the [[Cold War]], [[McCarthyism]], and [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] rejection of authority. They state that among both the left-wing and right-wing, there remains a willingness to use real events, such as Soviet plots, inconsistencies in the [[Warren Commission|Warren Report]], and the [[September 11 attacks|9/11]] attacks, to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large-scale conspiracies.<ref>Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence (2004) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VE2k18ScPnQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22conspiracy%20theories%22 Captain America and the crusade against evil: the dilemma of zealous nationalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133818/https://books.google.com/books?id=VE2k18ScPnQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22conspiracy%20theories%22 |date=18 April 2019 }}'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing p. 206.</ref>

The [[Watergate scandal]] has also been used to bestow legitimacy to other conspiracy theories, with [[Richard Nixon]] himself commenting that it served as a "[[Rorschach test|Rorschach ink blot]]" which invited others to fill in the underlying pattern.<ref name="knight-2003" />

Historian Kathryn S. Olmsted cites three reasons why Americans are prone to believing in government conspiracies theories: 
#Genuine government overreach and secrecy during the Cold War, such as [[Watergate]], the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]], [[Project MKUltra]], and the CIA's [[Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro|collaboration with mobsters in attempting to assassinate Fidel Castro]].
#Precedent set by official government-sanctioned conspiracy theories for propaganda, such as claims of German infiltration of the U.S. during World War II or the debunked claim that [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations|Saddam Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks]].
#Distrust fostered by the government's spying on and harassment of dissenters, such as the [[Sedition Act of 1918]], [[COINTELPRO]], and as part of various [[Red Scare]]s.<ref>Olmsted, Kathryn S. (2011) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u7Sd5vyOOtEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA8#v=onepage Real Enemies: Conspiracy Theories and American Democracy, World War I to 9/11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418133815/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7Sd5vyOOtEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA8#v=onepage |date=18 April 2019 }}'', Oxford University Press, p. 8.</ref>

[[Alex Jones]] referenced numerous conspiracy theories for convincing his supporters to endorse [[Ron Paul]] over [[Mitt Romney]] in the [[2012 Republican Party presidential primaries]] and [[Donald Trump]] over [[Hillary Clinton]] in the [[2016 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Friedersdorf|first=Conor|date=29 October 2011|title=Ron Paul, Conspiracy Theories, and the Right|work=[[The Atlantic]]|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2011/12/ron-paul-conspiracy-theories-and-the-right/250638/|access-date=30 August 2020}}</ref> More recently, the [[QAnon conspiracy theory]] (which originated in the U.S.) alleges that Trump is fighting against a [[Deep state in the United States|deep state]] [[cabal]] of child sex-abusing and Satan-worshipping [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]].<ref name="Nature 2021"/><ref name="Crossley 2021"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bracewell |first=Lorna |date=21 January 2021 |title=Gender, Populism, and the QAnon Conspiracy Movement |journal=[[Frontiers in Sociology]] |publisher=[[Frontiers Media]] |volume=5 |pages=615727 |doi=10.3389/fsoc.2020.615727 |doi-access=free |issn=2297-7775 |pmc=8022489 |pmid=33869533 |s2cid=231654586}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-last=O'Donnell |author-first=Jonathon |date=September 2020 |title=The deliverance of the administrative state: Deep state conspiracism, charismatic demonology, and the post-truth politics of American Christian nationalism |editor1-last=Stausberg |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-link=Michael Stausberg |editor2-last=Engler |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-link=Steven Engler |journal=[[Religion (journal)|Religion]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=696–719 |doi=10.1080/0048721X.2020.1810817 |s2cid=222094116 |issn=1096-1151}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Roose |first=Kevin |date=3 September 2021 |origyear=4 March 2021 |title=What Is QAnon, the Viral Pro-Trump Conspiracy Theory? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-qanon.html |url-status=live |location=[[New York City]] |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919060514/https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-qanon.html |archive-date=19 September 2021 |url-access=limited |access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bowman |first=Emma |date=4 February 2021 |title=Why QAnon Survives After Trump |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/02/04/963861418/why-qanon-survives-after-trump |url-status=live |work=[[NPR.org]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905103408/https://www.npr.org/2021/02/04/963861418/why-qanon-survives-after-trump |archive-date=5 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{annotated link|Big lie}} 
* {{annotated link|Cherry picking}}
* {{annotated link|Conspiracy fiction}}
* {{annotated link|Fake news}}
* {{annotated link|Fringe theory}}
* {{annotated link|Furtive fallacy}}
* {{annotated link|Hanlon's razor}}
* {{annotated link|List of fallacies}}
* {{annotated link|List of topics characterized as pseudoscience}}
* {{annotated link|Occam's razor}}
* {{annotated link|On the Origin of the "Influencing Machine" in Schizophrenia|Influencing machine}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy of conspiracy theories}}
* {{annotated link|Propaganda}}
* {{annotated link|Pseudohistory}}
* {{annotated link|Pseudoscience}}
* {{annotated link|Superstition}}
{{div col end}}<!-- end of Columns-list template -->

==References==
'''Informational notes'''
{{notelist}}

'''Citations'''
{{reflist}}

'''Further reading'''
* {{Cite book|last=Aaronovitch|first=David|author-link=David Aaronovitch|title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History|year=2010|publisher=Riverhead|isbn=978-1-59448-895-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/voodoohistoriesr0000aaro}}
* {{cite book | editor = Arnold, Gordon B. | year = 2008 | title = Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics | page = 200 | publisher = [[Praeger Publishers]] | isbn = 978-0-275-99462-4}}
* Burnett, Thom.  ''[[Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories]]''
* Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. "Bridging the great divide: conspiracy theory research for the 21st century." ''Diogenes'' (2016): 0392192116669289.  [http://hssfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/KX-48-20-abstracts.pdf online]
* {{cite book|author=Chase, Alston|year=2003|title=Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-02002-1|url=https://archive.org/details/harvardunabomber00chas}}
* {{cite book | editor = Coward, Barry |year = 2004 | title = Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution | publisher = [[Ashgate Publishing]] | isbn = 978-0-7546-3564-2}}
* {{cite journal|date=23 October 2009|title=Conspiracy Theories|journal=CQ Researcher|volume=19|issue=37|pages=885–908|issn=1056-2036|url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf}}
* {{cite news | last1 = Cziesche | first1 = Dominik | author2 = Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert | year = 2003 |url= https://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/cover-story-panoply-of-the-absurd-a-265160.html | title = Panoply of the Absurd | work = [[Der Spiegel]] | access-date = 6 June 2006 }}
* De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) [https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr/full-text-archive/2013/381-security-and-conspiracy/ ''Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century'']. [[Historical Social Research]] 38, Special Issue, 2013
* Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. ''Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid''. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62356-091-1}}.
* Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories." ''Political Psychology'' (1994): 731–742.  [http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc online]
* Harris, Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114231139/http://american.com/archive/2013/january/the-trouble-with-conspiracy-theories ''"The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories"'']. The American, 12 January 2013.
* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The paranoid style in American politics'' (1954). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf online]
* {{cite book|author=Johnson, George|year=1983|title=Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics|location=Los Angeles|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher|isbn=978-0-87477-275-3|url=https://archive.org/details/architectsoffear00john}}
* {{cite book |author1=McConnachie, James |author2=Tudge, Robin | year = 2005 | title = The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories | publisher = Rough Guides | isbn = 978-1-84353-445-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Melley, Timothy|year=1999|title=Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8606-7}}
* {{cite web |first = James B. |last = Meigs |year = 2006 |url= http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |title = The Conspiracy Industry |work = Popular Mechanics |publisher = [[Hearst Communications|Hearst Communications, Inc.]] |access-date = 13 October 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024062122/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |archive-date = 24 October 2006 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2012 | title = The history of the social constructions of Dönmes | journal = Journal of Historical Sociology | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 413–39 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2013 | title = 'Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey' | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 247–64 | doi = 10.1111/1467-954X.12016 | s2cid = 145632390 }}
* Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 58.4 (2014): 952–966.  [http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf online]
* {{cite news |last = Parsons |first = Charlotte |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm |title = Why we need conspiracy theories |work = BBC News – Americas |publisher = BBC |access-date=26 June 2006 |date=24 September 2001}}
* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1998|title=The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy|location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-17688-4|title-link=The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy}}
* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1997|title=Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From|location=New York|publisher=The Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-87111-0|title-link=Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From}}
* {{cite journal |title=Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories? |journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences |year=1995 |last=Pigden |first=Charles |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=3–34 |doi=10.1177/004839319502500101|s2cid=143602969 }}<!--|access-date=13 April 2015 -->
* {{cite book|author=Sagan, Carl|author-link=Carl Sagan|year=1996|title=The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark|location=New York|publisher=The Random House|isbn=978-0-394-53512-8}}
* Slosson, W. [https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up ''"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"'']. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917.
* Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures." ''Journal of Political Philosophy'' 17.2 (2009): 202–227. [http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf  online]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, ''American Conspiracy Theories'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/ excerpt]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183  ''POLITICO Magazine'' (Aug 22, 2016)]
* {{cite book|author1=Vankin, Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Vankin|author2=John Whalen|year=2004|title=The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time|location=New York|publisher=Citadel Press|isbn=978-0-8065-2531-0}}
* Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century." ''William and Mary Quarterly''  (1982): 402–441. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919580 in jstor]

==External links==
{{Wikiquotes}}
{{Wiktionary|conspiracy theory}}
{{Commons category|Conspiracy theories}}
* [https://iep.utm.edu/conspira/ Conspiracy Theories], ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''

{{Conspiracy theories}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conspiracy Theory}}
[[Category:Conspiracy theories| ]]
[[Category:Barriers to critical thinking]]
[[Category:Fringe theory]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms]]