View source for Common buzzard

{{Short description|Species of bird of prey}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Steppe buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus).jpg
| image_caption = Steppe buzzard ''B. b. vulpinus''
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International. |year=2021 |title=''Buteo buteo'' |volume=2021 |article-number=e.T61695117A206634667 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T61695117A206634667.en |access-date=20 January 2025}}</ref>
| taxon = Buteo buteo
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| range_map = ButeoButeoIUCN2019 1.png
| range_map_caption = Range of ''B. buteo'' {{leftlegend|#0DFF00|Breeding range of migrant populations|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#047200|Resident range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#0062FF|Wintering range of migrant populations|outline=gray}}
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 7–10, see text
| synonyms = ''Falco buteo'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
}}
The '''common buzzard''' ('''''Buteo buteo''''')<ref name="common-buzzard">{{cite book |last1=Walls |first1=Sean |last2=Kenward |first2=Robert |title=The Common Buzzard |date=23 January 2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4729-7002-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Oy9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Buteo+buteo&pg=PA292 |access-date=22 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> is a medium-to-large [[bird of prey]] which has a large range. It is a member of the genus ''[[Buteo]]''<ref name="common-buzzard" /> in the family [[Accipitridae]].<ref name="common-buzzard" /> The species lives in most of [[Europe]] and extends its breeding range across much of the [[Palearctic]] as far as northwestern China ([[Tian Shan]]), far [[western Siberia]] and northwestern [[Mongolia]].<ref name="common-buzzard" /><ref name="iucn" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees>Ferguson-Lees, J., & Christie, D. A. (2001). ''Raptors of the world''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.</ref> Over much of its range, it is a year-round resident. However, buzzards from the colder parts of the [[Northern Hemisphere]] as well as those that breed in the eastern part of their range typically migrate south for the northern winter, many journeying as far as [[South Africa]].<ref name="common-buzzard" /><ref name= Bildstein>Bildstein, K. L., & Zalles, J. I. (2005). ''Old World versus New World long-distance migration in accipiters, buteos, and falcons''. Birds of two worlds: the ecology and evolution of migration. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 154–167.</ref>

The common buzzard is an opportunistic predator that can take a wide variety of prey, but it feeds mostly on small [[mammal]]s, especially [[rodent]]s such as [[vole]]s. It typically hunts from a perch.<ref name="Cramp">Cramp, S., & Brooks, D. J. (1992). ''Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The birds of the western Palearctic, vol. 2'<nowiki />'. Oxford University Press, Oxford.''</ref> Like most accipitrid birds of prey, it builds a nest, typically in trees in this species, and is a devoted parent to a relatively small brood of young.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees" /> The common buzzard appears to be the most common diurnal raptor in Europe, as estimates of its total global population run well into the millions.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees" /><ref name="BirdlifeEurope">BirdLife, F. V. B. (2005). ''Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status''. British Birds, 98, 269–271.</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The first [[Species description|formal description]] of the common buzzard was by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758 in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Falco buteo''.<ref name=Linnaeus1758/> The genus ''Buteo'' was introduced by the French naturalist [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède]] in 1799 by [[tautonymy]] with the specific name of this species.<ref>{{ cite book | last1=Lacépède | first1=Bernard Germain de | author-link=Bernard Germain de Lacépède | year=1799 | title=Discours d'ouverture et de clôture du cours d'histoire naturelle | chapter=Tableau des sous-classes, divisions, sous-division, ordres et genres des oiseux | language=fr | publisher=Plassan | place=Paris | page=4 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uhAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA78 }} Page numbering starts at one for each of the three sections.<!--BHL appears not to have a scan--></ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 1 | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=361 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16109001 }}</ref> The word ''buteo'' is [[Latin]] for a buzzard.<ref name= job90>{{cite book | last1= Jobling | first1= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher = Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 |page =[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n81 81]}}</ref> It should not be confused with the [[Turkey vulture]], which is sometimes called a buzzard in American English.

The [[Buteoninae]] subfamily originated from and is most diversified in the [[Americas]], with occasional broader radiations that led to common buzzards and other Eurasian and African buzzards. The common buzzard is a member of the [[genus]] ''[[Buteo]]'', a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings. The ''Buteo'' species of [[Eurasia]] and [[Africa]] are usually commonly referred to as "buzzards" while those in the [[Americas]] are called hawks. Under current classification, the genus includes approximately 28 species, the second most diverse of all extant accipitrid genera behind only ''[[Accipiter]]''.<ref name= Riesing>{{cite journal|author=Riesing, M. J., Kruckenhauser, L., Gamauf, A., & Haring, E. |title=Molecular phylogeny of the genus ''Buteo'' (Aves: Accipitridae) based on mitochondrial marker sequences|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=27|issue=2|pages=328–42|pmid=12695095|year=2003|doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00450-5|bibcode=2003MolPE..27..328R }}</ref> DNA testing shows that the common buzzard is fairly closely related to the [[red-tailed hawk]] (''Buteo jamaicensis'') of [[North America]], which occupies a similar [[ecological niche]] to the buzzard in that continent. The two species may belong to the same [[species complex]].<ref name= Riesing/><ref name= Clark>{{cite journal|author=Clark, W. S.|title=Taxonomic status of the Forest Buzzard ''Buteo oreophilus trizonatus''|journal=Ostrich|volume=78|pages=101–104|url=http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/researchers/uploads/155/fbostrich_78(1)_clark.pdf|doi=10.2989/OSTRICH.2007.78.1.16.60|year=2007|issue=1 |bibcode=2007Ostri..78..101C |s2cid=6270968|access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831200441/http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/researchers/uploads/155/fbostrich_78(1)_clark.pdf}}</ref> Three buzzards in Africa are likely closely related to the common buzzard based on genetic materials, the [[Mountain buzzard]] (''Buteo oreophilus''), [[Forest buzzard]]s (''Buteo trizonatus'') and the [[Madagascar buzzard]] (''Buteo brachypterus''), to the point where it has been questioned whether they are sufficiently distinct to qualify as full species. However, the distinctiveness of these African buzzards has generally been supported.<ref name= Clark/><ref name= Haring>Haring, E., Riesing, M. J., Pinsker, W., & Gamauf, A. (1999). ''Evolution of a pseudo‐control region in the mitochondrial genome of Palearctic buzzards (genus Buteo) ''. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 37(4), 185–194.</ref><ref name= Siegfried>Siegfried, W. R. (1969). ''Affinities of the small African and Palaearctic buteos''. Ostrich, 40(S1), 41–46.</ref> Genetic studies have further indicated that the modern buzzards of Eurasia and Africa are a relatively young group, showing that they diverged at about 300,000 years ago.<ref name= Clouet>Clouet, M., & Wink, M. (2000). ''The buzzards of Cape Verde Buteo (buteo) bannermani and Socotra Buteo (buteo) spp.: first results of a genetic analysis based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene''. Alauda, 68(1), 55–58.</ref> Nonetheless, fossils dating earlier than 5 million year old (the late [[Miocene]] period) showed ''Buteo'' species were present in [[Europe]] much earlier than that would imply, although it cannot be stated to a certainty that these would have been related to the extant buzzards.<ref>Boev, Z., & Kovachev, D. (1998). ''Buteo spassovi sp. N.–a late Mionece buzzard (Accipitridae, Aves) from SW Bulgaria''. Geologica Balcanica, 29(1–2), 125–129.</ref>

===Subspecies and species splits===
[[File:Buteo buteo -Netherlands-8.jpg|thumb|A typical intermediate brown buzzard of the nominate race (''B. b. buteo'') in the Netherlands]]
Some 16 subspecies have been described in the past and up to 11 are often considered valid, although some authorities accept as few as seven.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Common buzzard subspecies fall into two groups.

The western ''buteo'' group is mainly resident or short-distance [[Bird migration|migrants]] and includes:
* ''B. b. buteo'': Ranges in Europe from the Atlantic islands, the [[British Isles]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] (including [[Madeira Island]], whose population was once considered a separate race, ''B. b. harterti'') more or less continuously throughout Europe to [[Finland]], [[Romania]] and [[Asia Minor]].<ref name= Brown>Brown, Leslie and Amadon, Dean (1986) ''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World''. The Wellfleet Press. {{ISBN|978-1555214722}}.</ref> This highly individually variable race is described below. This is a relatively large and bulky race of buzzard. In males, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] ranges from {{cvt|350|to|418|mm}} and the tail from {{cvt|194|to|223|mm}}. In comparison, the larger female has a wing chord measuring {{cvt|374|to|432|mm}} and tail length of {{cvt|193|to|236|mm}}. In both sexes, the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] measures {{cvt|69|to|83|mm}} in length.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Cramp/> As illustrated by average body mass, sizes in the nominate race of common buzzard seem to confirm to [[Bergmann's rule]], increasing to the north and decreasing closer to the [[Equator]].<ref name= CRC2>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), {{ISBN|978-1-4200-6444-5}}.</ref> In southern [[Norway]], the mean weight of males was reportedly {{cvt|740|g|lb}}, while that of females was {{cvt|1100|g|lb}}.<ref name= Site>Selas, V. (1997). ''Nest-site selection by four sympatric forest raptors in southern Norway''. Journal of Raptor Research, 31, 16–25.</ref> British buzzards were of intermediate size, 214 males averaging {{cvt|781|g|lb}} and 261 females averaging {{cvt|969|g|lb}}.<ref name= CRC2/> Birds to the south in [[Spain]] were smaller, averaging {{cvt|662|g|lb}} in 22 males and {{cvt|800|g|lb}} in 30 females.<ref>Zuberogoitia, I., Martínez, J. A., Zabala, J., Martínez, J. E., Castillo, I., Azkona, A., & Hidalgo, S. (2005). ''Sexing, ageing and moult of Buzzards Buteo buteo in a southern European area''. Ringing & Migration, 22(3), 153–158.</ref> Cramp and Simmons (1980) listed the mean body mass overall of nominate buzzards in Europe overall as {{cvt|828|g|lb}} in males and {{cvt|1052|g|lb}} in females.<ref name= Cramp/>
[[File:Buteo buteo rotschildi MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.89.4.jpg|thumb| ''Buteo buteo rothschildi'' – [[MHNT]]]]
* ''B. b. rothschildi'': This proposed race is native to the [[Azores]] islands. It is generally considered a valid subspecies.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Cramp/><ref name= James>James, A. H. (1984). ''Geographic variation in the buzzard Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758): mid-Atlantic and west Mediterranean islands (Aves: Accipitridae)''. Beaufortia, 34(4), 101–116.</ref> This race differs from a typical intermediate of the nominate in being a darker, colder brown both above and below, closer to the darker individuals of the nominate. It averages smaller than most nominate buzzards. The [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] of males ranges from {{cvt|343|to|365|mm}} while that of females ranges from {{cvt|362|to|393|mm}}.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= James/>
* ''B. b. insularum'': This race lives in the [[Canary Islands]]. Not all authorities consider this race suitably distinct, but others advocate it be retained as a full subspecies.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= James/> It is typically of richer brown above and more heavily streaked below compared to nominate birds. It is similar in size to ''B. b. rothschildi'' and averages slightly smaller than the nominate race. Males have a reported [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] of {{cvt|352|to|390|mm}} and females have a wing chord of {{cvt|370|to|394|mm}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>
* ''B. b. arrigonii'': This race inhabits the islands of [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]]. It is generally considered a valid subspecies.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= James/> The upper-side of these buzzards is an intermediate brown with very heavy streaking below, often covering the belly whereas most nominate buzzards show a whitish area the middle of the belly. Like most other insular races, this one is relatively small. Males possess a [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] of {{cvt|343|to|382|mm}} while females have a wing chord of {{cvt|353|to|390|mm}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Thibault |first1=Jena-Claude |last2=Patrimonio |first2=Olivier |last3=Torre |first3=José |title=Does the diurnal raptor community of Corsica (Western Mediterranean) show insular characteristics? |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=19 |number=4 |pages=363–373 |date=July 1992 |issn=0305-0270 |eissn=1365-2699 |doi=10.2307/2845564|jstor=2845564 |bibcode=1992JBiog..19..363T }}</ref>
[[File:Common (Steppe) Buzzard.jpg|thumb|left|The steppe race of the common buzzard (''B. b. vulpinus'') is usually distinguished from the nominate race (''B. b. buteo'') by being more rufous in hue (and more polymorphic).]]
The eastern ''vulpinus'' group includes:
[[File:Buteo buteo vulpinus MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.89.7.jpg|thumb| ''Buteo buteo vulpinus'' – [[MHNT]]]]
*''B. b. vulpinus'': The '''steppe buzzard''' breeds as far west as eastern [[Sweden]], in the southern two-thirds of [[Finland]], eastern [[Estonia]], much of [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]], eastward to the northern [[North Caucasus|Caucacus]], northern [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], much of [[Russia]] to [[Altai Republic|Altai]] and south-central [[Siberia]], [[Tien Shan]] in [[China]] and western [[Mongolia]]. ''B. b. vulpinus'' is a long-distance [[Bird migration|migrant]]. It winters largely in much of eastern and southern [[Africa]]. Less frequently and often very discontinuously, steppe buzzards winter in the southern peninsulas of Europe, [[Arabia]] and southwestern [[India]] in addition to some parts of southeastern [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]. In the open country favoured on the wintering grounds, steppe buzzards are often seen perched on roadside telephone poles.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=9DD02E31D96B7878|title=Steppe Buzzard – Buteo buteo vulpinus (Gloger, 1833)|website=Avibase}}</ref> It at one time was considered a separate species due to differences in size, form, colouring and behaviour (especially in regards to migratory behaviour) but is genetically indistinct from nominate buzzards.<ref name= Cramp/><ref name= Kruckenhauser>Kruckenhauser, L., Haring, E., Pinsker, W., Riesing, M. J., Winkler, H., Wink, M., & Gamauf, A. (2004). ''Genetic vs. morphological differentiation of Old World buzzards (genus Buteo, Accipitridae)''. Zoologica Scripta, 33(3), 197–211.</ref> Furthermore, the steppe buzzard engages in extensive interbreeding with the nominate race, causing typical characteristics of the two races to mix. The zone of integration runs from [[Scandinavia]] through the European continent to the [[Black Sea]], including any part of the overlapping ranges in [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], western [[Ukraine]] and eastern [[Romania]]. At times, the fertile hybrids of these two races have been erroneously proposed as races such as ''B. b. intermedius'' or ''B. b. zimmermannae''. Intergrade buzzards are commonest where the grey-brown type of pale morphs of ''vulpinus'' are predominant.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Voous/> Steppe buzzards are usually distinctly smaller, with relatively longer wings and tail for their size, and thus often appear swifter and more agile in flight than nominate buzzards, whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. Typically, their length is around {{cvt|45|to|50|cm}}, while wingspan of males average {{cvt|113|cm|0}} and females average {{cvt|122.7|cm|0}}. The [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{cvt|335|to|377|mm}} in males and {{cvt|358|to|397|mm}} in females. Tail length is {{cvt|170|to|200|mm}} in males and {{cvt|175|to|209|mm}} in females.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> Weights of birds from [[Russia]] can reportedly range from {{cvt|560|to|675|g|lb}} in males and {{cvt|710|to|1180|g|lb}} in females.<ref>Dementiev, G. P., & Gladkov, N. A. (1951). ''Birds of the Soviet Union, vol. 1''. Sovetskaya Nauka, Moscow.</ref> Weights of migrant birds appear to be lower than at other times of year for steppe buzzards. Two surveys of migrant buzzards during their huge spring movement in [[Eilat]], Israel showed 420 birds averaged {{cvt|579|g|lb}} and 882 birds averaged {{cvt|578|g|lb}}.<ref name= Gorney>Gorney, E., & Yom‐Tov, Y. (1994). ''Fat, hydration condition, and moult of Steppe Buzzards Buteo buteo vulpinus on spring migration''. Ibis, 136(2), 185–192.</ref><ref>Yosef, R., Tryjanowski, P., & Bildstein, K. L. (2002). ''Spring migration of adult and immature buzzards (Buteo buteo) through Elat, Israel: timing and body size''. Journal of Raptor Research, 36(2), 115–120.</ref> In comparison, weights of wintering steppe buzzards was higher, averaging {{cvt|725|g|lb}} in 35 birds in the former [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] ([[South Africa]]) and {{cvt|739|g|lb}} in 160 birds in the [[Cape Province]]. Weights of birds from [[Zambia]] were similar.<ref name= Gorney/><ref>Benson, C. W., & Irwin, M. P. S. (1967). ''A contribution to the ornithology of Zambia (No. 1)''. published.</ref><ref>Broekhuysen, G. J., & Siegfried, W. R. (1969). ''Age and moult in the Steppe Buzzard in southern Africa''. Ostrich, 40(S1), 223–237.</ref>
*''B. b. menetriesi'': This race is found in southern [[Crimea]] through the [[Caucasus]] to northern [[Iran]] and possibly into [[Turkey]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=1BFDDA698BBAD7F4|title=Common Buzzard (Eastern Steppe) – Buteo buteo menetriesi Bogdanov, 1879|website=Avibase}}</ref> This race has traditionally been listed as a resident race, but some sources consider it a migrant to eastern and southern Africa.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Mackworth-Praed, C. W., & Grant, C. H. B. (1952). ''Birds of eastern and north eastern Africa (Vol. 1)''. Longmans, Green.</ref> Compared to the overlapping steppe buzzard subspecies, it is larger (roughly intermediate between the nominate race and ''vulpinus'') and is duller in overall colour, being sandy below rather than rufous and lacking the bright rufous on the tail. [[Wing chord (biology)|Wing chord]] is {{cvt|351|to|397|mm}} in males and {{cvt|372|to|413|mm}} in females.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Kruckenhauser/>

At one time, races of the common buzzard were thought to range as far in Asia as a breeding bird well into the [[Himalayas]] and as far east as northeastern [[China]], [[Russia]] to the [[Sea of Okhotsk]], and all the islands of the [[Kurile Islands]] and of [[Japan]], despite both the Himalayan and eastern birds showing a natural gap in distribution from the next nearest breeding common buzzard. However, DNA testing has revealed that the buzzards of these populations probably belong to different species. Most authorities now accept these buzzards as full species: the [[eastern buzzard]] (''Buteo japonicus''; with three subspecies of its own) and the [[Himalayan buzzard]] (''Buteo refectus'').<ref name= Kruckenhauser/><ref>Haring, E., Riesing, M. J., Pinsker, W., & Gamauf, A. (1999). ''Evolution of a pseudo‐control region in the mitochondrial genome of Palearctic buzzards (genus Buteo)''. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 37(4), 185–194.</ref><ref>Voous, K. H., & Bijleveld, M. F. I. J. (1964). ''A note on Himalayan Buzzards, Buteo buteo (Aves)''. Beaufortia, 11(134), 37–43.</ref> Buzzards found on the islands of [[Cape Verde]] off of the coast of western Africa, once referred to as the subspecies ''B. b. bannermani'', and [[Socotra|Socotra Island]] off of the northern peninsula of [[Arabia]], once referred to as the rarely recognized subspecies ''B. b. socotrae'', are now generally thought not to belong to the common buzzard. DNA testing has indicated that these insular buzzards are actually more closely related to the [[long-legged buzzard]] (''Buteo rufinus'') than to the common buzzard. Subsequently, some researchers have advocated full species status for the Cape Verde population, but the placement of these buzzards is generally deemed unclear.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= James/><ref name="Clouet"/><ref>Aspinall, S. (2001). ''The Buteo population of Socotra''. Falco, 8.</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Buteo buteo 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|thumb|left|A dark individual from Europe]]
The common buzzard is a medium to large sized raptor that is highly variable in plumage. Most buzzards are distinctly round headed with a somewhat slender bill, relatively long wings that either reach or fall slightly short of the tail tip when perched, a fairly short tail, and somewhat short and mainly bare tarsi. They can appear fairly compact in overall appearance but may also appear large relative to other more common raptorial birds such as [[Eurasian kestrel|kestrels]] and [[Eurasian sparrowhawk|sparrowhawk]]s.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman>Forsman, D. (1999). ''The raptors of Europe and the Middle East: a handbook of field identification''. London: T & AD Poyser.</ref> The common buzzard measures between {{cvt|40|and|58|cm|ftin}} in length with a {{cvt|109|-|140|cm|ftin}} wingspan.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> Females average about 2–7% larger than males linearly and weigh about 15% more. Body mass can show considerable variation. Buzzards from [[Great Britain]] alone can vary from {{cvt|427|to|1183|g|lboz|0}} in males, while females there can range from {{cvt|486|to|1370|g|lboz|0}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=CRC>{{cite book |title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses |editor-first=John B. Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8493-4258-5}}</ref><ref name= delHoyo>{{cite book |editor-last = del Hoyo |editor-first = J. |editor2-last = Elliott |editor2-first = A. | editor3-last = Sargatal |editor3-first = J. |year = 1999 |title = Handbook of the Birds of the World |volume = 2 |publisher = Lynx Edicions |location = Barcelona |isbn = 978-84-87334-15-3|title-link = Handbook of the Birds of the World }}</ref>
[[File:Buteo buteo 4 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|thumb|right|A pale individual in Europe]]
In Europe, most typical buzzards are dark brown above and on the upperside of the head and mantle, but can become paler and warmer brown with worn plumage. The flight feathers on perched European buzzards are always brown in the nominate subspecies (''B. b. buteo''). Usually the tail will usually be narrowly barred grey-brown and dark brown with a pale tip and a broad dark subterminal band but the tail in palest birds can show a varying amount a white and reduced subterminal band or even appear almost all white. In European buzzards, the underside coloring can be variable but most typically show a brown-streaked white throat with a somewhat darker chest. A pale U across breast is often present; followed by a pale line running down the belly which separates the dark areas on breast-side and flanks. These pale areas tend to have highly variable markings that tend to form irregular bars. Juvenile buzzards are quite similar to adult in the nominate race, being best told apart by having a paler eye, a narrower subterminal band on the tail and underside markings that appear as streaks rather than bars. Furthermore, juveniles may show variable creamy to rufous fringes to upperwing coverts but these also may not be present. Seen from below in flight, buzzards in Europe typically have a dark trailing edge to the wings. If seen from above, one of the best marks is their broad dark subterminal tail band. Flight feathers of typical European buzzards are largely greyish, the aforementioned dark wing linings at front with contrasting paler band along the median coverts. In flight, paler individuals tend to show dark carpal patches that can appears as blackish arches or commas but these may be indistinct in darker individuals or can appear light brownish or faded in paler individuals. Juvenile nominate buzzards are best told apart from adults in flight by the lack of a distinct subterminal band (instead showing fairly even barring throughout) and below by having less sharp and brownish rather than blackish trailing wing edge. Juvenile buzzards show streaking paler parts of under wing and body showing rather than barring as do adults.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman/><ref name= Clark2>Clark, W. S. (1999). ''A field guide to the raptors of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa''. Oxford University Press, USA.</ref><ref name= Porter>Porter, R. F. (1981). ''Flight identification of European raptors''. A&C Black.</ref> Beyond the typical mid-range brownish buzzard, birds in Europe can range from almost uniform black-brown above to mainly white. Extreme dark individuals may range from chocolate brown to blackish with almost no pale showing but a variable, faded U on the breast and with or without faint lighter brown throat streaks. Extreme pale birds are largely whitish with variable widely spaced streaks or arrowheads of light brown about the mid-chest and flanks and may or may not show dark feather-centres on the head, wing-coverts and sometimes all but part of mantle. Individuals can show nearly endless variation of colours and hues in between these extremes and the common buzzard is counted among the most variably plumage diurnal raptors for this reason.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Dittrich, W. (1985). ''Gefiedervariationen beim Mäusebussard (Buteo buteo) in Nordbayern''. Journal für Ornithologie, 126(1), 93–97.</ref> One study showed that this variation may actually be the result of diminished [[Locus (genetics)|single-locus]] genetic diversity.<ref>Schreiber, A., Stubbe, A., & Stubbe, M. (2001). ''Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo): A raptor with hyperpolymorphic plumage morphs, but low allozyme heterozygosity''. Journal für Ornithologie, 142(1), 34–48.</ref>
[[File:Common-Buzzard.jpg|thumb|left|Although they can look compact when perched, buzzards may appear large and long-winged in flight.]]
Beyond the nominate form (''B. b. buteo'') that occupies most of the common buzzard's European range, a second main, widely distributed subspecies is known as the steppe buzzard (''B. b. vulpinus''). The steppe buzzard race shows three main colour morphs, each of which can be predominant in a region of breeding range. It is more distinctly [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphic]] rather than just individually very variable like the nominate race. This may be because, unlike the nominate buzzard, the steppe buzzard is highly migratory. Polymorphism has been linked with migratory behaviour.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Rohwer, S., & Paulson, D. R. (1987). ''The avoidance-image hypothesis and color polymorphism in Buteo hawks''. Ornis Scandinavica, 285–290.</ref> The most common type of steppe buzzard is the rufous morph which gives this subspecies its scientific name (''vulpes'' is Latin for "fox"). This morph comprises a majority of birds seen in passage east of the [[Mediterranean]]. Rufous morph buzzards are a paler grey-brown above than most nominate ''B. b. buteo''. Compared to the nominate race, rufous ''vulpinus'' show a patterning not dissimilar but generally far more rufous-toned on head, the fringes to mantle wing coverts and, especially, on the tail and the underside. The head is grey-brown with rufous tinges usually while the tail is rufous and can vary from almost unmarked to thinly dark-barred with a subterminal band. The underside can be uniformly pale to dark rufous, barred heavily or lightly with rufous or with dusky barring, usually with darker individuals showing the U as in nominate but with a rufous hue. The pale morph of the steppe buzzard is commonest in the west of its subspecies range, predominantly seen in winter and migration at the various land bridge of the Mediterranean. As in the rufous morph, the pale morph ''vulpinus'' is grey-brown above but the tail is generally marked with thin dark bars and a subterminal band, only showing rufous near the tip. The underside in the pale morph is greyish-white with dark grey-brown or somewhat streaked head to chest and barred belly and chest, occasionally showing darker flanks that can be somewhat rufous. Dark morph ''vulpinus'' tend to be found in the east and southeast of the subspecies range and are easily outnumbered by rufous morph while largely using similar migration points. Dark morph individuals vary from grey-brown to much darker blackish-brown, and have a tail that is dark grey or somewhat mixed grey and rufous, is distinctly marked with dark barring and has a broad, black subterminal band. Dark morph ''vulpinus'' have a head and underside that is mostly uniform dark, from dark brown to blackish-brown to almost pure black. Rufous morph juveniles are often distinctly paler in ground colour (ranging even to creamy-grey) than adults with distinct barring below actually increased in pale morph type juvenile. Pale and rufous morph juveniles can only be distinguished from each other in extreme cases. Dark morph juveniles are more similar to adult dark morph ''vulpinus'' but often show a little whitish streaking below, and like all other races have lighter coloured eyes and more evenly barred tails than adults. Steppe buzzards tend to appear smaller and more agile in flight than nominate whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. In flight, rufous morph ''vulpinus'' have their whole body and underwing varying from uniform to patterned rufous (if patterning present, it is variable, but can be on chest and often thighs, sometimes flanks, pale band across median coverts), while the under-tail usually paler rufous than above. Whitish flight feathers are more prominent than in nominate and more marked contrast with the bold dark brown band along the trailing edges. Markings of pale ''vulpinus'' as seen in flight are similar to rufous morph (such as paler wing markings) but more greyish both on wings and body. In dark morph ''vulpinus'' the broad black trailing edges and colour of body make whitish areas of inner wing stand out further with an often bolder and blacker carpal patch than in other morphs. As in nominate, juvenile ''vulpinus'' (rufous/pale) tend to have much less distinct trailing edges, general streaking on body and along median underwing coverts. Dark morph ''vulpinus'' resemble adult in flight more so than other morphs.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Clark2/><ref name= Porter/><ref name= Voous>Voous, K. H., Hens, P. A., & Van Marle, J. G. (1948). ''The distinguishing characters of the Steppe-Buzzard''. HF &G. Witherby.</ref>

===Similar species===
[[File:Forest Buzzard, Buteo trizonatus, at Hangklip Forest, Makhado, Limpopo Province, South Africa.jpg|thumb|Juvenile [[forest buzzard]]s of Africa are extremely easy to mistake for juvenile common buzzards of the steppe race that come to winter in Africa.]]
The common buzzard is often confused with other raptors especially in flight or at a distance. Inexperienced and over-enthusiastic observers have even mistaken darker birds for the far larger and differently proportioned [[golden eagle]] (''Aquila chrysaetos'') and also dark birds for [[western marsh harrier]] (''Circus aeruginosus'') which also flies in a dihedral but is obviously relatively much longer and slenderer winged and tailed and with far different flying methods. Also buzzards may possibly be confused with dark or light morph [[booted eagle]]s (''Hieraeetus pennatus''), which are similar in size, but the eagle flies on level, parallel-edged wings which usually appear broader, has a longer squarer tail, with no carpal patch in pale birds and all dark flight feathers but for whitish wedge on inner primaries in dark morph ones. Pale individuals are sometimes also mistaken with pale morph [[short-toed eagle]]s (''Circaetus gallicus'') which are much larger with a considerably bigger head, longer wings (which are usually held evenly in flight rather than in a dihedral) and paler underwing lacking any carpal patch or dark wing lining.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman/><ref name= Clark2/> More serious identification concerns lie in other ''Buteo'' species and in flight with [[Pernis (bird)|honey buzzard]]s, which are quite different looking when seen perched at close range. The [[European honey buzzard]] (''Pernis apivorus'') is thought to engage in [[batesian mimicry|mimicry]] of more powerful raptors, in particular, juveniles may mimic the plumage of the more powerful common buzzard.<ref>Duff, D. (2006). ''Has the juvenile plumage of Honey-buzzard evolved to mimic that of Common Buzzard?'' British Birds, 99, 118–128.</ref> While less individually variable in Europe, the honey buzzard is more extensively polymorphic on underparts than even the common buzzard. The most common morph of the adult European honey buzzard is heavily barred and rufous on the underside, quite different from the common buzzard, however the brownish juvenile much more resembles an intermediate common buzzard. Honey buzzards flap with distinctively slower and more even wing beats than common buzzards. The wings are also lifted higher on each upstroke, creating a more regular and mechanical effect, furthermore their wings are held slightly arched when soaring but not in a V-shape. On the honey buzzard, the head appears smaller, the body thinner, the tail longer and the wings narrower and more parallel-edged. The steppe buzzard race is particularly often mistaken for juvenile European honey buzzards, to the point where early observers of raptor migration in Israel considered distant individuals indistinguishable. However, when compared to a steppe buzzard, the honey buzzard has distinctly darker secondaries on the underwing with fewer and broader bars and more extensive black wing-tips (whole fingers) contrasting with a less extensively pale hand.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman/><ref name= Porter/> Found in the same range as the steppe buzzard in some parts of southern [[Siberia]] as well as (with wintering steppes) in southwestern [[India]], the [[Oriental honey buzzard]] (''Pernis ptilorhynchus'') is larger than both the European honey buzzard and the common buzzard. The Oriental species is more similar in body plan to common buzzards, being relatively broader winged, shorter tailed and more amply-headed (though the head is still relatively small) relative to the European honey buzzard, but all plumages lack carpal patches.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/>

In much of Europe, the common buzzard is the only species of ''Buteo'' present. However, the subarctic breeding [[rough-legged buzzard]] (''Buteo lagopus'') comes down to occupy much of the northern part of the continent during winter in the same haunts as the common buzzard. However, the rough-legged buzzard is typically larger and distinctly longer-winged with feathered legs, as well as having a white based tail with a broad subterminal band. Rough-legged buzzards have slower wing beats and hover far more frequently than do common buzzards. The carpal patch marking on the under-wing are also bolder and blacker on all paler forms of the rough-legged buzzard. Many pale morph rough-legged buzzards have a bold, blackish band across the belly against contrasting paler feathers, a feature which rarely appears in individual common buzzard. Usually the face also appears somewhat whitish in most pale morphs of rough-legged buzzards, which is true of only extremely pale common buzzards. Dark morph rough-legged buzzards are usually distinctly darker (ranging to almost blackish) than even extreme dark individuals of common buzzards in Europe and still have the distinct white-based tail and broad subterminal band of other roughlegs.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman/><ref name= Porter/> In [[eastern Europe]] and much of the Asian range of common buzzards, the [[long-legged buzzard]] (''Buteo rufinus'') may live alongside the common species. As in the steppe buzzard race, the long-legged buzzard has three main colour morphs that are more or less similar in hue. In both the steppe buzzard race and long-legged buzzard, the main colour is overall fairly rufous. More so than steppe buzzards, long-legged buzzards tend to have a distinctly paler head and neck compared to other feathers, and, more distinctly, a normally unbarred tail. Furthermore, the long-legged buzzard is usually a rather larger bird, often considered fairly [[eagle]]-like in appearance (although it does appear gracile and small-billed even compared to smaller true eagles), an effect enhanced by its longer tarsi, somewhat longer neck and relatively elongated wings. The flight style of the latter species is deeper, slower and more aquiline, with much more frequent hovering, showing a more protruding head and a slightly higher V held in a soar. The smaller [[North Africa]]n and [[Arabia]]n race of long-legged buzzard (''B. r. cirtensis'') is more similar in size and nearly all colour characteristics to steppe buzzard, extending to the heavily streaked juvenile plumage, in some cases such birds can be distinguished only by their proportions and flight patterns which remain unchanged.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Porter/> Hybridization with the latter race (''B. r. cirtensis'') and nominate common buzzards has been observed in the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], a few such birds have been reported potentially in the southern Mediterranean due to mutually encroaching ranges, which are blurring possibly due to climate change.<ref>Elorriaga, J., & Muñoz, A. R. (2013). ''Hybridisation between the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo buteo and the North African race of Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus cirtensis in the Strait of Gibraltar: prelude or preclude to colonisation?'' Ostrich, 84(1), 41–45.</ref>

Wintering steppe buzzards may live alongside [[mountain buzzard]]s and especially with [[forest buzzard]] while wintering in Africa. The juveniles of steppe and forest buzzards are more or less indistinguishable and only told apart by proportions and flight style, the latter species being smaller, more compact, having a smaller bill, shorter legs and shorter and thinner wings than a steppe buzzard. However, size is not diagnostic unless side by side as the two buzzards overlap in this regard. Most reliable are the species wing proportions and their flight actions. Forest buzzard have more flexible wing beats interspersed with glides, additionally soaring on flatter wings and apparently never engage in hovering. Adult forest buzzards compared to the typical adult steppe buzzard (rufous morph) are also similar, but the forest typically has a whiter underside, sometimes mostly plain white, usually with heavy blotches or drop-shaped marks on abdomen, with barring on thighs, more narrow tear-shaped on chest and more spotted on leading edges of underwing, usually lacking marking on the white U across chest (which is otherwise similar but usually broader than that of ''vulpinus''). In comparison, the mountain buzzard, which is more similar in size to the steppe buzzard and slightly larger than the forest buzzard, is usually duller brown above than a steppe buzzard and is more whitish below with distinctive heavy brown blotches from breasts to the belly, flanks and wing linings while juvenile mountain buzzard is buffy below with smaller and streakier markings. The steppe buzzard when compared to another African species, the [[red-necked buzzard]] (''Buteo auguralis''), which has red tail similar to ''vulpinus'', is distinct in all other plumage aspects despite their similar size. The latter buzzard has a streaky rufous head and is white below with a contrasting bold dark chest in adult plumage and, in juvenile plumage, has heavy, dark blotches on the chest and flanks with pale wing-linings. [[Jackal buzzard|Jackal]] and [[augur buzzard]]s (''Buteo rufofuscus'' & ''augur''), also both rufous on the tail, are larger and bulkier than steppe buzzards and have several distinctive plumage characteristics, most notably both having their own striking, contrasting patterns of black-brown, rufous and cream.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Forsman/><ref name= Steyn>Steyn, P. (1983). ''Birds of prey of southern Africa: Their identification and life histories''. Croom Helm, Beckenham (UK). 1983.</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Buteo buteo 1 (Lukasz Lukasik).jpg|thumb|left|Common buzzard often inhabit the interface of woods and open areas.]]
The common buzzard is found throughout several islands in the eastern Atlantic islands, including the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Azores]] and almost throughout Europe. It is today found in Ireland and in nearly every part of [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[England]]. In mainland Europe, remarkably, there are no substantial gaps without breeding common buzzards from [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] to [[Greece]], [[Estonia]], [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]], though are present mainly only in the breeding season in much of the eastern half of the latter three countries. They are also present in all larger [[Mediterranean]] islands such as [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], [[Sicily]] and [[Crete]]. Further north in [[Scandinavia]], they are found mainly in southeastern [[Norway]] (though also some points in southwestern Norway close to the coast and one section north of [[Trondheim]]), just over the southern half of [[Sweden]] and hugging over the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] to [[Finland]] where they live as a breeding species over nearly two-thirds of the land.

The common buzzard reaches its northern limits as a breeder in far eastern Finland and over the border to [[European Russia]], continuing as a breeder over to the narrowest straits of the [[White Sea]] and nearly to the [[Kola Peninsula]]. In these northern quarters, the common buzzard is present typically only in summer but is a year-around resident of a hearty bit of southern Sweden and some of southern Norway.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= BirdlifeEurope/> Outside of Europe, it is a resident of northern [[Turkey]] (largely close to the [[Black Sea]]) otherwise occurring mainly as a passage migrant or winter visitor in the remainder of Turkey, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], sporadically but not rarely in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]], northern [[Iran]] (largely hugging the [[Caspian Sea]]) to northern [[Turkmenistan]].<ref name="iucn" /> Further north though its absent from either side of the northern Caspian Sea, the common buzzard is found in much of western Russia (though exclusively as a breeder) including all of the [[Central Federal District]] and the [[Volga Federal District]], all but the northernmost parts of the [[Northwestern Federal District|Northwestern]] and [[Ural Federal District]]s and nearly the southern half of the [[Siberian Federal District]], its farthest easterly occurrence as a breeder. It also found in northern [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], far northwestern [[China]] ([[Tien Shan]]) and northwestern [[Mongolia]].<ref name="iucn" /><ref>Unwin, M. (2011). The atlas of birds: diversity, behavior, and conservation. Princeton University Press.</ref>

Non-breeding populations occur, either as migrants or wintering birds, in southwestern [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]] (northeastern), northern [[Tunisia]] (and far northwestern [[Algeria]]), northern [[Morocco]], near the coasts of [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]] and far southwestern [[Mauritania]] and [[Ivory Coast]] (and bordering [[Burkina Faso]]). In eastern and central Africa, it is found in winter from southeastern [[Sudan]], [[Eritrea]], about two-thirds of [[Ethiopia]],<ref name="Meheretu2019">{{cite book |last1=Meheretu Yonas |last2=Leirs |first2=H |title=Raptor perch sites for biological control of agricultural pest rodents. In: Nyssen J., Jacob, M., Frankl, A. (Eds.). Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |access-date=19 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308142516/https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 |url-status=live }}</ref> much of [[Kenya]] (though apparently absent from the northeast and northwest), [[Uganda]], southern and eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and more or less the entirety of southern Africa from [[Angola]] across to [[Tanzania]] down the remainder of the continent (but for an apparent gap along the coast from southwestern [[Angola]] to northwestern [[South Africa]]).<ref name="iucn" /><ref>Harrison, J. A., & Cherry, M. (1997). ''The atlas of southern African birds (Vol. 1)''. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.</ref><ref>Brown, L., Urban, E. K., Newman, K., Woodcock, M., & Hayman, P. (1982). ''The birds of Africa (Vol. 1, p. 521)''. London: Academic Press.</ref>

===Habitat===
The common buzzard generally inhabits the interface of [[woodland]]s and [[Open terrain|open grounds]]; most typically the species lives in [[Woodland edge|forest edge]], small woods or [[Windbreak|shelterbelts]] with adjacent [[grassland]], [[Arable land|arable]]s or other [[Agricultural land|farmland]]. It acquits to open [[moorland]] as long as there is some trees for perch hunting and nesting use. The woods they inhabit may be [[Temperate coniferous forest|coniferous]], [[temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]] and [[temperate deciduous forest]] with occasional preferences for the local dominant tree. It is absent from treeless [[tundra]], as well as the [[Subarctic]] where the species almost entirely gives way to the rough-legged buzzard.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> The common buzzard is sporadic or rare in treeless [[steppe]] but can occasionally migrate through it (despite its name, the steppe buzzard subspecies breeds primarily in the [[Woodland edge|wooded fringes]] of the steppe).<ref>Viter, S. G. (2019). ''Forestry Activities and Their Influence on the Raptor's Populations in the Southern Forest-Steppe Zone and Steppe Zone (on the Example of the Kharkiv Region of Ukraine)''. Raptors Conservation, 38.</ref> The species may be found to some extent in both in [[Montane ecosystems|mountainous]] or [[Upland and lowland|flat country]]. Although adaptable to and sometimes seen in [[wetland]]s and in [[coast]]al areas, buzzards are often considered more of an upland species and neither appear to be regularly attracted to or to strongly avoid bodies of waters in non-migratory times.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref>Kamarauskaitė, A., Skuja, S., & Treinys, R. (2019). ''Nesting habitat overlap between the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo and the Lesser Spotted Eagle Clanga pomarina for conservation planning in Natura 2000 sites''. Bird Study, 66(2), 224-233.</ref> Buzzards in well-wooded areas of eastern [[Poland]] largely used large, [[Old-growth forest|mature stands of trees]] that were more [[Humidity|humid]], richer and denser than prevalent in surrounding area, but showed preference for those within {{cvt|30|to|90|m}} of openings.<ref>Jȩdrzejewski, W., Jȩdrzejewska, B., & Keller, M. (1988). ''Nest site selection by the buzzard Buteo buteo L. in the extensive forests of eastern Poland''. Biological conservation, 43(2), 145–158.</ref> Mostly resident buzzards live in lowlands and [[foothill]]s, but they can live in timbered ridges and uplands as well as [[Rocky shore|rocky coasts]], sometimes nesting on cliff ledges rather than trees. Buzzards may live from sea level to elevations of {{cvt|2000|m}}, breeding mostly below {{cvt|1000|m}} but they can winter to an elevation of {{cvt|2500|m}} and migrates easily to {{cvt|4500|m}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> In the mountainous Italian [[Apennines]], buzzard nests were at a mean elevation of {{cvt|1399|m}} and were, relative to the surrounding area, further from [[Land development|human developed areas]] (i.e. roads) and nearer to [[valley]] bottoms in rugged, irregularly topographed places, especially ones that faced northeast.<ref>Penteriani, V. & Faivre, B. (1997). ''Habitat selection of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in a mountain area (Abruzzo Apennines, Italy)''. J. Raptor Res., 31(3), 208–212.</ref> Common buzzards are fairly adaptable to [[agricultural land]]s but can show regional declines in apparent response to agriculture. Changes to more extensive agricultural practices were shown to reduce buzzard populations in western [[France]] where reduction of "[[hedge]]rows, [[woodlot]]s and [[grassland]]s areas" caused a decline of buzzards and in [[Hampshire]], England where more extensive grazing by free-range [[cattle]] and [[horse]]s led to declines of buzzards, probably largely due to the seeming reduction of small [[mammal]] populations there.<ref>Butet, A., Michel, N., Rantier, Y., Comor, V., Hubert-Moy, L., Nabucet, J., & Delettre, Y. (2010). ''Responses of common buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) to land use changes in agricultural landscapes of Western France''. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 138(3–4), 152–159.</ref><ref>Tubbs, C. R., & Tubbs, J. M. (1985). ''Buzzards Buteo buteo and land use in the New Forest, Hampshire, England''. Biological Conservation, 31(1), 41–65.</ref> On the contrary, buzzards in central Poland adapted to removal of [[pine]] trees and reduction of rodent prey by changing nest sites and prey for a time with no strong change in their local numbers.<ref>Gryz, J., & Krauze-Gryz, D. (2019). ''The Common Buzzard Buteo buteo Population in a Changing Environment, Central Poland as a Case Study''. Diversity, 11(3), 35.</ref> Extensive [[urbanization]] seems to negatively affect buzzards, this species being generally less adaptable to urban areas than their New World counterparts, the [[red-tailed hawk]]. Although [[Peri-urbanisation|peri-urban areas]] can actually increase potential prey populations in a location at times, individual buzzard mortality, nest disturbances and nest site [[Habitat destruction|habitat degradation]] rises significantly in such areas.<ref>Palomino, D., & Carrascal, L. M. (2007). ''Habitat associations of a raptor community in a mosaic landscape of Central Spain under urban development''. Landscape and Urban Planning, 83(4), 268–274.</ref><ref name= Rooney2>Rooney, E., Reid, N., & Montgomery, W. I. (2015). ''Supplementary feeding increases Common Buzzard Buteo buteo productivity but only in poor‐quality habitat''. Ibis, 157(1), 181–185.</ref><ref>Stenkat, J., Krautwald-Junghanns, M. E., & Schmidt, V. (2013). ''Causes of morbidity and mortality in free-living birds in an urban environment in Germany''. Ecohealth, 10(4), 352–365.</ref> Common buzzards are fairly adaptive to [[rural area]]s as well as [[suburb]]an areas with [[park]]s and large [[garden]]s, in addition to such areas if they're near farms.<ref>Panuccio, M., Foschi, F., Todini, A., Baldi, A., Dominicis, N., De Filippis, P., & Palmeri, A. (2019). ''Better to stay downtown or in the countryside? Raptors wintering in urban and rural Protected Areas of Rome (Central Italy)''. Raptor Migration.</ref><ref>Vysochyn, M. O. (2019). ''Population dynamics and types of habitats at breeding sites of raptors (Falconiformes) of the Donetsk Ridge along a gradient of anthropogenic disturbance''. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 10(4), 464-469.</ref><ref>Kopij, G. (2018). ''Ecological distribution and population densities of raptors in the inner and outer zone of a Central European city''. Biological Bulletin of Bogdan Chmelnitskiy Melitopol State Pedagogical University, 8(1).</ref>

==Behaviour==
[[File:Buteo buteo -Scotland-8 (1).jpg|thumb|Buzzards spend much of their day perched.]]
The common buzzard is a typical ''Buteo'' in much of its behaviour. It is most often seen either soaring at varying heights or perched prominently on tree tops, bare branches, telegraph poles, fence posts, rocks or ledges, or alternately well inside tree canopies. Buzzards will also stand and forage on the ground. In resident populations, it may spend more than half of its day inactively perched. Furthermore, it has been described a "sluggish and not very bold" bird of prey.<ref name= Brown/><ref>Vergara, P. (2010). ''Time-of-day bias in diurnal raptor abundance and richness estimated by road surveys''. Revista Catalana d'Ornitologia, 26, 22–30.</ref> It is a gifted soarer once aloft and can do so for extended periods but can appear laborious and heavy in level flight, more so nominate buzzards than steppe buzzards.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> Particularly in migration, as was recorded in the case of steppe buzzards' movement over [[Israel]], buzzards readily adjust their direction, tail and wing placement and flying height to adjust for the surrounding environment and wind conditions.<ref>Spaar, R., & Bruderer, B. (1997). ''Optimal flight behavior of soaring migrants: a case study of migrating steppe buzzards, Buteo buteo vulpinus''. Behavioral Ecology, 8(3), 288–297.</ref> In Israel, migrant buzzards rarely soar all that high (maximum {{cvt|1000|-|2000|m}} above ground) due to the lack of mountain ridges that in other areas typically produce flyways; however tail-winds are significant and allow birds to cover a mean of {{convert|9.8|m/s|km/h mph ft/s|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Spaar>Spaar, R. (1995). ''Flight behavior of Steppe Buzzards (Buteo buteo vulpinus) during spring migration in southern Israel: a tracking-radar study''. Israel Journal of Zoology, 41(3), 489–500.</ref>

===Migration===
[[File:Israel. Steppe Buzzard (15626160697).jpg|thumb|left|A steppe buzzard migrating through [[Israel]], where buzzards have one of the largest raptor migrations in the world]]
The common buzzard is aptly described as a partial migrant.<ref>Porter, R. F., & Beaman, M. A. S. (1985). ''A resume of raptor migration in Europe and the Middle East. Conservation Studies on Raptors''. ICBP Technical Publication, 5, 237–242.</ref> The autumn and spring movements of buzzards are subject to extensive variation, even down to the individual level, based on a region's food resources, competition (both from other buzzards and other predators), extent of human disturbance and weather conditions. Short-distance movements are the norm for juveniles and some adults in autumn and winter, but more adults in central Europe and the British Isles remain on their year-around residence than do not.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Wuczyński>Wuczyński, A. (2003). ''Abundance of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in the Central European wintering ground in relation to the weather conditions and food supply''. Buteo, 13, 11–20.</ref> Even for first year juvenile buzzards dispersal may not take them very far. In [[England]], 96% of first-years moved in winter to less than {{cvt|100|km}} from their natal site.<ref>Walls, S. S., & Kenward, R. E. (1998). ''Movements of radio‐tagged Buzzards Buteo buteo in early life''. Ibis, 140(4), 561–568.</ref> Southwestern [[Poland]] was recorded to be a fairly important wintering grounds for central European buzzards in early spring that apparently travelled from somewhat farther north, in winter average density was a locally high 2.12 individual per square kilometer.<ref name= Wuczyński/> Habitat and prey availability seemed to be the primary drivers of habitat selection in fall for European buzzards. In northern [[Germany]], buzzards were recorded to show preferences in fall for areas fairly distant from nesting site, with a large quantity of vole-holes and more widely dispersed perches.<ref name= Schindler>Schindler, S., Hohmann, U., Probst, R., Nemeschkal, H. L., & Spitzer, G. (2012). ''Territoriality and habitat use of Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) during late autumn in northern Germany''. Journal of Raptor Research, 46(2), 149–157.</ref><ref>Schindler, S. (2002). ''Territoriality and habitat-use of wintering Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany'' (Doctoral dissertation).</ref> In [[Bulgaria]], the mean wintering density was 0.34 individual per square kilometer, and buzzards showed a preference for agricultural over forested areas.<ref>Nikolov, S., Spasov, S., & Kambourova, N. (2006). ''Density, number and habitat use of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) wintering in the lowlands of Bulgaria''. Buteo, 15, 39–47.</ref> Similar habitat preferences were recorded in northeastern [[Romania]], where buzzard density was 0.334–0.539 individuals per square kilometer.<ref>Baltag, E. S., Pocora, V., Sfica, L., & Bolboaca, L. E. (2013). ''Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) population during winter season in North-Eastern Romania: the influences of density, habitat selection, and weather''. Ornis Fennica, 90(3), 186.</ref> The nominate buzzards of [[Scandinavia]] are somewhat more strongly migratory than most central European populations. However, birds from [[Sweden]] show some variation in migratory behaviours. A maximum of 41,000 individuals have been recorded at one of the main migration sites within southern Sweden in [[Falsterbo]].<ref>Kjellén, N., & Roos, G. (2000). ''Population trends in Swedish raptors demonstrated by migration counts at Falsterbo, Sweden 1942–97''. Bird Study, 47(2), 195–211.</ref> In southern Sweden, winter movements and migration was studied via observation of buzzard colour. White individuals were substantially more common in southern Sweden rather than further north in their Swedish range. The southern population migrates earlier than intermediate to dark buzzards, in both adults and juveniles. A larger proportion of juveniles than of adults migrate in the southern population. Especially adults in the southern population are resident to a higher degree than more northerly breeders.<ref name= Kjellen>Kjellén, N. (1999). ''Different migration strategies among Swedish Common Buzzards Buteo buteo revealed by the proportion of white birds''. Ornis svecica, 9(1), 11–18.</ref>

The entire population of the steppe buzzard is strongly migratory, covering substantial distances during migration. In no part of the range do steppe buzzards use the same summering and wintering grounds. Steppe buzzards are slightly gregarious in migration, and travel in variously sized flocks. This race migrates in September to October often from [[Asia Minor]] to the [[Cape of Africa]] in about a month but does not cross water, following around the [[Winam Gulf]] of [[Lake Victoria]] rather than crossing the several kilometer wide gulf. Similarly, they will funnel along both sides of the [[Black Sea]]. Migratory behavior of steppe buzzards mirrors those of [[Broad-winged hawk|broad-winged]] & [[Swainson's hawk]]s (''Buteo platypterus'' & ''swainsoni'') in every significant way as similar long-distance migrating ''Buteos'', including trans-equatorial movements, avoidance of large bodies of waters and flocking behaviour.<ref name= Bildstein/><ref name= Brown/> Migrating steppe buzzards will rise up with the morning thermals and can cover an average of hundreds of miles a day using the available currents along mountain ridges and other topographic features. The spring migration for steppe buzzards peaks around March–April, but the latest ''vulpinus'' arrive in their breeding grounds by late April or early May. Distances covered by migrating steppe buzzards in one way flights from northern Europe (i.e. [[Finland]] or [[Sweden]]) to southern Africa have ranged over {{cvt|13000|km}} within a season .<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> For the steppe buzzards from eastern and northern Europe and western Russia (which compromise a majority of all steppe buzzards), peak migratory numbers occur in differing areas in autumn, when the largest recorded movements occurs through [[Asia Minor]] such as [[Turkey]], than in spring, when the largest recorded movement are to the south in the [[Middle East]], especially [[Israel]]. The two migratory movements barely differ overall until they reach the [[Middle East]] and east Africa, where the largest volume of migrants in autumn occurs at the southern part of the [[Red Sea]], around [[Djibouti]] and [[Yemen]], while the main volume in spring is in the northernmost strait, around [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]]. In autumn, numbers of steppe buzzards recorded in migration have ranged up to 32,000 (recorded 1971) in northwestern Turkey ([[Bosporus]]) and in northeastern Turkey (Black Sea) up to 205,000 (recorded 1976). Further down in migration, autumn numbers of up to 98,000 have been recorded in passage in [[Djibouti]].<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Panuccio, M., Duchi, A., Lucia, G., & Agostini, N. (2017). ''Species-specific behaviour of raptors migrating across the Turkish straits in relation to weather and geography''. Ardeola, 64(2), 305–325.</ref><ref>Porter, R., & Willis, I. (1968). ''The autumn migration of soaring birds at the Bosphorus''. Ibis, 110(4), 520–536.</ref> Between 150,000 and nearly 466,000 Steppe Buzzard have been recorded migrating through Israel during spring, making this not only the most abundant migratory raptor here but one of the largest raptor migrations anywhere in the world.<ref name= Spaar/><ref>Leshem, Y. (1985). ''Israel: an international axis of raptor migration''. ICBP Tech. Publ, 5, 243–250.</ref> Migratory movements of southern Africa buzzards largely occur along the major mountain ranges, such as the [[Drakensberg]] and [[Lebombo Mountains]].<ref name= Steyn/> Wintering steppe buzzards occur far more irregularly in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] than [[Cape Province|Cape region]] in winter.<ref>Schmitt, M. B., Baur, S., & Von Maltitz, F. (1980). Observations on the Steppe Buzzard in the Transvaal. Ostrich, 51(3), 151–159.</ref> The onset of migratory movement for steppe buzzards back to the breeding grounds in southern Africa is mainly in March, peaking in the second week.<ref name= Steyn/> Steppe buzzard molt their feathers rapidly upon arrival at wintering grounds and seems to split their flight feather molt between breeding ground in Eurasia and wintering ground in southern Africa, the molt pausing during migration.<ref name= Herremans>Herremans, M. (2000). ''The 'chaotic'flight feather moult of the Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus''. Bird Study, 47(3), 332–343.</ref> In last 50 years, it was recorded that nominate buzzards are typically migrating shorter distances and wintering further north, possibly in response to climate change, resulting in relatively smaller numbers of them at migration sites. They are also extending their breeding range possibly reducing/supplanting steppe buzzards.<ref name= Kjellen/><ref>Martín, B., Onrubia, A., & Ferrer, M. A. (2014). ''Effects of climate change on the migratory behavior of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo''. Climate Research, 60(3), 187–197.</ref><ref>Bensusan, K. J., Garcia, E. F., & Cortes, J. E. (2007). ''Trends in abundance of migrating raptors at Gibraltar in spring''. Ardea, 95(1), 83–91.</ref>

===Vocalizations===
Resident populations of common buzzards tend to vocalize all year around, whereas migrants tend to vocalize only during the breeding season. Both nominate buzzards and steppe buzzards (and their numerous related subspecies within their types) tend to have similar voices. The main call of the species is a plaintive, far-carrying ''pee-yow'' or ''peee-oo'', used as both contact call and more excitedly in aerial displays. Their call is sharper, more ringing when used in aggression, tends to be more drawn-out and wavering when chasing intruders, sharper, more yelping when as warning when approaching the nest or shorter and more explosive when called in alarm. Other variations of their vocal performances include a [[cat]]-like ''mew'', uttered repeatedly on the wing or when perched, especially in display; a repeated ''mah'' has been recorded as uttered by pairs answering each other, further chuckles and croaks have also been recorded at nests.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Fryer>Fryer, G. (1986). ''Notes on the breeding biology of the buzzard''. British Birds, 79(1), 18–28.</ref> Juveniles can usually be distinguished by the discordant nature of their calls compared to those of adults.<ref name= Walls>Walls, S. S., & Kenward, R. E. (2001). ''Spatial consequences of relatedness and age in buzzards''. Animal Behaviour, 61(6), 1069–1078.</ref>

==Dietary biology==
[[File:Heubach common buzzard.jpg|thumb|An illustration of a buzzard preying on a rodent]]
The common buzzard is a generalist predator which hunts a wide variety of prey given the opportunity. Their prey spectrum extents to a wide variety of vertebrates including [[mammal]]s, [[bird]]s (from any age from eggs to adult birds), [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s and, rarely, [[fish]], as well as to various [[invertebrate]]s, mostly [[insect]]s. Young animals are often attacked, largely the [[nidifugous]] young of various vertebrates. In total well over 300 prey species are known to be taken by common buzzards. Furthermore, prey size can vary from tiny [[beetle]]s, [[caterpillar]]s and [[ant]]s to large adult [[grouse]] and [[rabbit]]s up to nearly twice their body mass.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Redinov>Redinov, K.А. (2012). ''Trophic links of the Buzzard in Ukraine''. Russian Birds: 155–168.</ref><ref name = Selas>Selas, V., Tveiten, R., & Aanonsen, O. M. (2007). ''Diet of common buzzards (Buteo buteo) in southern Norway determined from prey remains and video recordings''. Ornis Fennica, 84(3), 97.</ref><ref name= Zuberogoitia>Zuberogoitia, I., Martínez, J. E., Martínez, J. A., Zabala, J., Calvo, J. F., Castillo, I., Azkona, A., Iraeta, A. & Hidalgo, S. (2006). ''Influence of management practices on nest site habitat selection, breeding and diet of the common buzzard Buteo buteo in two different areas of Spain''. Ardeola, 53(1), 83–98.</ref> Mean body mass of vertebrate prey was estimated at {{cvt|179.6|g}} in [[Belarus]].<ref name= Sidorovich>Sidorovich, A. A., Ivanovskij, V. V., Sidorovich, V. E., & Solovej, I. A. (2016). ''Landscape-related variation in the diet composition of the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in Belarus''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 10(1), 65–74.</ref> At times, they will also subsist partially on carrion, usually of dead mammals or fish.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> However, dietary studies have shown that they mostly prey upon small [[mammal]]s, largely small [[rodent]]s.<ref name="Meheretu2019"/> Like many temperate zone raptorial birds of varied lineages, [[vole]]s are an essential part of the common buzzard's diet. This bird's preference for the interface between woods and open areas frequently puts them in ideal vole habitat.<ref>Spidsø, T. K., & Selås, V. (1988). ''Prey selection and breeding success in the common buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to small rodent cycles in southern Norway''. Fauna Norvegica, Series C, 11(2), 61–66.</ref><ref name= Mebs>Mebs, T. (1964). ''Zur Biologie und Populationsdynamik des Mäusebussards (Buteo buteo)(Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Abhängigkeit vom Massenwechsel der Feldmaus Microtus arvalis)''. Journal für Ornithologie, 105(3), 247–306.</ref> Hunting in relatively open areas has been found to increase hunting success whereas more complete shrub cover lowered success.<ref name= Kenward>Kenward, R. E., Hall, D. G., Walls, S. S., & Hodder, K. H. (2001). ''Factors affecting predation by buzzards Buteo buteo on released pheasants Phasianus colchicus''. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38(4), 813–822.</ref> A majority of prey is taken by dropping from perch, and is normally taken on ground. Alternately, prey may be hunted in a low flight. This species tends not to hunt in a spectacular stoop but generally drops gently then gradually accelerate at bottom with wings held above the back. Sometimes, the buzzard also forages by random glides or soars over open country, wood edges or clearings. Perch hunting may be done preferentially but buzzards fairly regularly also hunt from a ground position when the habitat demands it. Outside the breeding season, as many 15–30 buzzards have been recorded foraging on ground in a single large field, especially juveniles. Normally the rarest foraging type is hovering. A study from Great Britain indicated that hovering does not seem to increase hunting success.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Sim>Sim, I. M. W., Cross, A. V., Lamacraft, D. L., & Pain, D. J. (2001). ''Correlates of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo density and breeding success in the West Midlands''. Bird Study, 48(3), 317–329.</ref>

===Mammals===
[[File:The Buzzard catched a mouse and flies away with his majestic wings - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|A buzzard with a freshly caught rodent, likely a [[vole]]]]
A high diversity of [[rodent]]s may be taken given the chance, as around 60 species of rodent have been recorded in the foods of common buzzards.<ref name= Redinov/><ref name= Selas/> It seems clear that [[vole]]s are the most significant prey type for European buzzards. Nearly every study from the continent makes reference to the importance, in particular, of the two most numerous and widely distributed European voles: the {{cvt|28.5|g}} [[common vole]] (''Microtus arvalis'') and the somewhat more northerly ranging {{cvt|40|g}} [[field vole]] (''Microtus agrestis'').<ref name= Halle>Halle, S. (1988). ''Avian predation upon a mixed community of common voles (Microtus arvalis) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus)''. Oecologia, 75(3), 451–455.</ref><ref name= Selas2>Selås, V. (2001). ''Predation on reptiles and birds by the common buzzard, Buteo buteo, in relation to changes in its main prey, voles''. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79(11), 2086–2093.</ref><ref>Andersson, M., & Erlinge, S. (1977). ''Influence of predation on rodent populations''. Oikos, 591–597.</ref> In southern [[Scotland]], field voles were the best-represented species in pellets, accounting for 32.1% of 581 pellets.<ref name= Graham>Graham, I. M., Redpath, S. M., & Thirgood, S. J. (1995). ''The diet and breeding density of Common Buzzards Buteo buteo in relation to indices of prey abundance''. Bird Study, 42(2), 165–173.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Francksen, R. M. |author2=Whittingham, M. J. | author3=Ludwig, S. C.|author4=Roos, S. | author5=Baines, D. | year=2017| title=Numerical and functional responses of Common Buzzards ''Buteo buteo'' to prey abundance on a Scottish grouse moor| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=541–553| doi=10.1111/ibi.12471| issue=3|bibcode=2017Ibis..159..541F | url=https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/fulltext.aspx?url=233076/02D1E945-B8B7-4AD7-8621-C52195C8ED4C.pdf&pub_id=233076}}</ref> In southern [[Norway]], field voles were again the main food in years with peak vole numbers, accounting for 40.8% of 179 prey items in 1985 and 24.7% of 332 prey items in 1994. Altogether, rodents amount to 67.6% and 58.4% of the foods in these respective peak vole years. However, in low vole population years, the contribution of rodents to the diet was minor.<ref name= Selas2/> As far west as the [[Netherlands]], common voles were the most regular prey, amounting to 19.6% of 6624 prey items in a very large study.<ref name= Bijlsma>Bijlsma, R. G. (2012). ''Reptielen als voer voor jonge Buizerds Buteo buteo''. De takkeling, 20(2), 133–144.</ref> Common voles were the main foods recorded in central [[Slovakia]], accounting for 26.5% of 606 prey items.<ref name= Sotnar>Šotnár, K., & Obuch, J. (2009). ''Feeding ecology of a nesting population of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in the Upper Nitra Region, Central Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 3, 13–20.</ref> The common vole, or other related vole species at times, were the main foods as well in [[Ukraine]] (17.2% of 146 prey items) ranging east to [[Russia]] in the [[Privolshky Les Nature Reserve|Privolshky Steppe Nature Reserve]] (41.8% of 74 prey items) and in [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] (21.4% of 183 prey items).<ref name= Redinov/> Other records from Russia and Ukraine show voles ranging from slightly secondary prey to as much as 42.2% of the diet.<ref name= Chernichko>Chernichko, I.I. & Davygora, A.V. (editors). (2012). ''Buzzards of North Eurasia: Distribution, Population Status, Biology''. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls of North Eurasia, Kryvyi Rih, 27–30 September 2012. – Kryvyi Rih: Press- 272 p.</ref> In [[Belarus]], voles, including ''Microtus'' species and {{cvt|18.4|g}} [[bank vole]]s (''Myodes glareolus''), accounted for 34.8% of the biomass on average in 1065 prey items from different study areas over 4 years.<ref name= Sidorovich/> At least 12 species of the genus ''[[Microtus]]'' are known to be hunted by common buzzards and even this is probably conservative, moreover similar species like [[lemming]]s will be taken if available.<ref name= Redinov/><ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Costa>Costa, A. S. C. (2017). ''Estudo da dieta de Águia-d'asa-redonda (Buteo buteo [Linnaeus, 1758]) e de Águia-calçada (Hieraaetus pennatus [Gmelin, 1788]) em montados de sobro do Alto-Alentejo'' (Doctoral dissertation).</ref>

Other rodents are taken largely opportunistically rather than by preference. Several [[Apodemus|wood mice]] (''Apodemus ssp.'') are known to be taken quite frequently but given their preference for activity in deeper woods than the field-forest interfaces preferred, they are rarely more than secondary food items.<ref name= Halle/><ref name= Selas2/> An exception was in [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] where the [[yellow-necked mouse]] (''Apodemus flavicollis''), one of the largest of its genus at {{cvt|28.4|g}}, made up 20.9%, putting it just behind the common vole in importance.<ref name= Redinov/> Similarly, [[tree squirrel]]s are readily taken but rarely important in the foods of buzzards in Europe, as buzzards apparently prefer to avoid taking prey from trees nor do they possess the agility typically necessary to capture significant quantities of tree squirrels.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Selas/><ref>McComb, A. M. (2004). ''Raptor Predation Attempts on Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis (Gmelin)''. The Irish Naturalists' Journal, 27(12), 483–484.</ref><ref>Lima, S. L., Valone, T. J., & Caraco, T. (1985). ''Foraging-efficiency-predation-risk trade-off in the grey squirrel''. Animal Behaviour, 33(1), 155–165.</ref> All four [[ground squirrel]]s that range (mostly) into eastern Europe are also known to be common buzzard prey but little quantitative analysis has gone into how significant such predator-prey relations are.<ref>Ramos-Lara, N., Koprowski, J. L., Kryštufek, B., & Hoffmann, I. E. (2014). ''Spermophilus citellus (Rodentia: sciuridae)''. Mammalian Species, 46(913), 71–87.</ref><ref>Matrosova, V. A., Schneiderová, I., Volodin, I. A., & Volodina, E. V. (2012). ''Species-specific and shared features in vocal repertoires of three Eurasian ground squirrels (genus Spermophilus)''. Acta Theriologica, 57(1), 65–78.</ref><ref>Makomaska-Juchiewicz, M., & Baran, P. (2012). ''Monitoring gatunków zwierząt''. Przewodnik metodyczny. Część III. GIOŚ, Warszawa, 292–496.</ref><ref name= Palomar>Palomar, C. J. P. (2005). ''El ratonero común (Buteo buteo insularum) en Fuerteventura, islas Canarias (Aves, Accipitridae)''. Vieraea, 33, 1–7.</ref> Rodent prey taken have ranged in size from the {{cvt|7.8|g}} [[Eurasian harvest mouse]] (''Micromys minutus'') to the non-native, {{cvt|1100|g|lb}} [[muskrat]] (''Ondatra zibethicus'').<ref name= Steiner>Steiner, H. (1999). ''Der Mäusebussard (Buteo buteo) als Indikator für Struktur und Bodennutzung des ländlichen Raumes: produktivität im heterogenen Habitat, Einfluß von Nahrung und Witterung und Vergleiche zum Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) (Vol. 62)''. Biologiezentrum des OÖ. Landesmuseums.</ref> Other rodents taken either seldom or in areas where the food habits of buzzards are spottily known include [[flying squirrel]]s, [[marmot]]s (presumably very young if taken alive), [[Siberian chipmunk|chipmunks]], [[Coypu|spiny rats]], [[hamster]]s, [[Blesmol|mole-rats]], [[Cape gerbil|gerbils]], [[Tristram's jird|jirds]] and [[Williams' jerboa|jerboa]]s and occasionally hearty numbers of [[dormice]], although these are nocturnal.<ref name= Herremans/><ref name= Sidorovich/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref>Åberg, B., & Hungate, F. P. (Eds.). (2013). ''Radioecological Concentration Processes: Proceedings of an International Symposium Held in Stockholm'', 25–29 April 1966. Elsevier.</ref><ref>Chapuis, J.L. (2006). ''Tamias sibiricus''. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories.</ref><ref name= Pinowski>Pinowski, J., & Ryszkowski, L. (1962). ''The Buzzard's versatility as a predator''. British Birds, 55, 470–475.</ref><ref>Toyran, K., & Albayrak, İ. (2009). ''Contribution to the Biological Characteristics of Allactaga williamsi Thomas, 1897 in Kırıkkale Province (Mammalia: Rodentia) ''. Uluslararası Doğa ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, (1), 13–17.</ref><ref>Nachtigall, W. (1996). ''Siebenschlafer (Glis glis; Mammalia: Rodentia: Gliridae) als Beute des Mausebussards (Buteo buteo, Aves: Falconiformes: Accipitridae)''. (Beitrage zur Saugetierfauna Sachsens, No. 1). Faunistische Abhandlungen, 20: 320.</ref> Surprisingly little research has gone into the diets of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa, considering their numerous status there. However, it has been indicated that the main prey remains consist of rodents such as the [[four-striped grass mouse]] (''Rhabdomys pumilio'') and [[Cape mole-rat]]s (''Georychus capensis'').<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Gwynn>Gwynn, L. (2015). ''The identity, origin, and impact of a 'new' buzzard species breeding in South Africa'' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Town).</ref>

Other than rodents, two other groups of mammals can be counted as significant to the diet of common buzzards. One of these main prey types of import in the diets of common buzzards are [[Leporidae|leporids]] or [[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]], especially the [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') where it is found in numbers in a wild or feral state. In all dietary studies from Scotland, rabbits were highly important to the buzzard's diet. In southern Scotland, rabbits constituted 40.8% of remains at nests and 21.6% of pellet contents, while lagomorphs (mainly rabbits but also some young [[hare]]s) were present in 99% of remains in [[Moray]], Scotland. The nutritional richness relative to the commonest prey elsewhere, such as voles, might account for the high productivity of buzzards here. For example, clutch sizes were twice as large on average where rabbits were common (Moray) than were where they were rare ([[Glen Urquhart]]).<ref name= Graham/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Swan>Swan, G. (2011). ''Spatial variation in the breeding success of the common buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to habitat type and diet'' (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Life Sciences, Silwood Park, Imperial College London).</ref> In northern [[Ireland]], an area of interest because it is devoid of any native [[vole]] species, rabbits were again the main prey. Here, lagomorphs constituted 22.5% of prey items by number and 43.7% by biomass.<ref name= Rooney>Rooney, E., & Montgomery, W. I. (2013). ''Diet diversity of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in a vole-less environment''. Bird Study, 60(2), 147–155.</ref> While rabbits are non-native, albeit long-established, in the British Isles, in their native area of the [[Iberian peninsula]], rabbits are similarly significant to the buzzard's diet. In [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]], Spain, rabbits were the most common mammal in the diet, making up 16.8% of 167 prey items.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> In a large study from northeastern Spain, rabbits were dominant in the buzzard's foods, making up 66.5% of 598 prey items.<ref name= Manosa/> In the [[Netherlands]], European rabbits were second in number (19.1% of 6624 prey items) only to common voles and the largest contributor of biomass to nests (36.7%).<ref name= Bijlsma/> Outside of these (at least historically) rabbit-rich areas, [[Hare|leverets]] of the common hare species found in Europe can be important supplemental prey. [[European hare]] (''Lepus europaeus'') were the fourth most important prey species in central [[Poland]] and the third most significant prey species in [[Stavropol Krai]], Russia.<ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Pinowski/> Buzzards normally attack the young of European rabbits and hares. Most of the rabbits taken by buzzard variously been estimated from {{cvt|159|to|550|g}}, and infrequently up to {{cvt|700|g|lb}} in weight.<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Manosa/><ref name= Rooney/><ref name= Swann/><ref name = walls.>Walls, Sean, and Robert Kenward. The common buzzard. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020.</ref> Similarly, in different areas and the mean weight of [[European hare|brown hares]] taken in Finland was around {{cvt|500|g|lb}}.<ref name= Reif>Reif, V., Tornberg, R., Jungell, S., & Korpimäki, E. (2001). ''Diet variation of common buzzards in Finland supports the alternative prey hypothesis''. Ecography, 24(3), 267–274.</ref> One young [[mountain hare]]s (''Lepus timidus'') taken in Norway was estimated to about {{cvt|1000|g|lb}}.<ref name= Selas/> However, common buzzards are known to kill adult rabbits at times.<ref name = walls./> This can be supported by remains of relatively large-sized tarsus bones of the rabbit, up to 64mm in length.<ref name= Manosa/><ref>Tobajas, Jorge, et al. "Does prey abundance affect prey size selection by the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)?." Journal of Ornithology 162.3 (2021): 699-708.</ref>

The other significant mammalian prey type is [[Eulipotyphla|insectivores]], among which more than 20 species are known to be taken by this species, including nearly all the species of [[shrew]], [[Mole (animal)|mole]] and [[hedgehog]] found in Europe. Moles are taken particularly often among this order, since as is the case with "vole-holes", buzzards probably tend to watch molehills in fields for activity and dive quickly from their perch when one of the subterranean mammals pops up.<ref>Skierczyński, M. (2006). ''Food niche overlap of three sympatric raptors breeding in an agricultural landscape in Western Pomerania region of Poland''.</ref> The most widely found mole in the buzzard's northern range is the {{cvt|98|g}} [[European mole]] (''Talpa europaea'') and this is one of the more important non-rodent prey items for the species. This species was present in 55% of 101 remains in [[Glen Urquhart]], Scotland and was the second most common prey species (18.6%) in 606 prey items in [[Slovakia]].<ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Swann>Swann, R. L., & Etheridge, B. (1995). ''A comparison of breeding success and prey of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo in two areas of northern Scotland''. Bird Study, 42(1), 37–43.</ref> In [[Bari]], Italy, the [[Roman mole]] (''Talpa romana''), of similar size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet.<ref name= Scillitani>Scillitani, G. (1999). ''Dieta della poiana, Buteo buteo (L., 1758) in provincia di Bari''. Avocetta, 23: 169.</ref> The full-size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the {{cvt|1.8|g}} [[Etruscan shrew]] (''Suncus etruscus'') to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the {{cvt|800|g}} [[European hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus europaeus'').<ref name= Swann/><ref name= Manosa>Manosa, S. & Cordero, P.J. (1992). ''SEASONAL AND SEXUAL VARIATION IN THE DIET OF THE COMMON BUZZARD IN NORTHEASTERN SPAIN''. J. Raptor Res., 26(4), 235–238.</ref> Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs is rarely taken. Occasionally, some [[weasel]]s such as [[least weasel]] (''Mustela nivalis'') and [[stoat]] (''Mustela erminea'') are taken, and remains of young [[pine marten]]s (''Martes martes'') and adult [[european polecat]]s (''Mustela putorius'') was found in buzzard nest.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Graham/><ref>Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). ''Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits''. Oikos, 205–215.</ref><ref name = Francksen>Francksen, R. M., Whittingham, M. J., & Baines, D. (2016). ''Assessing prey provisioned to Common Buzzard Buteo buteo chicks: a comparison of methods''. Bird Study, 63(3), 303–310.</ref> Numerous larger mammals, including medium-sized carnivores such as [[dog]]s, [[cat]]s and [[Red fox|fox]]es and various [[ungulate]]s, are sometimes eaten as carrion by buzzards, mainly during lean winter months. Still-borns of [[deer]] are also visited with some frequency.<ref name= Sidorovich/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Palomar/><ref>Selva, N., Jedrzejewska, B., Jedrzejewski, W., & Wajrak, A. (2003). ''Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza primeval forest (eastern Poland)''. Ecoscience, 10(3), 303–311.</ref>

===Birds===
[[File:Crow attacking Buzzard - Woburn Safari Park (4552169984).jpg|thumb|right|A [[Carrion crow|crow]] mobs a buzzard. Buzzards will readily prey on crows, especially their fledglings.]]
When attacking birds, common buzzards chiefly prey on nestlings and fledglings of small to medium-sized birds, largely [[passerine]]s but also a variety of [[Galliformes|gamebirds]], but sometimes also injured, sickly or unwary but healthy adults. While capable of overpowering birds larger than itself, the common buzzard is usually considered to lack the agility necessary to capture many adult birds, even gamebirds which would presumably be weaker fliers considering their relatively heavy bodies and small wings.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> The amount of fledgling and younger birds preyed upon relative to adults is variable, however. For example, in the [[Alps|Italian Alps]], 72% of birds taken were fledglings or recently fledged juveniles, 19% were nestlings and 8% were adults.<ref name= Sergio>Sergio, F., Boto, A., Scandolara, C., & Bogliani, G. (2002). ''Density, nest sites, diet, and productivity of Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in the Italian pre-Alps''. Journal of Raptor Research, 36(1), 24–32.</ref> On the contrary, in southern [[Scotland]], even though the buzzards were taking relatively large bird prey, largely [[red grouse]] (''Lagopus lagopus scotica''), 87% of birds taken were reportedly adults.<ref name= Graham/> In total, as in many raptorial birds that are far from bird-hunting specialists, birds are the most diverse group in the buzzard's prey spectrum due to the sheer number and diversity of birds, few raptors do not hunt them at least occasionally. Nearly 150 species of bird have been identified in the common buzzard's diet. In general, despite many that are taken, birds usually take a secondary position in the diet after mammals.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Chernichko/> In northern [[Scotland]], birds were fairly numerous in the foods of buzzards. The most often recorded avian prey and 2nd and 3rd most frequent prey species (after only field voles) in [[Glen Urquhart]], were {{cvt|23.9|g}} [[chaffinch]] (''Fringilla coelebs'') and {{cvt|18.4|g}} [[meadow pipit]]s (''Anthus pratensis''), with the buzzards taking 195 fledglings of these species against only 90 adults. This differed from [[Moray]] where the most frequent avian prey and 2nd most frequent prey species behind the rabbit was the {{cvt|480|g}} [[common wood pigeon]] (''Columba palumbus'') and the buzzards took four times as many adults relative to fledglings.<ref name= Swann/>

Birds were the primary food for common buzzards in the [[Alps|Italian Alps]], where they made up 46% of the diet against mammal which accounted for 29% in 146 prey items. The leading prey species here were {{cvt|103|g}} [[Eurasian blackbird]]s (''Turdus merula'') and {{cvt|160|g}} [[Eurasian jay]]s (''Garrulus glandarius''), albeit largely fledglings were taken of both.<ref name= Sergio/> Birds could also take the leading position in years with low vole populations in southern [[Norway]], in particular [[thrush (bird)|thrush]]es, namely the blackbird, the {{cvt|67.7|g}} [[song thrush]] (''Turdus philomelos'') and the {{cvt|61|g}} [[redwing]] (''Turdus iliacus''), which were collectively 22.1% of 244 prey items in 1993.<ref name= Selas2/> In southern Spain, birds were equal in number to mammals in the diet, both at 38.3%, but most remains were classified as "unidentified medium-sized birds", although the most often identified species of those that apparently could be determined were Eurasian jays and [[red-legged partridge]]s (''Alectoris rufa'').<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> Similarly, in northern [[Ireland]], birds were roughly equal in import to mammals but most were unidentified [[corvid]]s.<ref name= Rooney/> In [[Seversky Donets]], Ukraine, birds and mammals both made up 39.3% of the foods of buzzards.<ref name= Chernichko/> Common buzzards may hunt nearly 80 species passerines and nearly all available gamebirds. Like many other largish raptors, gamebirds are attractive to hunt for buzzards due to their ground-dwelling habits. Buzzards were the most frequent predator in a study of juvenile pheasants in England, accounting for 4.3% of 725 deaths (against 3.2% by [[Red fox|foxes]], 0.7% by [[owl]]s and 0.5% by other mammals).<ref name= Kenward/><ref>Parrott, D. (2015). ''Impacts and management of common buzzards Buteo buteo at pheasant Phasianus colchicus release pens in the UK: a review''. European journal of wildlife research, 61(2), 181–197.</ref> They also prey on a wide size range of birds, ranging down to Europe's smallest bird, the {{cvt|5.2|g}} [[goldcrest]] (''Regulus regulus'').<ref name= CRC2/><ref name= Selas2/> Very few individual birds hunted by buzzards weigh more than {{cvt|500|g|lb}}. However, there have been some particularly large avian kills by buzzards, including any that weigh more or {{cvt|1000|g|lb}}, or about the largest average size of a buzzard, have including adults of [[mallard]] (''Anas platyrhynchos''), [[black grouse]] (''Tetrao tetrix''), [[ring-necked pheasant]] (''Phasianus colchicus''), [[common raven]] (''Corvus corax'') and some of the larger [[gull]]s if ambushed on their nests. The largest avian kill by a buzzard, and possibly largest known overall for the species, was an adult female [[western capercaillie]] (''Tetrao urogallus'') that weighed an estimated {{cvt|1985|g|lb}}.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Graham/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Swann/> At times, buzzards will hunt the young of large birds such as [[Grey heron|herons]] and [[Black-necked crane|cranes]].<ref>Boonman, M. & de Vrieslaan, H. (1992). ''[Buzzard Buteo buteo examines a nest of a Grey Heron Ardea cinerea]''. Limosa, 65: 29–30.</ref><ref>[[Paul Johnsgard|Johnsgard, P. A.]] (1983). ''Cranes of the World: Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis)''. Cranes of the World, by Paul Johnsgard, Vol. 5.</ref> Other assorted avian prey has included a few species of [[waterfowl]], most available [[Columbiformes|pigeons and doves]], [[Common cuckoo|cuckoos]], [[Plain swift|swifts]], [[Little grebe|grebes]], [[Rail (bird)|rails]], nearly 20 assorted [[Charadriiformes|shorebirds]], [[Procellariiformes|tubenoses]], [[Eurasian hoopoe|hoopoes]], [[European bee-eater|bee-eaters]] and several types of [[woodpecker]]. Birds with more conspicuous or open nesting areas or habits are more likely to have fledglings or nestlings attacked, such as water birds, while those with more secluded or inaccessible nests, such as pigeons/doves and woodpeckers, adults are more likely to be hunted.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Palomar/><ref name= Swann/><ref>Monteiro, L. R., & Furness, R. W. (1998). ''Speciation through temporal segregation of Madeiran storm petrel (Oceanodroma castro) populations in the Azores?'' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 353(1371), 945–953.</ref><ref>Ramos, J. A., Moniz, Z., Solá, E., & Monteiro, L. R. (2003). ''Reproductive measures and chick provisioning of Cory's Shearwater Calonectris diomedea borealis in the Azores''. Bird Study, 50(1), 47–54.</ref><ref>Hoi, H., Hoi, C., Kristofik, J., & Darolova, A. (2002). ''Reproductive success decreases with colony size in the European bee-eater''. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 14(2), 99–110.</ref>

===Reptiles and amphibians===
[[File:Buzzard caught a western whip snake but flew away and lost his prey, so I could take a photo of the snake.jpg|thumb|A buzzard that caught a large [[green whip snake]] but was flushed from its catch]]
[[File:Steppe Buzzard, Armenia imported from iNaturalist photo 3325336.jpg|thumb|A steppe buzzard (''B. b. vulpinus'') with a [[Lacerta media|medium lizard]] prey in [[Armenia]]]]
The common buzzard may be the most regular avian predator of reptiles and amphibians in Europe apart from the sections where they are sympatric with the largely snake-eating [[short-toed eagle]].<ref>Martin, J. (1990). ''Amphibians and reptiles as prey of birds in southwestern Europe''. Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service.</ref> In total, the prey spectrum of common buzzards include nearly 50 herpetological prey species. In studies from northern and southern Spain, the leading prey numerically were both reptilian, although in [[Biscay]] (northern Spain) the leading prey (19%) was classified as "unidentified snakes". In [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]], the most numerous prey was the {{cvt|77.2|g}} [[ocellated lizard]] (''Timon lepidus''), at 32.9%. In total, at Biscay and Murcia, reptiles accounted for 30.4% and 35.9% of the prey items, respectively. Findings were similar in a separate study from northeastern Spain, where reptiles amounted to 35.9% of prey.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Manosa/><ref>Bustamante, J. (1985). ''Alimentación del ratonero común (Buteo buteo, L. 1758) en el Norte de Espana''. Donana, Acta Vertebrata, 12, 51–62.</ref> In [[Bari]], Italy, reptiles were the main prey, making up almost exactly half of the biomass, led by the large [[green whip snake]] (''Hierophis viridiflavus''), at 24.2% of food mass.<ref name= Scillitani/> In [[Stavropol Krai]], Russia, the {{cvt|20|g}} [[sand lizard]] (''Lacerta agilis'') was the main prey at 23.7% of 55 prey items.<ref name= Chernichko/> The {{cvt|16|g}} [[Anguis fragilis|slowworm]] (''Anguis fragilis''), a legless lizard, became the most numerous prey for the buzzards of southern Norway in low vole years, amounting to 21.3% of 244 prey items in 1993 and were also common even in the peak vole year of 1994 (19% of 332 prey items).<ref name= Selas2/> More or less any snake in Europe is potential prey and the buzzard has been known to be uncharacteristically bold in going after and overpowering large snakes such as [[Elaphe|rat snake]]s, ranging up to nearly {{cvt|1.5|m}} in length, and healthy, large [[Vipera|vipers]] despite the danger of being struck by such prey.<ref name= Selas2/><ref>Meek, R. (2013). ''Post hibernation movements in an aspic viper, Vipera aspis''. Herpetological Bulletin, 125, 22–24.</ref><ref>Ettling, J. A., Aghasyan, L. A., Aghasyan, A. L., & Parker, P. G. (2013). ''Spatial ecology of Armenian Vipers, Montivipera raddei, in a human-modified landscape''. Copeia, 2013(1), 64–71.</ref><ref>Spellerberg, I. F. (1975). ''The grass snake in Britain''. Oryx, 13(2), 179–184.</ref> However, in at least one case, the corpse of a female buzzard was found envenomed over the body of an [[European adder|adder]] that it had killed.<ref>Guthrie, J. E. (1932). ''Snakes versus birds; birds versus snakes''. The Wilson Bulletin, 44(2), 88–113.</ref> In some parts of range, the common buzzard acquires the habit of taking many frogs and toads.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> This was the case in the [[Mogilev Region]] of [[Belarus]] where the {{cvt|23|g}} [[moor frog]] (''Rana arvalis'') was the major prey (28.5%) over several years, followed by other frogs and toads amounting to 39.4% of the diet over the years.<ref name= Chernichko/> In central [[Scotland]], the {{cvt|46|g}} [[common toad]] (''Bufo bufo'') was the most numerous prey species, accounting for 21.7% of 263 prey items, while the [[common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'') made up a further 14.7% of the diet.<ref name= Swan/> Frogs made up about 10% of the diet in central [[Poland]] as well.<ref name= Pinowski/>

===Invertebrates and other prey===
When common buzzards feed on invertebrates, these are chiefly [[earthworm]]s, [[beetle]]s and [[caterpillar]]s in Europe and largely seemed to be preyed on by juvenile buzzards with less refined hunting skills or in areas with mild winters and ample swarming or social insects. In most dietary studies, invertebrates are at best a minor supplemental contributor to the buzzard's diet.<ref name= Cramp/><ref name= Sotnar/> Nonetheless, roughly a dozen beetle species have found in the foods of buzzards from [[Ukraine]] alone.<ref name= Redinov/> In winter in northeastern Spain, it was found that the buzzards switched largely from the vertebrate prey typically taken during spring and summer to a largely [[insect]]-based diet. Most of this prey was unidentified but the most frequently identified were [[European mantis]] (''Mantis religiosa'') and [[European mole cricket]] (''Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa'').<ref name= Manosa/> In [[Ukraine]], 30.8% of the food by number was found to be [[insect]]s.<ref name= Redinov/> Especially in winter quarters such as southern Africa, common buzzards are often attracted to swarming [[locust]]s and other orthopterans.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> In this way the steppe buzzard may mirror a similar long-distance migrant from the Americas, the [[Swainson's hawk]], which feeds its young largely on nutritious vertebrates but switches to a largely insect-based once the reach their distant wintering grounds in [[South America]].<ref name= Bildstein/> In [[Eritrea]], 18 returning migrant steppe buzzards were seen to feed together on swarms of [[grasshopper]]s.<ref>Ash, C. P., & Atkins, J. D. (2009). ''Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: an atlas of distribution''. A&C Black.</ref> For wintering steppe buzzards in [[Zimbabwe]], one source went so far as to refer to them as primarily insectivorous, apparently being somewhat locally specialized to feeding on [[termite]]s.<ref>Irwin, M. P. S. (1981). ''The birds of Zimbabwe''. Quest Pub.</ref> Stomach contents in buzzards from [[Malawi]] apparently consisted largely of [[grasshopper]]s (alternately with [[lizard]]s).<ref>Long, R. C. (1960). ''The birds of the Port Herald District.(Part I)''. Ostrich, 31(3), 85–104.</ref> [[Fish]] tend to be the rarest class of prey found in the common buzzard's foods. There are a couple cases of predation of fish detected in the [[Netherlands]], while elsewhere they have been known to have fed upon [[European eel|eels]] and [[Common carp|carp]].<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref>Neuvel, J. & Winters, B. (1987). ''[Buzzard Buteo buteo eats eel]''. Limosa, 60: 149.</ref><ref>Maczkowski, K. & Tryjanowski, P. (1993). ''Carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the food of buzzard (Buteo buteo)''. Przeglad Przyrodniczy, 42: 76.</ref>

===Interspecies predatory relationships===
[[File:White-tailed Eagle with 2 Buzzards.jpg|thumb|A juvenile [[white-tailed eagle]] being [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbed]] by a pair of common buzzards over the [[Canna, Scotland|Isle of Canna]], as the eagle will sometimes prey on the buzzard]]
Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds. There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent. Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey. Some of the most similar species by diet are the [[common kestrel]] (''Falco tinniculus''), [[hen harrier]] (''Circus cyaenus'') and [[lesser spotted eagle]] (''Clanga clanga''), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer [[rodent]]s such as [[vole]]s in their diets.<ref>Davis, T. A. W. (1960). ''Kestrel pellets at a winter roost''. Brit. Birds, 53(7), 281–284.</ref><ref>Redpath, S. M., Clarke, R., Madders, M., & Thirgood, S. J. (2015). ''Assessing raptor diet: comparing pellets, prey remains, and observational data at hen harrier nests''.</ref><ref>Lohmus, A., & Väli, Ü. (2004). ''The effects of habitat quality and female size on the productivity of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina in the light of the alternative prey hypothesis''. Journal of Avian Biology, 35(5), 455–464.</ref><ref>Meunier, F. D., Verheyden, C., & Jouventin, P. (2000). ''Use of roadsides by diurnal raptors in agricultural landscapes''. Biological Conservation, 92(3), 291–298.</ref><ref name= Bergman>Bergman, G. (1961). ''The food of birds of prey and owls in Fenno-Scandia''. British Birds, 54, 307–320.</ref> Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') in [[Poland]], with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic. Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here.<ref>Jankowiak, L., & Tryjanowski, P. (2013). ''Cooccurrence and food niche overlap of two common predators (red fox Vulpes vulpes and common buzzard Buteo buteo) in an agricultural landscape''. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 37(2), 157–162.</ref> The only other widely found European ''Buteo'', the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards. It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably. Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer [[Apodemus|wood mice]] than common buzzard. Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds. The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics. In northern [[Germany]], the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species.<ref>Sylven, M. (1978). ''Interspecific relations between sympatrically wintering Common Buzzards Buteo buteo and Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus''. Ornis Scandinavica, 197–206.</ref><ref name="Schindler"/> Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and [[long-legged buzzard]]s where they co-exist. However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as [[Spalax|blind mole-rat]]s, [[ground squirrel]]s, [[hamster]]s and [[Meriones (genus)|gerbils]], from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.<ref>Kassinis, N. (2009). ''Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus rufinus breeding distribution and abundance in Cyprus''. Avocetta, 33, 75–78.</ref><ref>Bakaloudis, D. E., Iezekiel, S., Vlachos, C. G., Bontzorlos, V. A., Papakosta, M., & Birrer, S. (2012). ''Assessing bias in diet methods for the Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus''. Journal of Arid Environments, 77, 59–65.</ref>

A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis''). Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks. Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant. In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks. The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard.<ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Analysis of nest occupancy and nest reproduction in two sympatric raptors: common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis''. Ecography, 25(5), 523–532.</ref><ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Interactions between common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis: trade‐offs revealed by a field experiment''. Oikos, 96(3), 441–452.</ref><ref>Taylor, K., Hudson, R., & Horne, G. (1988). ''Buzzard breeding distribution and abundance in Britain and Northern Ireland in 1983''. Bird Study, 35(2), 109–118.</ref> In many cases, in [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves.<ref>Kostrzewa, A. (1991). ''Interspecific interference competition in three European raptor species''. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 3(2), 127–143.</ref><ref name= Hakkarainen>Hakkarainen, H., Mykrä, S., Kurki, S., Tornberg, R., & Jungell, S. (2004). ''Competitive interactions among raptors in boreal forests''. Oecologia, 141(3), 420–424.</ref> In [[Poland]], buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10 to 80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}} against goshawk 1.63 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}}.<ref>Goszczyński, J. (1997). ''Density and productivity of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis populations in Rogów, Central Poland''. Acta Ornithologica, 32(2), 149–155.</ref> In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the [[red-tailed hawk]] (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there. Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility. Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter).<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Angela E. |last1=Gatto|first2=Teryl G. |last2=Grubb |first3=Carol L.|last3= Chambers |year=2006 |title=Red-tailed Hawk dietary overlap with Northern Goshawks on the Kaibab Plateau, Arizona |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=439–444 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54211}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Boal, C. W. |year=2005|title=Productivity and mortality of northern goshawks in Minnesota|journal=J. Raptor Res.|volume= 39|issue=3|pages= 222–228|bibcode=2005JRapR..39..222B |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54189}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Luttich, S., Rusch, D. H., Meslow, E. C., & Keith, L. B. |title=Ecology of Red-Tailed Hawk Predation in Alberta|journal=Ecology|volume=51|issue=2|pages=190–203|doi=10.2307/1933655|jstor=1933655|year=1970|bibcode=1970Ecol...51..190L }}</ref> Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests. Species such as the [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans''), [[booted eagle]] (''Hieraeetus pennatus'') and the [[lesser spotted eagle]] have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves. The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual. More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to [[owl]]s and [[falcon]]s, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using.<ref name= Sergio/><ref name= Costa/><ref>Sergio, F., & Boto, A. (1999). ''Nest dispersion, diet, and breeding success of Black Kites (Milvus migrans) in the Italian pre-Alps''. Journal of Raptor Research, 33, 207–217.</ref><ref>Meyburg, B. U. (1973). ''Studies of less familiar birds: 172. Lesser Spotted Eagle''. British Birds.</ref> Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as [[common raven]]s, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards.<ref name="Moore, N. W. 1957">Moore, N. W. (1957). ''The past and present status of the Buzzard in the British Isles''. British Birds, 50, 173–197.</ref> In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus'') were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards.<ref>Dixon, N., & Gibbs, A. (2018). ''Extreme territorial aggression by urban Peregrine Falcons toward Common Buzzards in South-West England''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(2), 232-242.</ref> Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as [[red kite]]s (''Milvus milvus'') and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.<ref name= Hakkarainen/><ref>O'Connor, T. P. (1993). ''Birds and the scavenger niche''. Archaeofauna, (2).</ref>
[[File:Rupfung eines Mäusebussard.jpg|thumb|left|The remains of a common buzzard that was preyed on by a [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]]]
Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds. Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases.<ref name= Sergio2>Sergio, F., & Hiraldo, F. (2008). ''Intraguild predation in raptor assemblages: a review birds''. Ibis, 150, 132–145.</ref><ref name= Bjorklund>Björklund, H., Santangeli, A., Blanchet, F. G., Huitu, O., Lehtoranta, H., Lindén, H., Valkama, J. & Laaksonen, T. (2016). ''Intraguild predation and competition impacts on a subordinate predator birds''. Oecologia, 181(1), 257–269.</ref> Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') on migrating steppe buzzards in [[Israel]]. Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved [[Golden eagle|golden]], [[Eastern imperial eagle|eastern imperial]] (''Aquila heliaca''), [[Bonelli's eagle|Bonelli's]] (''Aquila fasciata'') and [[white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') in Europe.<ref>Weiss, N., & Yosef, R. (2010). ''Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) Hunts a Eurasian Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus) While in Migration over Eilat, Israel''. Journal of Raptor Research, 44(1), 77–79.</ref><ref>Todd, D.M. (1980). ''Golden Eagle killing buzzard''. British Birds, 73: 536–537.</ref><ref>Chavko, J., Danko, Š., Obuch, J., & Mihók, J. (2007). ''The food of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 1, 1–18.</ref><ref>Horváth, M., Solti, B., Fatér, I., Juhász, T., Haraszthy, L., Szitta, T., Bállok, Z. & Pásztory-Kovács, S. (2018). ''Temporal changes in the diet composition of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Hungary''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(1), 1–26.</ref><ref>Gradoz, P. (1996). ''[Common Buzzard Buteo buteo captured in flight by a White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla.]'' 62: 165–166.</ref><ref>Resano, J., Bayle, P., Real, J., Hernández, A., Vincent-Martin, N. & Ravayrol, A. (2012). ''Analyse du régime alimentaire de l'Aigle de Bonelli Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot, 1822) pendant la saison de reproduction 2010 en France''. Université de Barcelone – Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, 1: 95–101.</ref> Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young. These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them. Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard. Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging.<ref>Dementavičius, D. (2004). ''Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla): breeding parasitism or atypical feeding behaviour?'' Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 14(1), 76–79.</ref><ref>Literak, I., & Mraz, J. (2011). ''Adoptions of young common buzzards in white-tailed sea eagle nests''. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 123(1), 174–176.</ref> Studies in [[Lithuania]] of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles. While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests.<ref>Kamarauskaitė, A., Dementavičius, D., Skuja, S., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Interaction between the White-tailed Eagle and Common Buzzard estimated by diet analysis and brood defence behaviour''. Ornis Fennica, 97(1), 26-37.</ref><ref>Dementavičius, D., Rumbutis, S., Virbickas, T., Vaitkuvienė, D., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Spatial and temporal variations in the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla breeding diet revealed by prey remains''. Bird Study, 67(2), 206-216.</ref> The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]] (''Bubo bubo''). This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard. The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a "super-predator" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles. Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet. Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards.<ref name= Sergio2/><ref>Lourenço, R., Rabaça, J. E., Delgado, M. D. M., & Penteriani, V. (2009). ''Intraguild predation by a European top predator–the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)''.</ref><ref>Chakarov, N., & Krüger, O. (2010). ''Mesopredator release by an emergent superpredator: a natural experiment of predation in a three level guild''. PLOS ONE, 5(12), e15229.</ref> In the [[Czech Republic]] and in [[Luxembourg]], the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively.<ref>Zemanová, K. (2009). ''Potrava výra velkého na střední Moravě''.</ref><ref name= Bayle>Bayle, P., & Schauls, R. (2011). ''Biologie de quatre couples de grand-duc d'Europe Bubo bubo au Luxembourg''. Bull. Soc. Nat. luxemb, 112, 51.</ref> The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of [[Germany]] has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards. The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family.<ref>Schindler, S. (2002). ''Territoriality and habitat-use of wintering Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany'' (Doctoral dissertation, uniwien).</ref> As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the [[Verreaux's eagle-owl]] (''Bubo lacteus''), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa.<ref>Avery, G., Robertson, A. S., Palmer, N. G., & Prins, A. J. (1985). ''Prey of giant eagle owls in the de Hoop nature reserve, Cape province, and some observations on hunting strategy''. Ostrich, 56(1–3), 117–122.</ref> Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as [[great grey owl]]s (''Strix nebulosa'') and [[Ural owl]]s (''Strix uralensis'').<ref name= Bjorklund/><ref>Byshnev, I.I. (2002). ''Interesting case of aggressive interaction between Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Ural Owl (Strix uralensis)''. Subbuteo, 5: 46.</ref> Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Austin>Austin, G. E., & Houston, D. C. (1997). ''The breeding performance of the Buzzard Buteo buteo in Argyll, Scotland and a comparison with other areas in Britain''. Bird Study, 44(2), 146–154.</ref><ref name= Tubbs>Tubbs, C. R. (1972). ''Analysis of nest record cards for the Buzzard''. Bird Study, 19(2), 97–104.</ref>

Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size. The buzzard is a known predator of {{cvt|237|g}} [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]]s (''Accipiter nisus''), {{cvt|184|g}} [[common kestrel]] and {{cvt|152|g}} [[lesser kestrel]] (''Falco naumanni'') .<ref name= Steiner/><ref>Sarà, M., Campobello, D., & Zanca, L. (2012). ''Effects of nest and colony features on lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) reproductive success''. Avian Biology Research, 5(4), 209–217.</ref> Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls.<ref>Mikkola, H. (1976). ''Owls killing and killed by other owls and raptors in Europe''. British Birds, 69, 144–154.</ref> Known owl prey has included {{cvt|419|g}} [[Western barn owl]]s (''Tyto alba''), {{cvt|92|g}} [[European scops owl]]s (''Otus scops''), {{cvt|475|g}} [[tawny owl]]s (''Strix aluco''), {{cvt|169|g}} [[little owl]]s (''Athene noctua''), {{cvt|138|g}} [[boreal owl]]s (''Aegolius funereus''), {{cvt|286|g}} [[long-eared owl]]s (''Asio otus'') and {{cvt|355|g}} [[short-eared owl]]s (''Asio flammeus'').<ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Manosa/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Steiner/><ref>Van Nieuwenhuyse, D., Genot, J. C., & Johnson, D. H. (Eds.). (2008). ''The little owl: conservation, ecology and behavior of Athene noctua''. Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road Cambridge CB 2 2 RU UK.</ref><ref>Barnard. C.C. (1981). ''Buzzard preying on Short-eared Owl''. British Birds, 74: 226.</ref> Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls.<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref>Voous, K.H. 1988. ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, 0262220350.</ref><ref>Sunde, P. (2005). ''Predators control post‐fledging mortality in tawny owls, Strix aluco''. Oikos, 110(3), 461–472.</ref>

==Breeding==
[[File:Buteo buteo -Scotland -pair-8 (1).jpg|thumb|A pair of common buzzards in [[Scotland]]]]

===Nesting territories and density===
Home ranges of common buzzards are generally {{cvt|0.5|to|2|sqkm}}.<ref name= Brown/> The size of breeding territory seem to be generally correlated with food supply.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Kruger>Krüger, O. (2004). ''The importance of competition, food, habitat, weather and phenotype for the reproduction of Buzzard Buteo buteo''. Bird Study, 51(2), 125–132.</ref> In a German study, the range was {{cvt|0.8|to|1.8|sqkm}} with an average of {{cvt|1.26|sqkm}}.<ref name= Schindler/> Some of the lowest pair densities of common buzzards seem to come from [[Russia]]. For instance, in [[Kerzhenets Nature Reserve]], the recorded density was 0.6 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}} and the average distance of nearest neighbors was {{cvt|3.8|km}}.<ref>Novikova, L. (2009). ''Number and Distribution of the Common Buzzard in the Kerzhenskiy State Nature Reserve, Russia''. Raptors Conservation, (16).</ref> The [[Snowdonia]] region of northern [[Wales]] held a pair per {{cvt|9.7|sqkm}} with a mean nearest neighbor distance of {{cvt|1.95|km}}; in adjacent [[Migneint]], pair occurrence was {{cvt|7.2|sqkm}}, with a mean distance of {{cvt|1.53|km}}.<ref>Dare, P. J., & Barry, J. T. (1990). ''Population size, density and regularity in nest spacing of Buzzards Buteo buteo in two upland regions of North Wales''. Bird Study, 37(1), 23–29.</ref> In the [[Macizo de Teno|Teno massif]] of the [[Canary Islands]], the average density was estimated as 23 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}, similar to that of a middling continental population.<ref name= Rodriguez>Rodríguez, B., Siverio, F., Rodríguez, A., Siverio, M., Hernández, J. J., & Figuerola, J. (2010). ''Density, habitat selection and breeding biology of Common Buzzards Buteo buteo in an insular environment''. Bird Study, 57(1), 75–83.</ref> On another set of islands, on [[Crete]] the density of pairs was lower at 5.7 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}; here buzzards tend to have an irregular distribution, some in lower intensity harvest olive groves but their occurrence actually more common in agricultural than natural areas.<ref>Tzortzakaki, O., Simaiakis, S., & Xirouchakis, S. (2012). ''Abundance of common buzzards (Buteo buteo) in olive monocultures in the island of Crete''. Journal of Biological Research, 17, 44.</ref> In the Italian [[Alps]], it was recorded in 1993–96 that there were from 28 to 30 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}.<ref name= Sergio/> In central Italy, density average was lower at 19.74 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}.<ref>Cerasoli, M., & Penteriani, V. (1996). ''Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Central Italy''. J. Raptor Res., 30(3), 130–135.</ref> Higher density areas are known than those above. Two areas of [[the Midlands]] of [[England]] showed occupancies of 81 and 22 territorial pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}. High buzzard densities there were associated with high proportions of unimproved pasture and mature woodland within the estimated territories.<ref name=Sim/> Similarly high densities of common buzzards were estimated in central [[Slovakia]] using two different methods, here indicating densities of 96 to 129 pairs per {{cvt|100|sqkm}}.<ref name= Sotnar2>Šotnár, K., & Topercer, J. (2009). ''Estimating density, population size and dynamics of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in the West Carpathian region by a new method''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 3, 1–12.</ref> Despite claims from the study of the English midlands were the highest known territory density for the species, a number ranging from 32 to 51 pairs in wooded area of merely {{cvt|22|sqkm}} in [[Czech Republic]] seems to surely exceed even those densities. The Czech study hypothesized that fragmentation of forest in human management of lands for [[Mouflon|wild sheep]] and [[deer]], creating exceptional concentrations of prey such as voles, and lack of appropriate habitat in surrounding regions for the exceptionally high density.<ref name= Sim/><ref>Voříšek, P. (2000). ''An extremely high population density of common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in Biosphere Reserve Pálava (Czech Republic) and its possible causes''. Buteo, 11, 51–56.</ref>

In the North-Estonian [[Neeruti Landscape Conservation Area|Neeruti landscape reserve]] (area 1250 ha), Marek Vahula found 9 populated nests in 1989 and 1990. One nest was found in 1982 and is apparently the oldest known nest that is still populated today.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.bilderreich.de |first=Thomas Reich |title=Common buzzard, Buteo buteo - info, details, facts & images |url=https://bilderreich.de/1038/fact-sheet-common-buzzard-buteo-buteo.html |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=bilderreich.de - Fotos von Thomas Reich |language=en-EN}}</ref>

[[File:Buteo buteo (553474414).jpg|thumb|left|A territorial dogfight between three buzzards in the [[Azores]]]]
Common buzzards maintain their territories through flight displays. In Europe, territorial behaviour generally starts in February. However, displays are not uncommon throughout year in resident pairs, especially by males, and can elicit similar displays by neighbors.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> In them, common buzzards generally engage in high circling, spiraling upward on slightly raised wings. Mutual high circling by pairs sometimes go on at length, especially during the period prior to or during breeding season. In mutual displays, a pair may follow each other at {{cvt|10|-|50|m}} in level flight. During the mutual displays, the male may engage in exaggerated deep flapping or zig-zag tumbling, apparently in response to the female being too distant. Two or three pairs may circle together at times and as many as 14 individual adults have been recorded over established display sites.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Forsman, D., & Solonen, T. (1984, January). ''Censusing breeding raptors in southern Finland: methods and results''. In Annales Zoologici Fennici (pp. 317–320). Finnish Academy of Sciences, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo.</ref> Sky-dancing by common buzzards have been recorded in spring and autumn, typically by male but sometimes by female, nearly always with much calling. Their sky-dances are of the rollercoaster type, with upward sweep until they start to stall, but sometimes embellished with loops or rolls at the top. Next in the sky-dance, they dive on more or less closed wings before spreading them and shooting up again, upward sweeps of up to {{cvt|30|m}}, with dive drops of up to at least {{cvt|60|m}}. These dances may be repeated in series of 10 to 20. In the climax of the sky dance, the undulations become progressive shallower, often slowing and terminating directly onto a perch. Various other aerial displays include low contour flight or weaving among trees, frequently with deep beats and exaggerated upstrokes which show underwing pattern to rivals perched below.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref>Negro, J. J., & Galván, I. (2018). ''Behavioural Ecology of Raptors''. In Birds of Prey (pp. 33–62). Springer, Cham.</ref> Talon grappling and occasionally cartwheeling downward with feet interlocked has been recorded in buzzards and, as in many raptors, is likely the physical culmination of the aggressive territorial display, especially between males.<ref name= Brown/><ref>Simmons, R. E., & Mendelsohn, J. M. (1993). ''A critical review of cartwheeling flights of raptors''. Ostrich, 64(1), 13–24.</ref> Despite the highly territorial nature of buzzards and their devotion to a single mate and breeding ground each summer, there is one case of a [[Polyandry in animals|polyandrous]] trio of buzzards nesting in the [[Canary Islands]].<ref>Barrientos, R., & López-Darias, M. (2006). ''A case of a polyandrous trio of Eurasian buzzards (Buteo buteo) on Fuerteventura Island, Canary Islands''. Journal of Raptor Research, 40(4), 305–306.</ref>

===Nests===
Common buzzards tend to build a bulky nest of sticks, twigs and often [[Calluna|heather]]. Commonly, nests are up to {{cvt|1|to|1.2|m}} across and {{cvt|60|cm}} deep. With reuse over years, the diameter can reach or exceed {{cvt|1.5|m}} and weight of nests can reach over {{cvt|200|kg}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> Active nests tend to be lined with greenery, most often this consists of broad-leafed foliage but sometimes also includes [[Juncaceae|rush]] or [[seaweed]] locally. Nest height in trees is commonly {{cvt|3|to|25|m}}, usually by main trunk or main crutch of the tree.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Cramp/> In [[Germany]], trees used for nesting consisted mostly of [[Fagus sylvatica|red beeches]] (''Fagus sylvatica'') (in 337 cases), whereas a further 84 were in assorted [[Quercus|oaks]].<ref name= Rockenbauch>Rockenbauch, D. (1975). ''Zwölfjährige Untersuchungen zur Ökologie des Mäusebussards (Buteo buteo) auf der Schwäbischen Alb''. Journal für Ornithologie, 116(1), 39–54.</ref> Buzzards were recorded to nest almost exclusively in [[Pinus|pines]] in [[Spain]] at a mean height of {{cvt|14.5|m}}.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> Trees are generally used for a nesting location but they will also utilize crags or bluffs if trees are unavailable.<ref name= Brown/> Buzzards in one English study were surprisingly partial to nesting on well-vegetated banks and due to the rich surrounding environment habitat and prey population, were actually more productive than nests located in other locations here.<ref>Austin, G. E. (1992). ''The distribution and breeding performance of the buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to habitat: an application using remote sensing and geographical information systems'' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Glasgow).</ref> Furthermore, a few ground nests were recorded in high prey-level agricultural areas in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>Jonkers, D. A., & Roodhart, J. (2003). ''Grondnest van Buizerd Buteo buteo op bruggetje''. De takkeling, 11(3), 234–236.</ref> In the Italian [[Alps]], 81% of 108 nests were on cliffs.<ref name= Sergio/> The common buzzard generally lacks the propensity of its Nearctic counterpart, the [[red-tailed hawk]], to occasionally nest on or near manmade structures (often in heavily urbanized areas) but in Spain some pairs recorded nesting along the perimeter of abandoned buildings.<ref>Castillo-Gómez, C., & Moreno-Rueda, G. (2011). ''A record of a Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) nesting in an abandoned building''. Journal of Raptor Research, 45(3), 275–277.</ref> Pairs often have several nests but some pairs may use one over several consecutive years. Two to four alternate nests in a territory is typical for common buzzards, especially those breeding further north in their range.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Selas3>Selas, V. (2001). ''Breeding density and brood size of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to snow cover in spring''. Ardea, 89(3), 471–479.</ref>

===Reproduction and eggs===
[[File:The birds of the British Isles and their eggs (8263824243).jpg|thumb|The much plainer egg of the common buzzard contrasted with that of the [[European honey buzzard]]]]
The breeding season commences at differing times based on latitude. Common buzzard breeding seasons may fall as early as January to April but typically the breeding season is March to July in much of [[Palearctic]]. In the northern stretches of the range the breeding season may last into May–August. Mating usually occurs on or near the nest and lasts about 15 seconds, typically occurring several times a day.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> Eggs are usually laid in 2 to 3-day intervals. The clutch size can range from to 2 to 6, a relatively large clutch for an accipitrid. More northerly and westerly buzzard usually bear larger clutches, which average nearer 3, than those further east and south.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Rodriguez/> In Spain, the average clutch size is about 2 to 2.3.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> From 4 locations in different parts of Europe, 43% had clutch size of 2, 41% had size of 3, clutches of 1 and 4 each constituted about 8%.<ref>Holdsworth, M. (1971). ''Breeding biology of Buzzards at Sedbergh during 1937–67''. British Birds, 64, 412–420.</ref> Laying dates are remarkably constant throughout [[Great Britain]]. There are, however, highly significant differences in clutch size between British study areas. These do not follow any latitudinal gradient and it is likely that local factors such as habitat and prey availability are more important determinants of clutch size.<ref name= Austin/> The eggs are white in ground colour, rather round in shape with sporadic red to brown markings sometimes lightly showing. In the nominate race, egg size is {{cvt|49.8|-|63.8|mm}} in height by {{cvt|39.1|-|48.2|mm}} in diameter with an average of {{cvt|55|x|44|mm}} in 600 eggs. In the race of ''vulpinus'', egg height is {{cvt|48|-|63|mm}} by {{cvt|39.2|-|47.5|mm}} with an average of {{cvt|54.2|x|42.8|mm}} in 303 eggs.<ref name= Brown/> Eggs are generally laid in late March to early April in extreme south, sometime in April in most of Europe, into May and possibly even early June in the extreme north. If eggs are lost to a predator (including humans) or fail in some other way, common buzzards do not usually lay replacement clutches but they have been recorded, even with 3 attempts of clutches by a single female.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Swann/> The female does most but not all of the incubating, doing so for a total of 33–35 days.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> The female remains at the nest brooding the young in the early stages with the male bringing all prey. At about 8–12 days, both the male and female will bring prey but the female continues to do all feeding until the young can tear up their own prey.<ref name= Brown/>

===Development of young===
[[File:Buteo nestling juedischer Friedhof.JPG|thumb|right|Two young buzzard nestlings]]
Once hatching commences, it may take 48 hours for the chick to chip out. Hatching may take place over 3–7 days, with new hatchlings averaging about {{cvt|45|g}} in body mass.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Cramp/> Often the youngest nestling dies from starvation, especially in broods of three or more.<ref name= Brown/> In nestlings, the first down replaces by longer, coarser down at about 7 days of age with the first proper feathers appearing at 12 to 15 days. The young are nearly fully feathered rather than downy at about a month of age and can start to feed themselves as well. The first attempts to leave the nest are often at about 40–50 days, averaging usually 40–45 in nominate buzzards in Europe, but more quickly on average at 40–42 in ''vulpinus''. Fledging occurs typically at 43–54 days but in extreme cases at as late 62 days. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in European fledglings, as females often scale about {{cvt|1000|g|lb}} against {{cvt|780|g|lb}} in males.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Cramp/><ref name= Tyack>Tyack, A. J., Walls, S. S., & Kenward, R. E. (1998). ''Behaviour in the post‐nestling dependence period of radio‐tagged Common Buzzards Buteo buteo''. Ibis, 140(1), 58–63.</ref> After leaving the nest, buzzards generally stay close by, but with migratory ones there is more definitive movement generally southbound. Full independence is generally sought 6 to 8 weeks after fledging. 1st year birds generally remain in wintering area for following summer but then return to near area of origin but then migrate south again without breeding.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Cramp/> Radio-tracking suggests that most dispersal, even relatively early dispersals, by juvenile buzzards is undertaken independently rather than via exile by parents, as has been recorded in some other birds of prey.<ref>Walls, S. S., Mañosa, S., Fuller, R. M., Hodder, K. H., & Kenward, R. E. (1999). ''Is early dispersal enterprise or exile? Evidence from radio-tagged buzzards''. Journal of Avian Biology, 407–415.</ref> In common buzzards, generally speaking, siblings stay quite close to each other after dispersal from their parents and form something of a social group, although parents usually tolerate their presence on their territory until they are laying another clutch. However, the social group of siblings disbands at about a year of age.<ref name= Tyack/><ref name="Walls"/> Juvenile buzzards are subordinate to adults during most encounters and tend to avoid direct confrontations and actively defended territories until they are of appropriate age (usually at least 2 years of age).<ref name= Cramp/> This was the case as well for steppe buzzard juveniles wintering in southern Africa, although in some cases juveniles were able to successfully [[Kleptoparasitism|steal prey]] from adults there.<ref>Herremans, M. (2001). ''Age-related differences in abundance and habitat occupation of Steppe Buzzards, Buteo buteo vulpinus, in the Western Cape Province, South Africa''. Ostrich-Journal of African Ornithology, 72(1–2), 105–108.</ref>
[[File:Common Buzzard fledgling in Pinus nigra 2010-06-16.jpg|thumb|left|A common buzzard recent fledgling in a pine tree]]

===Breeding success rates===
Numerous factors may weigh into the breeding success of common buzzards. Chiefly among these are prey populations, habitat, disturbance and persecution levels and interspecies competition.<ref name= Brown/> In Germany, intra- and interspecific competition, plumage morph, laying date, precipitation levels and anthropogenic disturbances in the breeding territory, in declining order, were deemed to be the most significant bearers of breeding success.<ref name="Kruger"/> In an accompanying study, it was found that a mere 17% of adult birds of both sexes present in a German study area produced 50% of offspring, so breeding success may be lower than perceived and many adult buzzards for unknown causes may not attempt to breed at all.<ref name= Kruger2>Krüger, O., & Lindström, J. (2001). ''Lifetime reproductive success in common buzzard, Buteo buteo: from individual variation to population demography''. Oikos, 93(2), 260–273.</ref> High breeding success was detected in [[Argyll]], Scotland, due likely to hearty prey populations (rabbits) but also probably a lower local rate of persecution than elsewhere in the British isles. Here, the mean number of fledglings were 1.75 against 0.82–1.41 in other parts of Britain.<ref name= Austin/> It was found in the English [[The Midlands|Midlands]] that breeding success both by measure of clutch size and mean number of fledglings, was relatively high thanks again to high prey populations. Breeding success was lower farther from significant stands of trees in the Midlands and most nesting failures that could be determined occurred in the incubation stage, possibly in correlation with predation of eggs by [[corvid]]s.<ref name= Sim/> More significant than even prey, late winter-early spring was found to be likely the primary driver of breeding success in buzzards from southern [[Norway]]. Here, even in peak [[vole]] years, nesting success could be considerably hampered by heavy snow at this crucial stage. In Norway, large clutches of 3+ were expected only in years with minimal snow cover, high vole populations and lighter rains in May–June.<ref name= Selas3/> In the Italian [[Alps]], the mean number of fledglings per pair was 1.07.<ref name= Sergio/> 33.4% of nesting attempts were failures per a study in southwestern [[Germany]], with an average of 1.06 of all nesting attempts and 1.61 for all successful attempt. In Germany, weather conditions and rodent populations seemed to be the primary drivers of nesting success.<ref name= Rockenbauch/> In [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]] part of [[Spain]] contrasted with [[Biscay]] to the north, higher levels of interspecific competition from [[booted eagle]]s and [[northern goshawk]]s did not appear to negatively affect breeding success due to more ample prey populations (rabbits again) in Murcia than in Biscay.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/>

In the [[Westphalia]] area of Germany, it was found that intermediate colour morphs were more productive than those that were darker or lighter.<ref name= Kruger2/> For reasons that are not entirely clear, apparently fewer parasites were found to afflict broods of intermediate plumaged buzzard less so than dark and light [[phenotype]]s, in particular higher [[melanin]] levels somehow were found to be more inviting to parasitic organism that effect the health of the buzzard's offspring.<ref>Chakarov, N., Boerner, M., & Krüger, O. (2008). ''Fitness in common buzzards at the cross‐point of opposite melanin–parasite interactions''. Functional Ecology, 22(6), 1062–1069.</ref> The composition of habitat and its relation to human disturbance were important variables for the dark and light phenotypes but were less important to intermediate individuals. Thus selection pressures resulting from different factors did not vary much between sexes but varied between the three phenotypes in the population.<ref name= Kruger3>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Dissecting common buzzard lifespan and lifetime reproductive success: the relative importance of food, competition, weather, habitat and individual attributes''. Oecologia, 133(4), 474–482.</ref> Breeding success in areas with wild [[European rabbit]]s was considerably effected by [[Myxomatosis|rabbit myxomatosis]] and [[rabbit haemorrhagic disease]], both of which have heavily depleted wild rabbit population. Breeding success in formerly rabbit-rich areas were recorded to decrease from as much as 2.6 to as little as 0.9 young per pair.<ref name="Moore, N. W. 1957"/><ref>Moore, N. W. (1956). ''Rabbits, buzzards and hares. Two studies on the indirect effects of myxomatosis''. Les conséquences biologiques dues à la présence de la myxomatose.</ref><ref>Lees, A. C., & Bell, D. J. (2008). ''A conservation paradox for the 21st century: the European wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, an invasive alien and an endangered native species''. Mammal Review, 38(4), 304–320.</ref> Age of first breeding in several radio-tagged buzzards showed only a single male breeding as early as his 2nd summer (at about a year of age). Significantly more buzzards were found to start breeding at the 3 summer but breeding attempts can be individually erratic given the availability of habitat, food and mates.<ref>Davis, P. E., & Davis, J. E. (1992). ''Dispersal and age of first breeding of buzzards in central Wales''. British Birds, 85(11), 578–587.</ref> The mean life expectancy was estimated at 6.3 years in the late 1950s, but this was at a time of high persecution when humans were causing 50–80% of buzzard deaths.<ref name= Mebs/> In a more modern context with regionally reduced persecution rates, the lifespan expected can be higher (possibly in excess of 10 years at times) but is still widely variable due to a wide variety of factors.<ref name= Kruger3/>

==Status==
[[File:Common Buzzard (Steppe Buzzard), Buteo buteo vulpinus, on a fence along the R42, Gauteng, South Africa (32070091223).jpg|thumb|left|A wintering steppe buzzard in [[South Africa]]]]
The common buzzard is one of the most numerous birds of prey in its range. Almost certainly, it is the most numerous diurnal bird of prey throughout Europe. Conservative estimates put the total population at no fewer than 700,000 pairs in Europe, which are more than twice the total estimates for the next four birds of prey estimated as most common: the [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]] (more than 340,000 pairs), the [[common kestrel]] (more than 330,000 pairs) and the [[northern goshawk]] (more than 160,000 pairs).<ref name= BirdlifeEurope/> Ferguson-Lees et al. roughly estimated that the total population of the common buzzard ranges to nearly 5 million pairs but at time was including the now split-off species of [[Eastern buzzard|eastern]] and [[Himalayan buzzard]]s in those numbers.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> These numbers may be excessive but the total population of common buzzards is certain to total well over seven figures.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> More recently, the [[IUCN]] estimated the common buzzard (sans the Himalayan and eastern subspecies) to number somewhere between 2.1 and 3.7 million birds, which would put this buzzard one of the most numerous of all accipitrid family members (estimates for Eurasian sparrowhawks, red-tailed hawks and northern goshawks also may range over 2 million).<ref name="iucn" /> In 1991, other than their absence in [[Iceland]], after having been extent as breeder by 1910, buzzards recolonized [[Ireland]] sometime in the 1950s and has increased by the 1990s to 26 pairs.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Rooney/> Supplemental feeding has reportedly helped the Irish buzzard population to rebound, especially where rabbits have decreased.<ref name= Rooney2/> Most other countries have at least four figures of breeding pairs. As of the 1990s, other countries such as [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]], [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]], [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] all numbered pairs well into five figures, while [[Germany]] had an estimated 140,000 pairs and European Russian may have held 500,000 pairs.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= BirdlifeEurope/> Between 44,000 and 61,000 pairs nested in [[Great Britain]] by 2001 with numbers gradually increasing after past persecution, habitat alteration and prey reductions, making it by far the most abundant diurnal raptor there.<ref name= Clements>Clements, R. (2002). ''The Common Buzzard in Britain''. British Birds, 95, 377–383.</ref> In [[Westphalia]], Germany, population of buzzards was shown to nearly triple over the last few decades. The Westphalian buzzards are possibly benefiting from increasingly warmer mean climate, which in turn is increasing vulnerability of voles. However, the rate of increase was significantly greater in males than in females, in part because of reintroduced [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]s to the region preying on nests (including the brooding mother), which may in turn put undue pressure on the local buzzard population.<ref>Jonker, R. M., Chakarov, N., & Krüger, O. (2014). ''Climate change and habitat heterogeneity drive a population increase in Common Buzzards Buteo buteo through effects on survival''. Ibis, 156(1), 97–106.</ref>

At least 238 common buzzards killed through persecution were recovered in [[England]] from 1975 to 1989, largely through poisoning. Persecution did not significantly differ at any time due this span of years nor did the persecution rates decrease, nor did it when compared to rates of last survey of this in 1981.<ref>Elliott, G. D., & Avery, M. I. (1991). ''A review of reports of buzzard persecution 1975–1989''. Bird Study, 38(1), 52–56.</ref> While some persecution persists in England, it is probably slightly less common today.<ref name= Clements/> The buzzard was found to be the most vulnerable raptor to power-line collision fatalities in [[Spain]] probably as it is one of the most common largish birds, and together with the [[common raven]], it accounted for nearly a third of recorded electrocutions.<ref>Janss, G. F. (2000). ''Avian mortality from power lines: a morphologic approach of a species-specific mortality. '' Biological Conservation, 95(3), 353–359.</ref> Given its relative abundance, the common buzzard is held as an ideal [[bioindicator]], as they are affected by a range of pesticide and metal contamination through pollution like other raptors but are largely resilient to these at the population levels. In turn, this allows biologists to study (and [[harvest]] if needed) the buzzards intensively and their environments without affecting their overall population. The lack of affect may be due to the buzzard's adaptability as well as its relatively short, terrestrially-based food chain, which exposes them to less risk of contamination and population depletions than raptors that prey more heavily on water-based prey (such as some large eagles) or other birds (such as [[falcon]]s).<ref>Naccari, C., Cristani, M., Cimino, F., Arcoraci, T., & Trombetta, D. (2009). ''Common buzzards (Buteo buteo) bio-indicators of heavy metals pollution in Sicily (Italy)''. Environment international, 35(3), 594–598.</ref><ref>Carneiro, M., Colaço, B., Brandão, R., Ferreira, C., Santos, N., Soeiro, V., & Lavín, S. (2014). ''Biomonitoring of heavy metals (Cd, Hg, and Pb) and metalloid (As) with the Portuguese common buzzard (Buteo buteo)''. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 186(11), 7011–7021.</ref><ref>Jager, L. P., Rijnierse, F. V., Esselink, H., & Baars, A. J. (1996). ''Biomonitoring with the Buzzard Buteo buteo in the Netherlands: heavy metals and sources of variation''. Journal für Ornithologie, 137(3), 295–318.</ref><ref>Manosa, S., Mateo, R., Freixa, C., & Guitart, R. (2003). ''Persistent organochlorine contaminants in eggs of northern goshawk and Eurasian buzzard from northeastern Spain: temporal trends related to changes in the diet''. Environmental Pollution, 122(3), 351–359.</ref><ref>Tubbs, C. R. (1967). ''Population study of Buzzards in the New Forest during 1962–66''. British Birds, 60(10), 381–395.</ref> Common buzzards are seldom vulnerable to egg-shell thinning from [[DDT]] as are other raptors but egg-shell thinning has been recorded.<ref>Ratcliffe, D. A. (1967). ''Decrease in eggshell weight in certain birds of prey''. Nature, 215(5097), 208.</ref> Other factors that negatively effect raptors have been studied in common buzzards are [[Parasitic worms|helminths]], [[avipoxvirus]] and assorted other [[virus]]es.<ref>Santoro, M., Tripepi, M., Kinsella, J. M., Panebianco, A., & Mattiucci, S. (2010). ''Helminth infestation in birds of prey (Accipitriformes and Falconiformes) in Southern Italy''. The Veterinary Journal, 186(1), 119–122.</ref><ref>Shirazi, S., Hesaraki, S., Mostafaei, T. S., & Davoodi, J. (2014). ''First report on Centrorhynchus aluconis in common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in northwest Iran''. Acta Veterinaria, 64(2), 276–280.</ref><ref>ÖZMEN, Ö., & DORRESTEIN, G. M. (2002). ''Avipox in a common buzzard (Buteo buteo)''. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 26(5), 1193–1195.</ref><ref>Frölich, K., Prusas, C., Schettler, E., & Hafez, H. M. (2002). ''Antibodies to adenoviruses in free-living common buzzards from Germany''. Journal of wildlife diseases, 38(3), 633–636.</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Buteo buteo -Hamerton Zoo, Cambridgeshire, England -head-8a.jpg|At [[Hamerton Zoo]], England
Buzzard UK09.JPG|In flight, Devon, England. There are around 40,000 [[breeding pair]]s in the United Kingdom.
Buteo buteo MWNH 0812.JPG|Egg, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]
File:Jonge buizerd (Buteo buteo).jpg|A young buzzard being ringed
File:Ei van een Buizerd (Buteo buteo) 02.jpg|Infertile egg of a Buzzard (''Buteo buteo'')
</gallery>

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Linnaeus1758>{{cite book |last1=Linnaeus |first1=C. |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. |volume=1 |location=Holmiae (Stockholm) |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |year=1758 |quote=F. cera pedibusque luteis, corpore fusco, abdomine paludo maculis fuscis. |language=la |page=90 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726997 |archive-date=29 July 2023 |access-date=21 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729204230/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726997 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

=== General sources ===
* {{cite book |last1=Mullarney |first1=Killian |last2=Svensson |first2=Lars |last3=Zetterstrom |first3=Dan |last4=Grant |first4=Peter |title=Collins Bird Guide |year=1999 |location=London |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-00-219728-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=Ian |last1=Sinclair |first2=Phil |last2=Hockey |first3=Warwick |last3=Tarboton |title=SASOL Birds of Southern Africa |publisher=Struik |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86872-721-6}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Buteo buteo}}
{{Wikispecies|Buteo buteo}}
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/149.pdf Steppe Buzzard species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* [http://www.madeirabirds.com/buzzard Madeira Birds: Buzzard]. Page about the controversial subspecies ''harterti''. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161108171630/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/119_CommonBuzzardBbuteo.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
* [http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Buteo_buteo/Buteo_buteo.htm Feathers of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612194742/http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Buteo_buteo/Buteo_buteo.htm |date=12 June 2013 }}
* {{BirdLife|61695117|Buteo buteo}}
* {{Avibase|name=Buteo buteo}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|eurasian-buzzard-buteo-buteo|Eurasian buzzard}}
* {{VIREO|Common+buzzard}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Buteo|buteo|Common buzzard}}

{{Buteoninae}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25385}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|common buzzard]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|common buzzard]]
[[Category:Birds of Macaronesia]]
[[Category:Birds of prey of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Buteo|common buzzard]]
[[Category:Necrophages]]
[[Category:Wintering birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Wintering birds of South Asia]]