View source for Emergence

{{Short description|Unpredictable phenomenon in complex systems}}
{{Other uses|Emergence (disambiguation)|Emergent (disambiguation)|Irreducibility (disambiguation)|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}
{{Distinguish|Emergentism}}

[[File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|thumb|The formation of complex symmetrical and [[fractal]] [[patterns in nature|patterns]] in [[snowflake]]s exemplifies emergence in a physical system.]]

[[File:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.jpg|thumb|A termite "cathedral" mound produced by a [[termites|termite colony]] offers a classic example of emergence in nature.]]

{{Complex systems}}

In [[philosophy]], [[systems theory]], [[science]], and [[art]], '''emergence''' occurs when a complex entity has properties or behaviors that its parts do not have on their own, and emerge only when they interact in a wider whole.

Emergence plays a central role in theories of [[integrative level]]s and of [[complex system]]s. For instance, the phenomenon of [[life]] as studied in [[biology]] is an emergent property of [[chemistry]] and [[physics]].

==In philosophy==
{{Main|Emergentism}}
Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the [[etiology]] of a [[system]]'s properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. [[Nicolai Hartmann]] (1882–1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a ''categorial novum'' (new category).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hartmann |first=Nicolai |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110246681 |title=Possibility and actuality |date=2013 |publisher=Walter De Gruyter |isbn=9783110246681 |page=223 |translator-last1=Adair |translator-first1=Stephanie |translator-last2=Scott |translator-first2=Alex |doi=10.1515/9783110246681 |quote=The higher nexus is, in many of its structural elements, dependent on the lower, but is autonomous in its particular nature (its categorial ''novum''). The chain of conditions of a real thing in the higher stratum contains an ample number of components from the lower strata; but they are only partial aspects of it, and therefore do not make its real possibility complete; they make it, in fact, neither necessary nor actual. The chain becomes complete only through the addition of real components of its own stratum. But these are under a categorially different kind of determination. Structurally, they belong to the higher real nexus itself, and are not found outside of it.}}</ref>

===Definitions===
This concept of emergence dates from at least the time of [[Aristotle]].<ref name="Meta">Aristotle, ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)]]'', Book VIII (Eta) 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.</ref> In Heideggerian thought, the notion of emergence is derived from the Greek word ''poiein'', meaning "to make", and refers to a bringing-forth that encompasses not just a process of crafting (''techne'') but also the broader sense of something coming into being or revealing itself. [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] used emerging blossoms and butterflies as examples to illustrate ''poiêsis'' as a threshold event where something moves from one state to another.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-heidegger-lexicon/AADB99E1404A1EF2961658F9C6242205 |title=The Cambridge Heidegger Lexicon |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00274-6 |editor-last=Wrathall |editor-first=Mark A. |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/9780511843778}}</ref> Many scientists and philosophers<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Winning
 | first1 = Jason
 | last2 = Bechtel
 | first2 = William
 | author-link2 = William Bechtel
 | chapter = Being emergence vs. pattern emergence: complexity, control, and goal-directedness in biological systems
 | chapter-url = https://philpapers.org/rec/WINBEV
 | editor1-last = Gibb
 | editor1-first = Sophie
 | editor2-last = Hendry
 | editor2-first = Robin Findlay
 | editor3-last = Lancaster
 | editor3-first = Tom
 | title = The Routledge Handbook of Emergence
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0Tz3DwAAQBAJ
 | series = Routledge Handbooks in Philosophy
 | location = Abingdon
 | publisher = Routledge
 | date = 2019
 | page = 134
 | isbn = 9781317381501
 | access-date = 25 October 2020
 | quote = Emergence is much discussed by both philosophers and scientists.
}}
</ref>  have written on the concept, including [[John Stuart Mill]] (''[[Composition of Causes]]'', 1843)<ref>"The chemical combination of two substances produces, as is well known, a third substance with properties entirely different from those of either of the two substances separately, or of both of them taken together."</ref> and [[Julian Huxley]]<ref>Julian Huxley: "now and again there is a sudden rapid passage to a totally new and more comprehensive type of order or organization, with quite new emergent properties, and involving quite new methods of further evolution" {{Harv|Huxley|Huxley|1947|p=120}}</ref> (1887–1975).

The philosopher [[George Henry Lewes|G. H. Lewes]] coined the term "emergent" in 1875, distinguishing it from the merely "resultant":

<blockquote>Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are [[homogeneous]] and [[Commensurability (philosophy of science)|commensurable]]. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Lewes
 | first1 = George Henry
 | author-link1 = George Henry Lewes
 | title = Problems of Life and Mind
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0J8RAAAAYAAJ
 | series = First Series: The Foundations of a Creed
 | volume = 2
 | location = Boston
 | publisher = Osgood
 | date = 1875
 | page = 369
 | access-date = 24 Mar 2019
}}
</ref>{{sfn|Blitz|1992}}
</blockquote>

===Strong and weak emergence===
{{further|Emergent materialism|Reductive materialism}}
Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is ''Weak Emergence'', by philosopher [[Mark Bedau]]. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flock of starlings in flight or a school of fish, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not, a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated, analysed or reduced.{{sfn|Bedau|1997}}

[[David Chalmers]] writes that emergence often causes confusion in philosophy and science due to a failure to demarcate strong and weak emergence, which are "quite different concepts".<ref>Chalmers, David J. (2002). "Strong and Weak Emergence" [http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf] Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence''. Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref>

Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are [[supervenient]] rather than metaphysically primitive.{{sfn|Bedau|1997}}

Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at a fundamental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a [[Reductionism|reductionist]] analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are '''scale dependent''': they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully [[Deterministic system|deterministic]].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

[[Mark Bedau|Bedau]] notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that [[consciousness]] is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional [[Philosophy of mind|philosophical questions]] about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign.{{sfn|Bedau|1997}}

Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system on its components; qualities produced this way are [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] to the system's constituent parts.{{sfn|Laughlin|2005}} The whole is other than the sum of its parts. It is argued then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts.{{sfn|Bedau|1997}} Physics lacks well-established examples of strong emergence, unless it is interpreted as the impossibility ''in practice'' to explain the whole in terms of the parts. Practical impossibility may be a more useful distinction than one in principle, since it is easier to determine and quantify, and does not imply the use of mysterious forces, but simply reflects the limits of our capability.<ref>{{cite book|last= Luisi|first= Pier L.|title= The Emergence of Life: From Chemical Origins to Synthetic Biology|year= 2006|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, England|isbn= 978-0521821179|page= 119|url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023700/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|archive-date= 2015-11-17}}</ref>

====Viability of strong emergence====
One of the reasons for the importance of distinguishing these two concepts with respect to their difference concerns the relationship of purported emergent properties to science. Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:

{{blockquote|Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing.{{sfn|Bedau|1997}}}}

The concern that strong emergence does so entail is that such a consequence must be incompatible with metaphysical principles such as the [[principle of sufficient reason]] or the Latin dictum ''ex nihilo nihil fit'', often translated as "nothing comes from nothing".<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |title=EX NIHILO NIHIL FIT Definition & Meaning |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ex%20nihilo%20nihil%20fit |website=merriam-webster.com |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica company |access-date= 27 April 2025}}</ref>

Strong emergence can be criticized for leading to causal [[overdetermination]]. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? [[Jaegwon Kim]] says:

{{blockquote|In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as [[nomological]] (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause...If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 = Jaegwon | year = 2006 | title = Emergence: Core ideas and issues | journal = Synthese | volume = 151 | issue = 3| pages = 547–59 | doi = 10.1007/s11229-006-9025-0 | s2cid = 875121 }}</ref>}}

If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny [[downward causation]]. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call [[physicalism]] into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.

Carroll and Parola propose a taxonomy that classifies emergent phenomena by how the macro-description relates to the underlying micro-dynamics.<ref name="CP">{{cite arXiv |last1=Carroll |first1=Sean M. |last2=Parola |first2=Achyuth |year=2024 |title=What Emergence Can Possibly Mean |pages=1–23 |class=physics.hist-ph |eprint=2410.15468 }}</ref>

; Type‑0 (Featureless) Emergence:
: A coarse-graining map Φ from a micro state space ''A'' to a macro state space ''B'' that commutes with time evolution, without requiring any further decomposition into subsystems.

; Type‑1 (Local) Emergence:
: Emergence where the macro theory is defined in terms of localized collections of micro-subsystems. This category is subdivided into:
:: Type‑1a (Direct) Emergence: When the emergence map Φ is algorithmically simple (i.e. compressible), so that the macro behavior is easily deduced from the micro-states.
:: Type‑1b (Incompressible) Emergence: When Φ is algorithmically complex (i.e. incompressible), making the macro behavior appear more novel despite being determined by the micro-dynamics.

; Type‑2 (Nonlocal) Emergence:
: Cases in which both the micro and macro theories admit subsystem decompositions, yet the macro entities are defined nonlocally with respect to the micro-structure, meaning that macro behavior depends on widely distributed micro information.

; Type‑3 (Augmented) Emergence:
: A form of strong emergence in which the macro theory introduces additional ontological variables that do not supervene on the micro-states, thereby positing genuinely novel macro-level entities.

===Objective or subjective quality===
Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as [[Subjectivity|subjective]] [[Quality (philosophy)|qualities]] determined by the observer.

<blockquote>Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer's notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer's chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last1                 = Crutchfield
| first1                = James P.
| author-link1          = James P. Crutchfield
| year             = 1993
| title                 = The Calculi of Emergence: Computation, Dynamics, and Induction
| url                   = http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/CalcEmergTitlePage.htm
| journal               = Physica
| location     = Utrecht
| publication-date      = 1994
| volume                = 75
| issue                 = 1–3
| pages                  = 11–54
| access-date           = 24 Mar 2019
| bibcode = 1994PhyD...75...11C
| doi = 10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9
| url-access= subscription
}}
</ref>
</blockquote>

The low [[entropy]] of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.<ref>
See f.i. Carlo Rovelli: The mystery of time, 2017, part 10: Perspective, p.105-110
</ref>
On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.

==In science==
In [[physics]], ''weak'' emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Philip W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HhQDwAAQBAJ|title=Basic Notions Of Condensed Matter Physics|date=2018-03-09|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-97374-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Girvin|first1=Steven M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ|title=Modern Condensed Matter Physics|last2=Yang|first2=Kun|date=2019-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-57347-4|language=en}}</ref>

<blockquote>
An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kivelson |first1=Sophia |last2=Kivelson |first2=Steve |title=Defining Emergence in Physics |journal=npj Quantum Materials |volume=1 |publisher=Nature Research |doi=10.1038/npjquantmats.2016.24 |year=2016 |issue=1 |page=16024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016npjQM...116024K }}</ref>
</blockquote>

According to [[Robert Laughlin]],{{sfn|Laughlin|2005}} for many-particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details.

Novelist [[Arthur Koestler]] used the metaphor of [[Janus]] (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or [[holistic]] vs. [[reductionistic]]) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence.{{sfn|Koestler|1969}} Theoretical physicist [[Philip W. Anderson]] states it this way:

{{blockquote|The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts.{{sfn|Anderson|1972}}}}

Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. [[Renormalization group|Renormalization]] methods in theoretical physics enable physicists to study critical phenomena that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Longo|first1= Giuseppe|last2= Montévil|first2= Maël|last3= Pocheville|first3= Arnaud|date= 2012-01-01|title= From bottom-up approaches to levels of organization and extended critical transitions|journal= Frontiers in Physiology|volume= 3|page= 232|doi= 10.3389/fphys.2012.00232|pmc= 3429021|pmid= 22934001|doi-access= free}}</ref> In 2009, Gu ''et al.'' presented a class of infinite physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties.<ref name="morereally">{{cite journal | last1 = Gu | first1 = Mile | display-authors = etal  | year = 2009 | title = More really is different | journal = Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena | volume = 238 | issue = 9| pages = 835–39 | doi=10.1016/j.physd.2008.12.016| arxiv = 0809.0151 | bibcode = 2009PhyD..238..835G | s2cid = 61197980 }}</ref><ref name="binder">{{cite journal | last1 = Binder | first1 = P-M | year = 2009 | title = Computation: The edge of reductionism | journal = Nature | volume = 459 | issue = 7245| pages = 332–34 | doi=10.1038/459332a| pmid = 19458701 | bibcode = 2009Natur.459..332B| s2cid = 205046586 }}</ref> More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. These results concern infinite systems, finite systems being considered computable. However, macroscopic concepts which only apply in the limit of infinite systems, such as [[phase transition]]s and the [[renormalization group]], are important for understanding and modeling real, finite physical systems. Gu ''et al.'' concluded that

{{blockquote|Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight.<ref name="morereally" />}}

==In humanity==
{{see also|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}
Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Social systems|last=Luhmann, N.|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1995|location=Stanford}}</ref> An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations can be found in [[Max Weber]]'s most famous work, ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McKinnon | first1 = AM | year = 2010 | title = Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism | url = http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3035/1/McKinnon_Elective_Affinities_final_non_format.pdf | journal = Sociological Theory | volume = 28 | issue = 1| pages = 108–26 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01367.x | hdl = 2164/3035 | s2cid = 144579790 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Complexification: Explaining a paradoxical world through the science of surprise|last=Casti, J. L.|publisher=Harper Collins|year=1994|location=New York}}</ref> In the case of the global economic system, under [[capitalism]], growth, accumulation and innovation can be considered emergent processes where not only does technological processes sustain growth, but growth becomes the source of further innovations in a recursive, self-expanding spiral. In this sense, the exponential trend of the growth curve reveals the presence of a long-term positive [[feedback]] among growth, accumulation, and innovation; and the emergence of new structures and institutions connected to the multi-scale process of growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonauiti |first1=Mauro |title=Degrowth: Tools for a Complex Analysis of the Multidimensional Crisis |journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism |date=2012 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=30–50 |doi=10.1080/10455752.2011.648838 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10455752.2011.648838 |access-date=2024-04-10|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This is reflected in the work of [[Karl Polanyi]], who traces the process by which labor and nature are converted into commodities in the passage from an economic system based on agriculture to one based on industry.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Polanyi |first1=Karl |title=The Great Transformation |date=1944}}</ref> This shift, along with the idea of the self-regulating market, set the stage not only for another economy but also for another society. The principle of emergence is also brought forth when thinking about alternatives to the current economic system based on growth facing social and [[planetary boundaries|ecological]] limits. Both [[degrowth]] and social [[ecological economics]] have argued in favor of a co-evolutionary perspective for theorizing about transformations that overcome the dependence of human wellbeing on [[economic growth]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spash |first1=Clive L |title=A tale of three paradigms_ Realising the revolutionary potential of ecological economics |journal=Ecological Economics |date=2020 |volume=169|article-number=106518 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106518 |bibcode=2020EcoEc.16906518S }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kallis |first1=Giorgos |title=Another Economy is Possible: Culture and Economy in a Time of Crisis |date=2017 |publisher=Wiley |pages=34–54}}</ref>

Economic trends and patterns which emerge are studied intensively by economists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arthur |first=W. Brian |title=Complexity and the economy |journal=Science |year=2015 |volume=284 |issue=5411 |pages=107–9 |location=Oxford |doi=10.1126/science.284.5411.107 |pmid=10103172 |oclc=876140942}}</ref> Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include [[SEED-SCALE]], [[appreciative inquiry]], Future Search, the world cafe or [[knowledge cafe]], [[Open Space Technology]], and others (Holman, 2010<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holman|first=Peggy|date=December 2010 – January 2011|title=Engaging Emergence: Turning Upheaval into Opportunity|url=http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|journal=Pegasus Communication: The Systems Thinker|volume=21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418075443/http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|archive-date=2013-04-18}}</ref>). In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed [[SEED-SCALE]] to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that [[self-assemble]] in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.<ref>Daniel C. Taylor, Carl E. Taylor, Jesse O. Taylor, ''Empowerment on an Unstable Planet: From Seeds of Human Energy to a Scale of Global Change'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)</ref>

Looking at emergence in the context of social and [[Systems theory|systems]] change, invites us to reframe our thinking on parts and wholes and their interrelation. Unlike machines, [[living systems]] at all levels of recursion - be it a sentient body, a tree, a family, an organisation, the education system, the economy, the health system, the political system etc - are continuously creating themselves. They are continually growing and changing along with their surrounding elements, and therefore are more than the sum of their parts. As Peter Senge and co-authors put forward in the book ''Presence: Exploring profound change in People, Organizations and Society'', "as long as our thinking is governed by habit - notably industrial, "machine age" concepts such as control, predictability, standardization, and "faster is better" - we will continue to recreate institutions as they have been, despite their disharmony with the larger world, and the need for all living systems to evolve."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Presence: exploring profound change in people, organizations, and society |date=2012 |publisher=Brealey |isbn=978-1-85788-355-8 |editor-last=Senge |editor-first=Peter M. |edition=Repr |location=London}}</ref> While change is predictably constant, it is unpredictable in direction and often occurs at second and nth orders of systemic relationality.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Bateson |first=Nora |date=September 2022 |title=An essay on ready-ing: Tending the prelude to change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sres.2896 |journal=Systems Research and Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=990–1004 |doi=10.1002/sres.2896 |issn=1092-7026|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Understanding emergence and what creates the conditions for different forms of emergence to occur, either insidious or nourishing vitality, is essential in the search for deep transformations.

The works of Nora Bateson and her colleagues at the International Bateson Institute delve into this. Since 2012, they have been researching questions such as ''what makes a living system ready to change? Can unforeseen ready-ness for change be nourished?'' Here being ready is not thought of as being prepared, but rather as nourishing the [[Flexibility (personality)|flexibility]] we do not yet know will be needed. These inquiries challenge the common view that a theory of change is produced from an identified preferred goal or outcome. As explained in their paper ''An essay on ready-ing: Tending the prelude to change'':<ref name=":0" /> "While linear managing or controlling of the direction of change may appear desirable, tending to how the system becomes ready allows for pathways of possibility previously unimagined." This brings a new lens to the field of emergence in social and systems change as it looks to tending the pre-emergent process. Warm Data Labs are the fruit of their [[Praxis (process)|praxis]], they are spaces for transcontextual mutual learning in which aphanipoetic phenomena unfold.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bateson |first=Nora |date=2021 |title=Aphanipoiesis |url=https://journals.isss.org/index.php/jisss/article/view/3887 |journal=Journal of the International Society for the Systems Sciences |language=en |volume=65 |issue=1 |issn=1999-6918}}</ref> Having hosted hundreds of Warm Data processes with thousands of participants, they have found that these spaces of shared poly-learning across contexts lead to a realm of potential change, a necessarily obscured zone of wild interaction of unseen, unsaid, unknown flexibility.<ref name=":0" /> It is such flexibility that nourishes the ready-ing living systems require to respond to complex situations in new ways and change. In other words, this readying process preludes what will emerge. When exploring questions of social change, it is important to ask ourselves, what is submerging in the current social imaginary and perhaps, rather than focus all our resources and energy on driving direct order responses, to nourish flexibility with ourselves, and the systems we are a part of.

Another approach that engages with the concept of emergence for social change is Theory U, where "deep emergence" is the result of self-transcending knowledge after a successful journey along the U through layers of awareness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scharmer |first=Claus Otto |title=Theory U: leading from the future as it emerges: the social technology of presencing |date=2016 |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., a BK Business Book |isbn=978-1-62656-798-6 |edition=Second |location=San Francisco, California}}</ref> This practice nourishes transformation at the inner-being level, which enables new ways of being, seeing and relating to emerge. The concept of emergence has also been employed in the field of [[facilitator|facilitation]]. In ''Emergent Strategy'', [[adrienne maree brown]] defines emergent strategies as "ways for humans to practice complexity and grow the future through relatively simple interactions".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Adrienne M. |title=Emergent Strategy |date=2017|page=20|publisher=AK Press |isbn=978-1-84935-260-4 |location=Chico, CA}}</ref>

In [[linguistics]], the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of [[stylometry]] to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Slautina | first1 = Maria | last2 = Marusenko | first2 = Mikhail | year = 2014 | title = L'émergence du style. Les méthodes stylométriques pour la recherche de paternité des textes médiévaux | url = https://www.academia.edu/9466688 | journal = Les Cahiers du Numérique | volume = 10 | issue = 4| pages = 179–215 | doi = 10.3166/lcn.10.4.179-215 }}</ref> It has also been argued that the structure and regularity of [[language]] [[grammar]], or at least [[language change]], is an emergent phenomenon.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hopper |first1=Paul J. |title=The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure |date=1998 |pages=155–175 |chapter=Emergent grammar}}</ref> While each speaker merely tries to reach their own communicative goals, they use language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed.{{sfn|Keller|1994}} In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Määttä |first1=Urho |title=Kielitieteen emergenttinen metateoria |journal=Virittäjä |date=4 January 2000 |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=498 |url=https://journal.fi/virittaja/article/view/40040 |access-date=24 March 2022 |language=fi |issn=2242-8828}}</ref>

==In technology==
The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the [[universal dielectric response]] (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.physa.2012.10.035 | volume=392 | issue=4 | title=The origin of power-law emergent scaling in large binary networks | year=2013 | journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications | pages=1004–1027 | last1 = Almond | first1 = D.P. | last2 = Budd | first2 = C.J. | last3 = Freitag | first3 = M.A. | last4 = Hunt | first4 = G.W. | last5 = McCullen | first5 = N.J. | last6 = Smith | first6 = N.D.| arxiv=1204.5601 | bibcode=2013PhyA..392.1004A | s2cid=15801210 }}</ref> Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a [[phase transition]].<ref>See review of related research in {{Harv|Smith|2008|pp=1–31}}</ref> Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications simulate emergent behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1098/rstb.2018.0029|title=Social behaviour as an emergent property of embodied curiosity: A robotics perspective|year=2019|last1=Gordon|first1=Goren|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=374|issue=1771|pmid=30853006|pmc=6452242}}</ref> One example is [[Boids]], which mimics the [[swarming behavior]] of birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1098/rsta.2016.0351|title=Life as an emergent phenomenon: Studies from a large-scale boid simulation and web data|year=2017|last1=Ikegami|first1=Takashi|last2=Mototake|first2=Yoh-Ichi|last3=Kobori|first3=Shintaro|last4=Oka|first4=Mizuki|last5=Hashimoto|first5=Yasuhiro|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=375|issue=2109|pmid=29133449|pmc=5686407|bibcode=2017RSPTA.37560351I}}</ref>

==In religion and art==
In religion, emergence grounds expressions of [[religious naturalism]] and [[syntheism]] in which a sense of the [[sacred]] is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more [[Complexity|complex]] forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in ''The Sacred Emergence of Nature'' by [[Ursula Goodenough]] & [[Terrence Deacon]] and ''Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred'' by [[Stuart Kauffman]], both from 2006, as well as ''Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age'' by [[Alexander Bard]] & [[Jan Söderqvist]] from 2014 and ''Emergentism: A Religion of Complexity for the Metamodern World'' by Brendan Graham Dempsey (2022).{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

[[Michael Pearce (artist)|Michael J. Pearce]] has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Michael J.|title=Art in the Age of Emergence|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|location=Manchester, England|isbn=978-1443870573|url=http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522021953/http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|archive-date=2015-05-22}}</ref> Practicing artist [[Leonel Moura]], in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leonel Moura|date=16 July 2018|title=Robot Art: An Interview with Leonel Moura|journal=Arts|volume=7|issue=3|page=28|doi=10.3390/arts7030028|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== In daily life and nature==

Objects consist of components with properties differing from the object itself. We call these properties emergent because they did not exist at the component level. The same applies to ''artifacts'' (structures, devices, tools, and even works of art). They are created for a specific purpose and are therefore ''subjectively'' emergent: someone who doesn't understand the purpose can't use it.

The artifact is the result of an ''[[invention]]'': through a clever combination of components, something new is created with emergent properties and functionalities.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Detecting emergence in engineered systems: A literature review and synthesis approach |last1=Haugen |first1=Rune Andre |date=2023-02-07 |last2=Skeie |first2=Nils-Olav |last3=Muller |first3=Gerrit |last4=Syverud |first4=Elisabet |journal=Systems Engineering |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=463–481 |doi=10.1002/sys.21660 |doi-access=free |hdl=11250/3088186 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This invention is often difficult to predict and therefore usually based on a chance ''discovery''. An invention based on discovery is often improved through a feedback loop, making it more applicable. This is an example of ''[[downward causation]]''.

''Example 1'': A hammer is a combination of a head and a handle, each with different properties. By cleverly connecting them, the hammer becomes an artifact with new, emergent functionalities. Through downward causation, you can improve the head and handle components in such a way that the hammer's functionality increases. ''Example 2'': A mixture of tin and copper produces the [[alloy]] bronze, with new, emergent properties (hardness, lower melting temperature). Finding the correct ratio of tin to copper is an example of downward causation. ''Example 3'': Finding the right combination of chemicals to create a [[Superconductivity|superconductor]] at high temperatures (i.e room temperature) is a great challenge for many scientists, where chance plays a significant role. Conversely, however, the properties of all these invented artifacts can be readily explained reductionistically.

Something similar occurs in nature: random mutations in genes rarely create a creature with new, emergent properties, increasing its chances of survival in a changing ecosystem. This is how evolution works. Here too, through downward causation, new creatures can sometimes manipulate their ecosystem in such a way that their chances of survival are further increased.

In both artifacts and living beings, certain components can be crucial to the emergent end result: the end result ''[[Supervenience|supervenes]]'' on these components. Examples include: a construction error, a bug in a software program, an error in the genetic code, or the absence of a particular gene.

Both aspects: ''[[supervenience]]'' and the ''[[unpredictability]]'' of the emergent result are characteristic of ''strong emergence'' (see above). (This definition, however, differs significantly from the definition in philosophical literature<ref>Bedau 1997</ref>).

== Notable philosophers and scientists ==
Emergence has been significantly shaped and debated by numerous philosophers and scientists over the years

{|class=wikitable
! Philosopher or scientist
! Contribution
! Major work
|-
| [[Aristotle]]
| One of the earliest thinkers to suggest that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not. This idea laid the foundational groundwork by emphasizing that certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by their individual components alone.
| ''Metaphysics''<ref name="Meta"/>
|-
| [[George Henry Lewes]]
| Formally introduced the term "emergence" in the 19th century. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties where emergent properties could not be predicted from the properties of the parts.
| ''Problems of Life and Mind''{{sfn|Lewes|1875|p=78}}
|-
| [[John Stuart Mill]]
| Early proponent of the concept of emergence in social and political contexts. Mill's work emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena as more than the sum of individual actions.
| ''A System of Logic''{{sfn|Mill|1843|p=152}}
|-
| [[C. D. Broad]]
| In his 1925 book ''The Mind and Its Place in Nature'', Broad argued that [[mental state]]s were emergent properties of brain processes. He developed a comprehensive philosophical framework for emergentism and advocated for the irreducibility of higher-level properties.
| ''The Mind and Its Place in Nature''{{sfn|Broad|1925|p=56}}
|-
| [[Samuel Alexander]]
| In his work ''Space, Time, and Deity'', Alexander suggested that emergent qualities like [[consciousness]] and [[life]] could not be fully explained by underlying physical processes alone.
| ''Space, Time, and Deity''{{sfn|Alexander|1920|p=213}}
|-
| [[Jaegwon Kim]]
| A prominent critic and commentator on emergence. Kim extensively analyzed the limits and scope of emergent properties, particularly in the context of mental causation and the [[philosophy of mind]], questioning the coherence and causal efficacy of emergent properties.
| ''Mind in a Physical World''{{sfn|Kim|1998|p=97}}
|-
| [[Michael Polanyi]]
| Advanced the idea that emergent properties are irreducible and possess their own causal powers. Polanyi's work in chemistry and philosophy of science provided empirical and theoretical support for emergentist concepts, especially in complex systems and [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] structures.
| ''Personal Knowledge''{{sfn|Polanyi|1958|p=202}}
|-
| [[Philip W. Anderson]]
| [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel laureate in physics]], Anderson's work on [[condensed matter physics]] and the theory of [[superconductivity]] provided significant empirical examples of emergent phenomena. His famous essay, "More is Different," showed that as systems grow in scale and complexity, qualitatively new properties and principles emerge, requiring autonomous theories rather than simple extrapolations from particle-level laws.
| ''More is Different''{{sfn|Anderson|1972|p=393}}
|-
| [[Stuart Kauffman]]
| A theoretical biologist whose work in complex systems and self-organization highlighted the role of emergence in biological evolution and the origin of life. Kauffman emphasized the unpredictability and novelty of emergent biological properties.
| ''The Origins of Order''{{sfn|Kauffman|1993|p=71}}
|-
| [[Roger Wolcott Sperry|Roger Sperry]]
| [[Neuropsychologist]] and Nobel laureate, Sperry's [[split-brain]] research contributed to the understanding of consciousness as an emergent property of brain processes. He argued that emergent mental properties have causal efficacy that influences the lower-level neural processes.
| ''Science and Moral Priority''{{sfn|Sperry|1983|p=145}}
|-
| [[Terrence Deacon]]
| [[Anthropologist]] and [[neuroscientist]], Deacon's work on the evolution of [[language]] and [[human cognition]] explored how emergent properties arise from neural and social interactions. His book ''Incomplete Nature'' delves into the emergentist explanation of life and mind.
| ''Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter''{{sfn|Deacon|2012|p=189}}
|-
| [[Steven Johnson (author)|Steven Johnson]]
| An author and theorist whose popular science books, such as ''Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software'', have brought the concept of emergentism to a broader audience. Johnson illustrates how complex systems in nature and society exhibit emergent properties.
| ''Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software''{{sfn|Johnson|2001}}
|}

== See also ==
{{Cols|colwidth=21em}}
* {{annotated link|Abiogenesis}}
* {{annotated link|Anthropic principle}}
* {{annotated link|Connectionism}}
* {{annotated link|Dual-phase evolution}}
* {{annotated link|Emergenesis}}
* {{annotated link|Emergent algorithm}}
* {{annotated link|Emergent evolution}}
* {{annotated link|Emergent gameplay}}
* {{annotated link|Entropic gravity|Emergent gravity}}
* {{annotated link|Emergent organization|only=explicit}}
* {{annotated link|Emergentism}}
* {{annotated link|Externality}}
* {{annotated link|Free will}}
* {{annotated link|Generative science}}
* {{annotated link|Irreducible complexity}}
* {{annotated link|Langton's ant}}
* {{annotated link|Law of Complexity-Consciousness}}
* {{annotated link|Libertarianism (metaphysics)}}
* {{annotated link|Mass action (sociology)}}
* {{annotated link|G. E. Moore#Organic wholes|Organic Wholes of G.E. Moore}}
* {{annotated link|Polytely}}
* {{annotated link|Society of Mind}}
* {{annotated link|Superorganism}}
* {{annotated link|Swarm intelligence}}
* {{annotated link|System of systems}}
* {{annotated link|Spontaneous order}}
* {{annotated link|Mereology}}
* {{annotated link|Mereological nihilism}}
* {{annotated link|Mereological essentialism}}
{{Colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
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{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1 = Albert | first1 = Réka | last2 = Jeong | first2 = Hawoong | last3 = Barabási | first3 = Albert-László | title = Diameter of the World-Wide Web | journal = Nature |date = 9 September 1999 | volume = 401 | issue = 6749 | pages = 130–131 | doi = 10.1038/43601| arxiv = cond-mat/9907038 | bibcode = 1999Natur.401..130A | s2cid = 4419938 }}
* {{cite book|last=Alexander|first=Samuel|title=Space, Time, and Deity|year=1920|publisher=Macmillan|location=London}}
* {{Citation | surname = Anderson | given = P.W. | title = More is Different: Broken Symmetry and the Nature of the Hierarchical Structure of Science | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 177 | year = 1972 | pages = 393–96 | doi = 10.1126/science.177.4047.393 | pmid=17796623 | issue=4047|bibcode = 1972Sci...177..393A | s2cid = 34548824 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Bedau | first = Mark A. | year = 1997 | title = Weak Emergence | journal = Philosophical Perspectives | volume = 11 | pages = 375–399 | doi = 10.1111/0029-4624.31.s11.17 |url = http://people.reed.edu/~mab/papers/weak.emergence.pdf}}
* {{Citation |surname=Bejan |given=Adrian |year=2016 |title=The Physics of Life: The Evolution of Everything |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1250078827}}
* Bejan, Adrian; Zane, J. P. (2012). ''Design in Nature: How the Constructal Law Governs Evolution in Biology, Physics, Technology, and Social Organizations''. Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-385-53461-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Blitz|first=David|date=1992|title=Emergent Evolution: Qualitative Novelty and the Levels of Reality|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Kluwer Academic}}
* {{cite book|last=Broad|first=C.D.|title=The Mind and Its Place in Nature|year=1925|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|location=London}}
* {{Citation | surname = Corning | given = Peter A. | title = The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution | year = 1983 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | place = New York}}
* {{Cite book|last=Corning|first=Peter A.|date=2005|title=Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Deacon|first=Terrence W.|title=Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter|year=2012|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|location=New York, New York}}
* {{cite book|last1=Huxley|first1=J. S.|last2=Huxley|first2=T. H.|date=1947|title=Evolution and Ethics: 1983–1934|location=London|publisher=The Pilot Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Steven|title=Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software|year=2001|publisher=Scribner|location=New York, New York}}
* {{Citation | last = Kauffman | author-link = Stuart Kauffman | first=Stuart | title = The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution | year = 1993 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-507951-7}}
* {{Citation | last = Keller | author-link = Rudi Keller | first=Rudi | title = On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language | place = London/New York | publisher = Routledge | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-415-07671-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Kim|first=Jaegwon|title=Mind in a Physical World|year=1998|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}
* {{Citation | surname = Koestler | given = Arthur | author-link = Arthur Koestler |editor1=A. Koestler |editor2=J. R. Smythies | title = Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences | year = 1969 | publisher = Hutchinson | place = London}}
* {{Citation | surname = Laughlin | given = Robert | author-link = Robert B. Laughlin | title = A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down | year = 2005 | publisher =  Basic Books | isbn = 978-0-465-03828-2| title-link = A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down }}
* {{cite book|last=Mill|first=John Stuart|title=A System of Logic|year=1843|publisher=John W. Parker|location=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Polanyi|first=Michael|title=Personal Knowledge|year=1958|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois}}
* {{Citation | last = Smith | first = Reginald D. | title = The Dynamics of Internet Traffic: Self-Similarity, Self-Organization, and Complex Phenomena | year = 2008  | arxiv = 0807.3374|bibcode = 2008arXiv0807.3374S | doi=10.1142/S0219525911003451 | volume=14 | issue = 6 | journal=Advances in Complex Systems | pages=905–949| s2cid = 18937228 }}
* {{cite book|last=Sperry|first=Roger|title=Science and Moral Priority|year=1983|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York, New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Steels|first=L|chapter=Towards a Theory of Emergent Functionality|editor-last1=Meyer|editor-first1=J.-A.|editor-last2=Wiloson|editor-first2=S. W.|title=From Animals to Animats: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior|pages=451–461|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=MIT Press|date=1991}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
<!-- Primary order alphabetical on surname, secondary on year.  Use unspaced Harvard Citations in the text: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Harvard_citation and fully spaced Harvard References here:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Harvard_reference -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
{{refbegin}}
* Alexander, V. N. (2011). ''The Biologist's Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature''. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.
* {{Citation | last = Bateson | first=Gregory | author-link = Gregory Bateson | title = Steps to an Ecology of Mind | year = 1972 | publisher = Ballantine Books | isbn = 978-0-226-03905-3}}
* {{Citation | last = Batty | first=Michael | author-link = Michael Batty  | title = Cities and Complexity  | year = 2005 | publisher = MIT Press  | isbn = 978-0-262-52479-7}}
* {{Citation | last = Bunge | first=Mario Augusto | author-link = Mario Bunge | title = Emergence and Convergence: Qualitiative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge | publisher = Toronto: University of Toronto Press| year = 2003}}
* Chalmers, David J. (2002). "Strong and Weak Emergence" [http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf ] Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* [[Philip Clayton (philosopher)|Philip Clayton]] & [[Paul Davies]] (eds.) (2006). ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Felipe Cucker and [[Stephen Smale]] (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, [http://ttic.uchicago.edu/~smale/papers/math-of-emergence.pdf ''The Mathematics of Emergence'']
* {{Citation | last = Delsemme | first=Armand | title = Our Cosmic Origins: From the Big Bang to the Emergence of Life and Intelligence | year = 1998 | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Citation | last = Goodwin | first=Brian | title = How the Leopard Changed Its Spots: The Evolution of Complexity | year = 2001 | publisher = Princeton University Press}}
* Hoffmann, Peter M. "Life's Ratchet: How Molecular Machines Extract Order from Chaos" (2012), Basic Books.
* {{Citation | last = Hofstadter | first=Douglas R. | author-link = Douglas Hofstadter | title = Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid | year = 1979 | publisher = Harvester Press| title-link=Gödel, Escher, Bach }}
* {{Citation | last = Holland | first=John H. | author-link = John Henry Holland | title = Emergence from Chaos to Order | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-7382-0142-9}}
* {{Citation | last = Kauffman | author-link = Stuart Kauffman | first=Stuart | title = At Home in the Universe | place = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1995}}
* {{Citation | last = Kelly | first = Kevin | author-link = Kevin Kelly (editor) | title = Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World | year = 1994 | publisher = Perseus Books | isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }} <!-- | URL = http://www.kk.org/outofcontrol/ | accessdate = December 2006 -->
* {{Citation | last = Krugman | first=Paul | author-link = Paul Krugman | title = The Self-organizing Economy | year = 1996 | publisher = Blackwell | place = Oxford | isbn = 978-1-55786-698-1 | quote = {{ISBN|0-87609-177-X}}}}
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* [[Ignazio Licata]] &  Ammar Sakaji (eds) (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110824142338/http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6692.html ''Physics of Emergence and Organization''], {{ISBN|978-981-277-994-6}}, [[World Scientific]] and [[Imperial College Press]].
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{{div col end}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=emergenc}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=properties-emergent |title=Emergent Properties}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|emergence}}
* {{InPho|taxonomy|2216}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190321161246/http://www.emergentuniverse.org/ The Emergent Universe]: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021205100114/http://llk.media.mit.edu/projects/emergence/ Exploring Emergence]: An introduction to emergence using [[Cellular automaton|CA]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]] from the [[MIT Media Lab]]
* [http://isce.edu/ ISCE group]: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.
* [http://neocybernetics.com/lecture3/ Towards modeling of emergence]: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology
* [http://biomimetic-architecture.com Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction]
* [http://studiesinemergentorder.org Studies in Emergent Order]: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal
* [http://consc.net/papers/granada.html Emergence]
* [https://www.d-iep.org/diep DIEP]: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena
{{div col end}}
{{Cybernetics}}
{{Philosophy of biology}}

[[Category:Emergence| ]]
[[Category:Concepts in metaphysics]]
[[Category:Metaphysics of mind]]
[[Category:Pattern formation]]
[[Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Holism]]
[[Category:Ontology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of physics]]