View source for Indo-Aryan languages

{{Short description|Branch of the Indo-Iranian languages}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Indo-Aryan
| altname       = Indic{{efn|name=indic"}}
| region        = [[South Asia]], [[Europe]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| protoname     = [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]]
| fam2          = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| child1        = [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]]
| child2        = [[Dardic languages|Dardic]]
| child3        = [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]]
| child4        = [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Northern]]
| child5        = [[#Northwestern Zone|Northwestern]]
| child6        = [[#Southern Zone|Southern]]
| child7        = [[#Western Zone|Western]]
| child8        = Unclassified:{{Indent|1}}{{*}} ''[[Bhariati]]''{{Indent|1}}{{*}}''[[Bazigar language|Bazigar]]''{{Indent|1}}{{*}} [[Chinali–Lahul languages|Chinali–Lahuli]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}} ''[[Sheikhgal]]''{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Mitanni]]
| iso2          = inc
| iso5          = inc
| lingua        = 59= (phylozone)
| map           = Indo-Aryan language map.svg
| mapcaption    = Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Domari language|Domari]], [[Kholosi language|Kholosi]], [[Luwati language|Luwati]], [[Parya language|Parya]], [[Fiji Hindi]] and [[Caribbean Hindustani]] are outside the scope of the map. 
{{legend|#ffc0ec|[[Pashai languages|Pashai]] ([[Dardic languages|Dardic]])}}
{{legend|#ffa1e6|[[Khowar language|Khowar]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#FF54DE|[[Shina language|Shina]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#ff81e0|[[Indus Kohistani|Kohistani]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#e03eb9|[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#855ff8|[[Punjabi languages|Punjabi]] ([[Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages|Northwestern]])}}
{{legend|#699fd0|[[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]] (Northwestern)}}
{{legend|#69d762|[[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]] ([[Western Indo-Aryan languages|Western]])}}
{{legend|#61b97d|[[Gujarati languages|Gujarati]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#61b762|[[Khandeshi language|Khandeshi]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#a6e7b9|[[Bhili languages|Bhili]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#d79662|[[Western Pahari languages|Western Pahari]] ([[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Northern]])}}
{{legend|#b9845a|[[Central Pahari languages|Central Pahari]] (Northern)}}
{{legend|#9b7451|[[Eastern Pahari languages|Eastern Pahari]] (Northern)}}
{{legend|#ff8d36|[[Western Hindi languages|Western Hindi]] ([[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]])}}
{{legend|#ffb736|[[Eastern Hindi languages|Eastern Hindi]] (Central)}}
{{legend|#fff87c|[[Bengali-Assamese languages|Bengali-Assamese]] ([[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]])}}
{{legend|#f8d836|[[Bihari languages|Bihari]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#e0c036|[[Odia language|Odia]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#AB8900|[[Halbic languages|Halbic]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#e03e36|[[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi-Konkani]] ([[Southern Indo-Aryan languages|Southern]])}}
{{legend|#a13e36|[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]-[[Maldivian language|Dhivehi]] (Southern)}}
(not shown: [[Kunar languages|Kunar]] (Dardic), [[Chinali-Lahul languages|Chinali-Lahuli]] (Unclassified))
| ancestor      = 
| glottorefname = Indo-Aryan
| glotto        = indo1321
| speakers      ={{est.}} 800 million
| date          = 2000's
| ref           = <ref name="EB"/>
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
The '''Indo-Aryan languages''' (or sometimes '''Indic languages'''{{efn|name=indic"|In a colloquial context, the term "'''Indic'''" sometimes refers more generally to the [[languages of the Indian subcontinent]], thus including Dravidian and other non-Indo-Aryan languages.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reynolds |first1=Mike |chapter=Indic languages |date=2007 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B |title=Language in the British Isles |pages=293–307 |editor-last=Britain |editor-first=David |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-79488-6 |access-date=2021-10-04 |last2=Verma |first2=Mahendra}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Munshi |first=S |year=2009 |chapter=Indo-Aryan languages |editor1=Keith Brown |editor2=Sarah Ogilvie |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Language of the World |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Elsevier |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=F2SRqDzB50wC}} |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA522 522–528]}}</ref>}}) are a branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]]. As of the early 21st century, there were 800 million speakers, primarily concentrated east of the [[Indus River]] in [[South Asia]], spread across Eastern [[Pakistan]], Northern [[India]], southern [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Maldives]].<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia |title= Overview of Indo-Aryan languages |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indo-Aryan-languages|encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date= 8 July 2018}}</ref> Moreover, apart from the [[Indian subcontinent]], large immigrant and expatriate Indo-Aryan–speaking communities live in [[Northwestern Europe]], [[Western Asia]], [[North America]], the [[Caribbean]], [[Southeast Africa]], [[Polynesia]] and [[Australia]], along with several million speakers of [[Romani language]]s primarily concentrated in [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]]. There are in the vicinity of 200 Indo-Aryan languages.<ref>Any count will depend on where the line is drawn between "dialect" and "language". [https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/indo1321 Glottolog 5.2] lists 220 languages.</ref>

[[Proto-Indo-Aryan]] was very close to [[Vedic Sanskrit]], though some of the later [[Prakrit]]s retain features that had been lost from Vedic Sanskrit, showing that they had a separate descent from Proto-Indo-Aryan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burde |first=Jayant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmXclYgJFiIC&pg=PA3 |title=Rituals, Mantras, and Science: An Integral Perspective |date=2004 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-2053-1 |page=3 |language=en |quote=The Aryans spoke an Indo-European language sometimes called the Vedic language from which have descended Sanskrit and other Indic languages ... Prakrit was a group of variants which developed alongside Sanskrit.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jain |first1=Danesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |last2=Cardona |first2=George |date=26 July 2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9 |page=163 |language=en |quote=... a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct continuations of R̥gvedic Sanskrit, the main base of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from R̥gvedic and in some regards even more archaic.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Chamber's Encyclopaedia, Volume 7 |date=1968 |publisher=International Learnings Systems |language=en |quote=Most Aryan languages of India and Pakistan belong to the Indo-Aryan family, and are descended from Sanskrit through the intermediate stage of Prakrit. The Indo-Aryan languages are by far the most important numerically and the territory occupied by them extends over the whole of northern and central India and reaches as far south as Goa.}}</ref><ref name="Donkin2003">{{cite book |last1=Donkin |first1=R. A. |title=Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B4IFMnssyqgC |date=2003 |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |isbn=9780871692481 |language=en |page=60 |quote=The modern, regional Indo-Aryan languages developed from Prakrt, an early 'unrefined' (''prakrta'') form of Sanskrit, around the close of the first millennium A.D.}}</ref> The largest such languages in terms of [[First language|first-speakers]] are [[Hindustani language|Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu)]] ({{Circa|330 million}}),<ref name=ethnologue>Standard Hindi first language: 260.3 million (2001), as second language: 120 million (1999). Urdu L1: 68.9 million (2001–2014), L2: 94 million (1999): ''Ethnologue'' 19.</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (242 million),<ref>Bengali or Bangla-Bhasa, L1: 242.3 million (2011), L2: 19.2 million (2011), ''Ethnologue''</ref> [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (about 150 million),<ref name=NE2>{{cite web |title=Världens 100 största språk 2010 |language=sv |trans-title=The world's 100 largest languages in 2010 |url=http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |work=Nationalencyclopedin |publisher=[[Government of Sweden]] publication |access-date=30 August 2013 |archive-date=11 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111051518/http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=WorldData.info>{{cite web|title= Punjabi speaking countries |url= https://www.worlddata.info/languages/punjabi.php |work=WorldData.info}}</ref> [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (112 million), and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (60 million). A 2005 estimate placed the total number of native speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages at nearly 900 million people.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Edwin Francis |last1=Bryant |first2=Laurie L. |last2=Patton |title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHYnGde4BS4C |year=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7007-1463-6 |pages=246–247}}</ref> Other estimates are higher, suggesting a figure of 1.5 billion speakers of Indo-Aryan languages.<ref name="epgp.inflibnet.ac.in">{{cite web|url=http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000022LS/P001756/M023413/ET/1506322131Lings-P7-M21.pdf|title=Development team|website=inflibnet.ac.in|access-date=9 March 2024}}</ref>

== Classification ==
=== Theories ===
[[File:Indo-Aryan Languages Tree.png|thumb|Classification tree of the Indo-Aryan languages|class=skin-invert-image]]
The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a [[dialect continuum]], where languages are often transitional towards neighbouring varieties.{{sfnp|Masica|1991|p=25}} Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification.{{sfnp|Masica|1991|pp=446–463}} There are concerns that a [[tree model]] is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the [[wave model]].<ref name="kogan">{{cite journal |last1=Kogan |first1=Anton I. |title=Genealogical classification of New Indo-Aryan languages and lexicostatistics |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |date=2016 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=227–258 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2017-143-411 |s2cid=212688418 |url=https://www.jolr.ru/files/(190)jlr2016-14-3-4(227-258).pdf |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Subgroups ====
The following table of proposals is expanded from {{harvtxt|Masica|1991}} (from Hoernlé to Turner), and also includes subsequent classification proposals. The table lists only some modern Indo-Aryan languages.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; text-align: center; font-size: 80%;"
|+ Indo-Aryan subgroups
! Model !! [[Odia language|Odia]]!! [[Bengali–Assamese languages|Bengali–<br />Assamese]]!! [[Bihari languages|Bihari]]!! [[Eastern Hindi languages|E. Hindi]]!! [[Western Hindi languages|W. Hindi]]!! [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]!! [[Gujarati languages|Gujarati]]!! [[Pahari languages|Pahari]]!! [[Punjabi dialects#Eastern_Punjabi|E. Punjabi]]!! [[Lahnda|W. Punjabi]]!! [[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]]!! [[Dardic languages|Dardic]]!! [[Marathi–Konkani languages|Marathi–<br />Konkani]]!! [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]–<br />[[Maldivian language|Dhivehi]]!! [[Romani language|Romani]]
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Rudolf Hoernlé|Hoernlé]] (1880)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|E]]
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| E~W
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="3"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|N]]
| style="background:#f60;"| W
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#f60;"| W
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]] (−1927)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| C~E 
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="5"| [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|C]]
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji|Chatterji]] (1926)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="4"| E
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| SW
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#2525ff;"| NW
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Grierson (1931)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| Inter.
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
| style="background:#ff9a54;" colspan="4"| Inter.
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Sumitra Mangesh Katre|Katre]] (1968)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="6"| C
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[R. C. Nigam|Nigam]] (1972)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#f60;"| C (+NW)
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="2"| C
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| N
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[George Cardona|Cardona]] (1974)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="4"| C
| style="background:#c93434;"| (S)W
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="5"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| (S)W
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Turner (−1975)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="4"| C
| style="background:#c93434;"| SW
| style="background:#c97234;"| C <small>(C.)</small>~NW <small>(W.)</small>
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="4"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| SW
| style="background:#f60;"| C
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Ernst Kausen|Kausen]] (2006)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="2"| C
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#35d4ce;"| Romani
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Anton I. Kogan|Kogan]] (2016)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#f60;"| C~NW
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#c97234;"| C~NW
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| style="background:#ec4b4b;"| Insular
| style="background:#f60;"| C
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Ethnologue]] (2020)<ref name="ethnologue23">{{Ethnologue23}}</ref>
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| EC
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| EC <small>(E.)</small>~W <small>(C., W.)</small>
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#28a128;"| W
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Glottolog]] (2024)<ref>{{Glottolog|indo1321|Indo-Aryan}}</ref>
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="5"| Midland
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| style="background:#ec4b4b;"| Dhivehi-Sinhala
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
|}

[[Anton I. Kogan]], in 2016, conducted a [[lexicostatistical]] study of the New Indo-Aryan languages based on a 100-word [[Swadesh list]], using techniques developed by the [[Glottochronology|glottochronologist]] and [[Comparative linguistics|comparative linguist]] [[Sergei Starostin]].<ref name="kogan"/> That grouping system is notable for Kogan's exclusion of Dardic from Indo-Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo-Aryan (43.5%) and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian (39.3%).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kogan |first1=Anton I. |title=Dardskie yazyki. Geneticheskaya kharakteristika |trans-title=Dardic language. Genetic characteristic |date=2005 |publisher=Vostochnaya literatura |location=Moskva |language=ru}}</ref> He also calculated Sinhala–Dhivehi to be the most divergent Indo-Aryan branch. Nevertheless, the modern consensus of Indo-Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

==== Inner–Outer hypothesis ====
{{Main|Inner–Outer hypothesis}}
The '''Inner–Outer hypothesis''' argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan, [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] and [[Pahari language|Pahari]]) representing an older stratum of Old Indo-Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with the newer stratum that is Inner Indo-Aryan. It is a contentious proposal with a long history, with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence. Since its proposal by [[Rudolf Hoernlé]] in 1880 and refinement by [[George Abraham Grierson|George Grierson]] it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate, with the most recent iteration by [[Franklin Southworth]] and [[Claus Peter Zoller]] based on robust linguistic evidence (particularly an Outer past tense in ''-l-''). Some of the theory's sceptics include [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] and [[Colin P. Masica]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Groups ===
The below classification follows {{harvcoltxt|Masica|1991}}, and {{harvcoltxt|Kausen|2006}}.

{{Pie chart
|label1=[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Hindi/Urdu)
|value1=25.4
|label2=[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|value2=20.7
|label3=[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
|value3=9.4
|label4=[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|value4=5.6
|label5=[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|value5=3.8
|label6=[[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
|value6=3.1
|label7=[[Maithili language|Maithili]]
|value7=2.6
|label8=[[Odia language|Odia]]
|value8=2.5
|label9=[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
|value9=1.9
|caption=Percentage of Indo-Aryan speakers by native language:
|other=yes}}

==== Dardic ====
{{main|Dardic languages}}

The '''Dardic languages''' (also Dardu or Pisaca) are a group of Indo-Aryan languages largely spoken in the northwestern extremities of the Indian subcontinent. Dardic was first formulated by [[George Abraham Grierson]] in his [[Linguistic Survey of India]] but he did not consider it to be a subfamily of Indo-Aryan. The Dardic group as a genetic grouping (rather than areal) has been scrutinised and questioned to a degree by recent scholarship: Southworth, for example, says "the viability of Dardic as a genuine subgroup of Indo-Aryan is doubtful" and "the similarities among [Dardic languages] may result from subsequent convergence".<ref name="southworth">{{cite book |last=Southworth |first=Franklin C. |title=Linguistic archaeology of South Asia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-415-33323-7}}</ref>{{rp|149}}

The Dardic languages are thought to be transitional with Punjabi and Pahari (e.g. Zoller describes Kashmiri as "an interlink between Dardic and West Pahāṛī"),<ref name="zoller">{{cite journal |last1=Zoller |first1=Claus Peter |title=Outer and Inner Indo-Aryan, and northern India as an ancient linguistic area |journal=Acta Orientalia |date=2016 |volume=77 |pages=71–132 |url=https://journals.uio.no/actaorientalia/article/download/5355/4695}}</ref>{{rp|83}} as well as non-Indo-Aryan [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]; and are renowned for their relatively conservative features in the context of [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]].

* '''Kashmiri''': [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Kishtwari language|Kishtwari]], [[Pogali|Poguli]];
* '''Shina''': [[Brokskad language|Brokskad]], [[Kundal Shahi language|Kundal Shahi]], [[Shina language|Shina]], [[Ushojo language|Ushojo]], [[Kalkoti language|Kalkoti]], [[Palula language|Palula]], [[Sawi language (Dardic)|Savi]];
* '''Chitrali''': [[Kalasha-mun|Kalasha]], [[Khowar language|Khowar]];
* '''Kohistani''': [[Bateri language|Bateri]], [[Chilisso language|Chilisso]], [[Gowro language|Gowro]], [[Indus Kohistani language|Indus Kohistani]], [[Kalami language|Kalami]], [[Tirahi language|Tirahi]], [[Torwali language|Torwali]], [[Wotapuri-Katarqalai language|Wotapuri-Katarqalai]];
* '''[[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]]'''
* '''Kunar''': [[Dameli language|Dameli]], [[Gawar-Bati language|Gawar-Bati]], [[Nangalami language|Nangalami]], [[Shumashti language|Shumashti]].

==== Northern Zone ====
{{main|Northern Indo-Aryan languages}}

The '''Northern Indo-Aryan languages''', also known as the '''Pahari''' ('hill') languages, are spoken throughout the Himalayan regions of the subcontinent.

* '''Eastern Pahari''': [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Jumli language|Jumli]], [[Doteli]];
* '''Central Pahari''': [[Garhwali language|Garhwali]], [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]];
* '''[[Western Pahari]]''': [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Kangri language|Kangri]], [[Bhadarwahi language|Bhadarwahi]], [[Churahi]], [[Bhateali]], [[Bilaspuri]], [[Chambeali]], [[Gaddi language|Gaddi]], [[Pangwali]], [[Mandeali language|Mandeali]], [[Mahasu Pahari language|Mahasu Pahari]], [[Jaunsari language|Jaunsari]], [[Kullui language|Kullui]], [[Pahari Kinnauri language|Pahari Kinnauri]], [[Hinduri language|Hinduri]], [[Sarazi language|Sarazi]], [[Sirmauri language|Sirmauri]].

==== Northwestern Zone ====
'''Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages''' are spoken in the northwestern region of India and eastern region of Pakistan. [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is spoken predominantly in the [[Punjab region]] and is the official language of [[Punjab, India|the northern Indian state of Punjab]], in addition to being the most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and its variants are spoken natively in the Pakistani province of [[Sindh]] and neighbouring regions. Northwestern languages are ultimately thought to be descended from [[Shauraseni Prakrit]], with influence from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]].<ref>Sigfried J. de Laet. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA734 ''History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century''] UNESCO, 1994. {{ISBN|9231028138}} p 734</ref>

* '''[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]'''
** '''''[[Majhi dialect|Central]]''''': [[Majhi dialect|Majhi]]
** '''''[[Punjabi language#Eastern Punjabi|Eastern]]''''': [[Doabi dialect|Doabi]], [[Malwai dialect|Malwai]], [[Puadhi language|Puadhi]]
** '''''[[Lahnda|Western]]''''': [[Inku language|Inku]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] ([[Multani script|Multani]], [[Riasti]], [[Derawali]]), [[Dhanni dialect|Dhanni]], [[Jhangvi dialect|Jhangvi]], [[Shahpuri dialect|Shahpuri]], [[Thali dialect|Thali]]
** '''''[[Lahnda|North-Western]]''''': [[Hindko]] ([[Kohati]], [[Ghebi dialect|Ghebi]], [[Awankari dialect|Awankari]], [[Chachhi dialect|Chachhi]], [[Peshawari dialect|Peshawari]], [[Hazarvi]]), [[Pahari-Pothwari]]
* '''[[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]]''': [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Jadgali language|Jadgali]], [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]], [[Luwati language|Luwati]], [[Memoni language|Memoni]], [[Khetrani language|Khetrani]], [[Kholosi language|Kholosi]].

==== Western Zone ====
'''Western Indo-Aryan languages''' are spoken in central and western India, in states such as [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Rajasthan]], in addition to contiguous regions in Pakistan. Gujarati is the official language of [[Gujarat]], and is spoken by over 50 million people. In Europe, various [[Romani languages]] are spoken by the [[Romani people]], an itinerant community who historically migrated from India. The Western Indo-Aryan languages are thought to have diverged from their northwestern counterparts, although they have a common antecedent in [[Shauraseni Prakrit]].

*'''[[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]''': [[Bagri language|Bagri]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Mewati language|Mewati]], [[Dhundari language|Dhundari]], [[Harauti language|Harauti]], [[Mewari language|Mewari]], [[Shekhawati language|Shekhawati]], [[Dhatki language|Dhatki]], [[Malvi language|Malvi]], [[Nimadi language|Nimadi]], [[Gujari language|Gujari]], [[Goaria language|Goaria]], [[Loarki language|Loarki]], [[Bhoyari]]/[[Pawari]], [[Kanjari language|Kanjari]], [[Od language|Od]], [[Lambadi]];
* '''[[Gujarati languages|Gujarati]]''': [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Jandavra language|Jandavra]], [[Saurashtra language|Saurashtra]], [[Aer language|Aer]], [[Vaghri language|Vaghri]], [[Parkari Koli language|Parkari Koli]], [[Kachi Koli]], [[Wadiyara Koli]];
* '''[[Bhil languages|Bhil]]''': [[Kalto language|Kalto]], [[Vasavi language|Vasavi]], [[Wagdi]], [[Gamit language|Gamit]], [[Vaagri Booli language|Vaagri Booli]];
** Northern Bhil: [[Bauria language|Bauria]], [[Bhilori language|Bhilori]], [[Magari language|Magari]];
** Central Bhil: [[Bhili language|Bhili proper]], [[Bhilali language|Bhilali]], [[Chodri language|Chodri]], [[Dhodia language|Dhodia]], [[Dhanki language|Dhanki]], [[Dubli language|Dubli]];
** Bareli: [[Palya Bareli language|Palya Bareli]], [[Pauri Bareli language|Pauri Bareli]], [[Rathwi Bareli language|Rathwi Bareli]], [[Pardhi language|Pardhi]];
* '''[[Khandeshi language|Khandeshi]]'''
* '''[[Domaaki language|Domaaki]]'''
* '''[[Domari language|Domari]]'''
* '''[[Romani language|Romani]]''': [[Carpathian Romani]], [[Balkan Romani]], [[Vlax Romani language|Vlax Romani]], [[Baltic Romani]]; 
** [[Northern Romani dialects|Northern Romani]]
*** British Romani: [[Angloromani language|Angloromani]], [[Welsh Romani language|Welsh Romani]]
*** Northwestern Romani: [[Sinte Romani]], [[Finnish Kalo language|Finnish Kalo]]

==== {{vanchor|Central}} Zone ====
{{main|Central Indo-Aryan languages}}

Within India, [[Central Indo-Aryan languages]] are spoken primarily in the western [[Gangetic plains]], including [[Delhi]] and parts of the [[Central Highlands (India)|Central Highlands]], where they are often transitional with neighbouring lects. Many of these languages, including [[Braj]] and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], have rich literary and poetic traditions. [[Urdu]], a Persianised derivative of [[Dehlavi]] descended from [[Shauraseni Prakrit]], is the official language of [[Pakistan]] and also has strong [[Dakhini|historical]] connections to [[India]], where it also has been designated with official status. [[Hindi]], a standardised and Sanskritised register of [[Dehlavi]], is the official language of the [[Government of India]] (along with [[English language|English]]). [[Hindustani language|Together with Urdu]], it is the third most-spoken language in the world.

* '''[[Western Hindi]]''': [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (including [[Hindi|Standard Hindi]] and [[Standard Urdu]]), [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]], [[Braj Bhasha|Braj]], [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], [[Bundeli language|Bundeli]], [[Kannauji language|Kannauji]], [[Parya language|Parya]], [[Sansi language|Sansi]]. 
* '''[[Eastern Hindi]]''': [[Bagheli language|Bagheli]], [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], [[Surgujia language|Surgujia]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] ([[Fiji Hindi]], [[Caribbean Hindustani]]).

==== Eastern Zone ====
{{main|Eastern Indo-Aryan languages}}

The '''Eastern Indo-Aryan''' languages, also known as '''Magadhan''' languages, are spoken throughout the [[Eastern South Asia|eastern subcontinent]], alongside other regions surrounding the northwestern Himalayan corridor. [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is the seventh most-spoken language in the world, and has a strong literary tradition; the [[national anthem]]s of [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]] are written in Bengali. [[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Odia language|Odia]] are the official languages of [[Assam]] and [[Odisha]], respectively. The Eastern Indo-Aryan languages descend from Magadhan [[Apabhraṃśa]]<ref name=Ray2007/> and ultimately from [[Magadhi Prakrit]].<ref>{{cite book|contribution=The historical context and development of Indo-Aryan |editor1-last=Cardona |editor1-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Dhanesh |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=[[Routledge]] |place=London |year=2003 |series=Routledge language family series |isbn=0-7007-1130-9 |pages=46–66}}</ref><ref name=Claus2003>{{cite book|title=South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia |chapter=Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India |first1=Peter J. |last1=Claus |first2=Sarah |last2=Diamond |first3=Margaret Ann |last3=Mills |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2003 |pages=203}}</ref><ref name=Ray2007>{{cite book|last1=Ray |first1=Tapas S. |date=2007 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA444 |chapter=Eleven: "Oriya" |editor1-last=Jain |editor1-first=Danesh |editor2-last=Cardona |editor2-first=George |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=445 |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9}}</ref> Eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of [[Munda languages]], which are largely absent in western Indo-Aryan languages. It is suggested that "proto-Munda" languages may have once dominated the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east.<ref>Peterson, John (2017). "[http://southasiabibliography.de/uploads/Peterson.pdf The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411025821/http://southasiabibliography.de/uploads/Peterson.pdf |date=11 April 2018 }}". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ivani |first1=Jessica K. |last2=Paudyal |first2=Netra |last3=Peterson |first3=John |date=1 September 2020 |title=Indo-Aryan – a house divided? Evidence for the east–west Indo-Aryan divide and its significance for the study of northern South Asia |journal=Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=287–326 |doi=10.1515/jsall-2021-2029 |issn=2196-078X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* '''[[Bengali–Assamese languages|Bengali–Assamese]]'''
** Bengali-Gauda: [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ([[Bangali dialect|Bangali]], [[Rarhi dialect|Rarhi]], [[Sundarbani dialect|Sundarbani]], [[Varendri dialect|Varendri]], [[Manbhumi dialect|Manbhumi]], [[Dhakaiya Kutti]], [[Mymensinghi language|Mymensinghi]], [[Dobhashi]], [[Noakhali language|Noakhali]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]]), [[Goalpariya dialects|East Goalpariya]], [[Bishnupriya Manipuri language|Bishnupriya Manipuri]], [[Hajong language|Hajong]], [[Chakma language|Chakma]], [[Tanchangya language|Tanchangya]], [[Thar language|Thar]], [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]];
** Kamarupic: [[Assamese language|Assamese]] ([[Kamrupi dialects|Kamrupi]]) [[Rangpuri language|Kamtapuri]], [[Surjapuri language|Surjapuri]], [[Rajbanshi language (Nepal)|Rajbanshi]];

* '''[[Bihari languages|Bihari]]''':
** [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Caribbean Hindustani]], [[Fiji Hindi]];
** [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Khortha language|Khortha]];
** [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Angika]], [[Bajjika]], [[Thēthi|Thethi]], Dehati;
** [[Sadanic languages|Sadanic]]: [[Nagpuri language|Nagpuri]], [[Kurmali language|Kurmali (Panchpargania)]];
** [[Tharu languages|Tharu]]:<ref>{{glottolog|thar1284|Tharuic}}</ref> [[Kochila Tharu]], [[Rana Tharu language|Rana Tharu]], [[Kathariya Tharu]], [[Sonha language|Sonha Tharu]], [[Dangaura Tharu]], Chitwania [[Buksa language|Buksa]], [[Majhi language|Majhi]], [[Musasa language|Musasa]];
** [[Kumhali language|Kumhali]], Kuswaric:<ref>{{glottolog|kusw1234|Kuswaric}}</ref> [[Danwar language|Danwar]], [[Bote-Darai language|Bote-Darai]]; 
* '''[[Halbic languages|Halbic]]''': [[Halbi language|Halbi]], [[Kamar language|Kamar]], [[Bhunjia language (Halbic)|Bhunjia]], [[Nahari language|Nahari]];
* '''[[Odia language|Odia]]''': [[Baleswari Odia|Baleswari]], Kataki, [[Ganjami Odia|Ganjami]], [[Sundargadi Odia|Sundargadi]], [[Sambalpuri language|Sambalpuri]], [[Desia language|Desia]];
** [[Bodo Parja language|Bodo Parja]], [[Bhatri language|Bhatri]], [[Reli language|Reli]], [[Kupia language|Kupia]];

==== Southern Zone ====
Marathi-Konkani languages are ultimately descended from [[Maharashtri Prakrit]], whereas Insular Indo-Aryan languages are descended from [[Elu|Elu Prakrit]] and possess several characteristics that markedly distinguish them from most of their mainland Indo-Aryan counterparts. Insular Indo-Aryan languages (of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Maldives]]) started developing independently and diverging from the continental Indo-Aryan languages from around 5th century BCE.<ref name="kogan" />

* '''[[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi-Konkani]]'''
** Marathic: [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Varhadi dialect|Varhadi]], [[Andh language|Andh]], [[Agri dialect|Agri]], Zadi Boli, [[Thanjavur Marathi (language)|Thanjavur]], [[Berar-Deccan Marathi]], [[Phudagi language|Phudagi]], [[Judeo-Marathi|Judeo]], [[Katkari language|Katkari]], [[Varli language|Varli]], [[Kadodi language|Kadodi]];
** Konkanic: [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Karnataki Konkani]], [[Maharashtrian Konkani]].
* '''Insular Indo-Aryan'''
** [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: [[Vedda language|Vedda]]
** [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]]: [[Dhivehi (Addu)|Dhivehi]]

==== Unclassified ====
The following languages are otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:

* '''[[Chinali-Lahuli languages|Chinali–Lahul Lohar]]''':<ref>{{glottolog|chin1491|Chinali–Lahul Lohar}}</ref> [[Chinali language|Chinali]], [[Lahul Lohar language|Lahul Lohar]].
* [[Bazigar language|Bazigar]]
* [[Sheikhgal]]

== History ==
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2017}}

=== Indian subcontinent ===
{{See also|Linguistic history of India}}
Dates indicate only a rough time frame.
* '''[[Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]]''' (before 1500 BCE, reconstructed)
* '''Old Indo-Aryan''' ({{circa|1500}}–500 BCE)
** early Old Indo-Aryan: includes [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ({{circa|1500}} to 500 BCE)
** late Old Indo-Aryan: [[Epic Sanskrit]], [[Classical Sanskrit]] ({{circa|200 CE}} to 1300 CE)
** [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Mitanni Indo-Aryan]] ({{circa|1400 BCE}})
* '''[[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan]]''' or '''[[Prakrit]]s''' ({{circa|600 BCE}} to 1400 CE) 
** early Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. early Jain and Buddhist texts ({{circa|6th}} or 5th century BCE), Ashokan Prakrits, [[Pali]], [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]], ({{circa|600 BCE}} to 200 BCE)
** middle Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. [[Dramatic Prakrit]]s, [[Elu]] ({{circa|300 BCE}} to 700 CE)
** late Middle Indo-Aryan: e.g. [[Abahattha]] ({{circa|600 CE}} to 1400 CE)
* '''Early Modern Indo-Aryan''' (Late Medieval India): e.g. early [[Dakhini]] and emergence of the [[Dehlavi dialect]]
[[File:Indo-European migrations.jpg|thumb|350px|Early [[Indo-European migrations]] from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]]]]

==== Proto-Indo-Aryan ====
{{main|Proto-Indo-Aryan language}}

Proto-Indo-Aryan (or sometimes Proto-Indic{{efn|name=indic"}}) is the [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] [[proto-language]] of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the [[Indo-Aryan peoples#History|pre-Vedic Indo-Aryans]]. Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of [[#Old Indo-Aryan|Old Indo-Aryan]] (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] and [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Mitanni-Aryan]]. Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, however, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language#Differences from Vedic|conservative features lost in Vedic]].

==== Mitanni-Aryan hypothesis ====
{{main|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}}

Some theonyms, proper names, and other terminology of the Late [[Bronze Age]] [[Mitanni]] civilisation of [[Upper Mesopotamia]] exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate. While what few written records left by the Mittani are either in [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]] (which appears to have been the predominant language of their kingdom) or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] (the main [[diplomatic language]] of the Late Bronze Age Near East), these apparently Indo-Aryan names suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the [[Hurrians]] in the course of the [[Indo-Aryan migration|Indo-Aryan expansion]]. If these traces are Indo-Aryan, they would be the earliest known direct evidence of Indo-Aryan, and would increase the precision in dating the split between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages (as the texts in which the apparent Indicisms occur can be dated with some accuracy).

In a treaty between the [[Hittites]] and the Mitanni, the deities [[Mitra]], [[Varuna]], [[Indra]], and the [[Ashvins]] ([[Nasatya]]) are invoked. [[Kikkuli]]'s horse training text includes technical terms such as ''aika'' (cf. Sanskrit ''eka'', "one"), ''tera'' (''tri'', "three"), ''panza'' (''panca'', "five"), ''satta'' (''sapta'', seven), ''na'' (''nava'', "nine"), ''vartana'' (''vartana'', "turn", round in the horse race). The numeral ''aika'' "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian in general or early Iranian (which has ''aiva'').<ref>Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301–17</ref> Another text has ''babru'' (''babhru'', "brown"), ''parita'' (''palita'', "grey"), and {{transliteration|mis|pinkara}} (''pingala'', "red"). Their chief festival was the celebration of the [[solstice]] (''vishuva'') which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called ''marya'', the term for "warrior" in [[Sanskrit]] as well; note ''mišta-nnu'' (= ''miẓḍha'', ≈ Sanskrit ''mīḍha'') "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen'', Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render [[Artashumara]] (''artaššumara'') as ''Ṛtasmara'' "who thinks of [[Ṛta]]" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (''biridašṷa, biriiašṷ''a) as ''Prītāśva'' "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (''priiamazda'') as ''Priyamedha'' "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as ''Citraratha'' "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as ''Indrota'' "helped by [[Indra]]" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (''šattiṷaza'') as ''Sātivāja'' "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as ''Subandhu'' "having good relatives" (a name in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (''tṷišeratta, tušratta'', etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic [[Tvastar]] "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

==== {{Anchor|Old Indo-Aryan}}Old Indo-Aryan ====
The earliest evidence of the group is from [[Vedic Sanskrit]], which is used in the ancient preserved texts of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the foundational canon of the [[Hindu synthesis]] known as the [[Veda]]s. The [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni]] is of similar age to the language of the [[Rigveda]], but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialised loanwords.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and The Indus Civilization |last=Parpola |first=Asko |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015}}</ref>

While Old Indo-Aryan is the earliest stage of the Indo-Aryan branch, from which all known languages of the later stages Middle and New Indo-Aryan are derived, some documented Middle Indo-Aryan variants cannot fully be derived from the documented form of Old Indo-Aryan (on which Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are based), but betray features that must go back to other undocumented dialects of Old Indo-Aryan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Oberlies |first=Thomas |year=2007 |chapter=Chapter Five: Aśokan Prakrit and Pāli |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 |editor1-last=Cardona |editor1-first=George |editor2-last=Jain |editor2-first=Danesh |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Routledge |page=179 |isbn=9781135797119}}</ref>

From Vedic Sanskrit, "[[Sanskrit]]" (literally 'put together, perfected, elaborated') developed as the prestige language of culture, science and religion, as well as the court, theatre, etc. Sanskrit of the later Vedic texts is comparable to [[Classical Sanskrit]], but is largely [[mutually unintelligible]] with Vedic Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gombrich |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |date=14 April 2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-90352-8 |page=24 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits) ====
{{Main|Middle Indo-Aryan languages}}

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects ([[Prakrit]]s) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism|Jain]] canonical languages [[Pali]] and [[Ardhamagadhi Prakrit]], respectively. Inscriptions in [[Ashokan Prakrit]] were also part of this early Middle Indo-Aryan stage, developing into [[Gandhari Prakrit]] and [[Monumental Prakrit]].

By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]]. ''[[Apabhraṃśa]]'' is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the ''Śravakacāra'' of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first book written in Hindi.

The next major milestone occurred with the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] [[Mughal Empire]], [[Persian language in the Indian subcontinent|Persian]] became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoption of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors.

The largest languages that formed from Apabhraṃśa were [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].

==== New Indo-Aryan ====
===== Medieval Hindustani =====
{{Main|Hindustani language}}

{{See also|History of Hindustani}}
In the [[Central Zone (Hindi)|Central Zone Hindi]]-speaking areas, for a long time the [[prestige dialect]] was [[Braj Bhasha]], but this was replaced in the 13th century by [[Dehlavi dialect|Dehlavi]]-based [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]. Hindustani was strongly influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]], with these and later Sanskrit influence leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard [[Urdu]] as [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s of the Hindustani language.<ref name="KulshreshthaMathur2012">{{cite book|last1=Kulshreshtha |first1=Manisha |last2=Mathur |first2=Ramkumar |title=Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHmARyhRoNYC&pg=PA16|date=24 March 2012 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-1-4614-1137-6 |page=16}}</ref><ref name="nunley1999">{{cite book|title=The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography |first1=Robert E. |last1=Nunley |first2=Severin M. |last2=Roberts |first3=George W. |last3=Wubrick |first4=Daniel L. |last4=Roy |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-13-080180-7 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wQAOGMJOqIC |quote=... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...}}</ref> This state of affairs continued until the division of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when Modern Standard Hindi became the official language in India and Modern Standard Urdu became official in Pakistan. Despite the different script the fundamental grammar remains identical, the difference is more [[sociolinguistics|sociolinguistic]] than purely linguistic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india_resource.tripod.com/Urdu.html |title=Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values |publisher=South Asian Voice |access-date=26 February 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111145027/http://india_resource.tripod.com/Urdu.html |archive-date=11 November 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mesa.ucdavis.edu/academics/languages-1/hindu-urdu |title=Hindi/Urdu Language Instruction |publisher=[[University of California]], Davis |access-date=3 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103095430/http://mesa.ucdavis.edu/academics/languages-1/hindu-urdu |archive-date=3 January 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue Report for Hindi">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=hin |title=Ethnologue Report for Hindi |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |access-date=26 February 2008}}</ref> Today it is widely understood/spoken as a second or third language throughout South Asia<ref>{{cite book|first=Otto |last=Zwartjes |title=Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550–1800 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing]] |date=2011 |isbn=978-9027283252}}</ref> and one of the most widely known languages in the world in terms of number of speakers.

=== Outside the Indian subcontinent ===
==== Domari ====
{{main|Domari language}}

[[Domari language|Domari]] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by older [[Dom people]] scattered across the Middle East. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as [[Azerbaijan]] and as far south as central Sudan.<ref name=Matras>*Matras, Y. (2012). ''A grammar of Domari''. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton (Mouton Grammar Library).</ref>{{rp|1}} Based on the systematicity of sound changes, linguists have concluded that the ethnonyms ''Domari'' and ''[[Romani people|Romani]]'' derive from the Indo-Aryan word ''ḍom''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/whatis/language/origins.shtml|title=History of the Romani language|access-date=16 July 2016|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006040538/https://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk//whatis/language/origins.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Lomavren ====
{{main|Lomavren language}}

[[Lomavren]] is a nearly extinct [[mixed language]], spoken by the [[Lom people]], that arose from [[language contact]] between a language related to [[Romani language|Romani]] and [[Domari language|Domari]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iranica.com/articles/gypsy-ii |title=GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects – Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=25 March 2015 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100935/https://www.iranica.com/articles/gypsy-ii |archive-date=2 April 2015 }} Encyclopædia Iranica</ref> and the [[Armenian language]].

==== Parya ====
{{main|Parya language}}

[[Parya language|Parya]] is spoken in [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] by the descendants of migrants from the Indian subcontinent. The language retains many features similar to Punjabi and the Western Hindi dialects, while also bearing some influence from Tajik Persian.<ref name="tiwari">{{cite book|title=Tajuzbeki|last=Tiwari|first=Bholanath|publisher=National Publishing House|url=https://archive.org/details/Tajuzbeki-Dr.BholanathTiwari|year=1970}}</ref>

==== Romani ====
{{main|Romani language}}

The Romani language is usually included in the Western Indo-Aryan languages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Romani (subgroup) |work=Ethnologue |publisher=[[SIL International]] |date=n.d. |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/romani |access-date=15 September 2013}}</ref> Romani varieties, which are mainly spoken throughout Europe, are noted for their relatively conservative nature; maintaining the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, alongside consonantal endings for nominal case. Indeed, these features are no longer evident in most other modern Central Indo-Aryan languages. Moreover, Romani shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person, which corresponds to Dardic languages, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further indication that proto-Romani speakers were originally situated in central regions of the subcontinent, before migrating to northwestern regions. However, there are no known historical sources regarding the development of the Romani language specifically within India.

Research conducted by nineteenth-century scholars Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) demonstrated that the Romani language is most aptly designated as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), as opposed to Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA); establishing that proto-Romani speakers could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, coupled with its reduction to a two-way nominative-oblique case system. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation, due to the fact that Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally employed three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this aspect today.

It is suggested that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. During this process, most of the neuter nouns became masculine, while several became feminine. For example, the neuter ''aggi'' "fire" in Prakrit morphed into the feminine ''āg'' in Hindustani, and ''jag'' in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have additionally been cited as indications that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, possibly as late as the tenth century.

==== Sindhic migrations ====
[[Kholosi]], [[Jadgali]], [[Luwati language|Luwati]], Maimani and Al Sayigh<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jahdhami |first=Said Humaid Al |date=31 July 2022 |title=Maimani Language and Lawati Language: Two Sides of the Same Coin? |url=https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/JML/article/view/27667 |journal=Journal of Modern Languages |language=en |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=37–57 |doi=10.22452/jml.vol32no1.3 |issn=2462-1986|doi-access=free }}</ref> represent offshoots of the [[Sindhi languages|Sindhic]] subfamily of Indo-Aryan that have established themselves in the [[Persian Gulf]] region, perhaps through sea-based migrations. These are of a later origin than the Rom and Dom migrations which represent a different part of Indo-Aryan as well.

==== Indentured labourer migrations ====
The use by the [[British East India Company]] of indentured labourers led to the transplanting of Indo-Aryan languages around the world, leading to locally influenced lects that diverged from the source language, such as [[Fiji Hindi]] and [[Caribbean Hindustani]].

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

==== Stop positions ====
The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five [[places of articulation]]: [[Labial consonant|labial]], [[Dental consonant|dental]], "[[Retroflex consonant|retroflex]]", [[palatal consonant|palatal]], and [[velar consonant|velar]], which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] or [[postalveolar]], and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatal stops have [[affricate consonant|affricate]]d release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=94}} claims {{IPA|[cʃ]}} to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates {{IPA|[ts]}} instead of palatal, though some among them retain {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in certain positions: before [[front vowel]]s (esp. {{IPA|/i/}}), before {{IPA|/j/}}, or when [[geminate]]d. Alveolar as an ''additional'' point of articulation occurs in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Konkani people|Konkani]] where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments ({{IPA|*t̪ɾ}}, {{IPA|t̪}} > {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), and in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]. The addition of a [[Voiceless retroflex affricate|retroflex affricate]] to this in some [[Dardic languages]] maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed {{IPA|/q/}}), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > {{IPA|/s/}}, which has happened in [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] (though there have been other sources of a secondary {{IPA|/ts/}}), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and [[Romani language|Romani]], which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through [[spirantisation]] in many positions (> {{IPA|[f, x]}}).
<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=94–95}}</ref> /q x ɣ f/ are restricted to Perso-Arabic loanwords in most IA languages but they occur natively in Khowar.{{sfnp|Cardona|Jain|2003|p=932}} According to Masica (1991) some dialects of Pashayi have a /θ/ which is unusual for IA languages. Domari which is spoken in the Middle East and had high contact with Middle Eastern languages has /q ħ ʕ ʔ/ and emphatic consonants from loanwords.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=8 | Stops
! rowspan=2 | Languages
|-
! {{IPAslink|p}} !! {{IPAslink|t̪}} !! {{IPAslink|ʈ}} ~ {{IPAslink|t}} !! {{IPAslink|ʈ͡ʂ}} !! {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} ~ {{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}} !! {{IPAslink|t͡s}} !! {{IPAslink|k}} !! {{IPAslink|q}}
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || <small>Khowar, Shina, Bashkarik, Kalasha</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Gawarbati, Phalura, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Mandeali, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (parts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi)</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Hindustani, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Sinhala, Odia, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari), Sanskrit,<ref>In Sanskrit, probably /cɕ/ is a more correct representation. Sometimes, only for representation, /c/ is also used.</ref> Prakrit, Pali, Maithili, Magahi, Bhojpuri</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Romani, Domari, Kholosi</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Rajasthani's S. Mewari</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || <small>Assamese</small>
|-
| {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Chittagonian</small>
|-
| {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || <small>Sylheti</small>
|}

==== Nasals ====
Sanskrit was noted as having five [[nasal stop|nasal-stop]] articulations corresponding to its oral stops, with the palatal and velar nasals only appearing in homorganic clusters.

Among modern Indo-Aryan languages, Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurashtri, and Sindhi have been analysed as having this full set of phonemic nasals {{IPAslink|m}} {{IPAslink|n}} {{IPAslink|ɳ}} {{IPAslink|ɲ}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a [[homorganic]] nasal + stop cluster ({{IPA|[ɲj]}} > {{IPA|[ɲ]}} and {{IPA|[ŋɡ]}} > {{IPA|[ŋ]}}), though there are other sources as well.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=95–96}}</ref>

In languages that lack phonemic nasals at some places of articulation, they can still occur allophonically from place assimilation in a nasal + stop cluster, e.g. Hindustani {{IPA|/nɡ/}} > {{IPA|[ŋɡ]}}. Furthermore, some nasals are restricted to certain positions as a merger of several sounds, e.g. {{IPA|[ŋ]}} being the realization of any nasal in final position in Sinhala and Dhivehi. These allophonic and derived examples are not included in the following table.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=5 | Nasals
! rowspan=2 | Languages
|-
! {{IPAslink|m}} !! {{IPAslink|n}} !! {{IPAslink|ɳ}} !! {{IPAslink|ɲ}} !! {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || <small>Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurashtri, Sindhi, Saraiki</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || <small>Kalami, Odia, Dhundhari, Pashayi, Marwari</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Addu Dhivehi</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || <small>Sinhala, Malé Dhivehi{{efn|Unclear status of /ɲ/}}</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || <small>Gujarati, Kashmiri, Marathi, Punjabi, Marwari, Hindi</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || <small>Nepali</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || <small>Sylheti, Assamese, Bengali</small>
|-
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || <small>Urdu, Romani, Domari</small>
|}

==== Aspiration and breathy-voice ====
Most Indo-Aryan languages have contrastive [[Aspirated consonant|aspiration]] ({{IPA|/ʈ/ ~ /ʈʰ/}}), and some retain historical [[breathy voice]] on voiced consonants ({{IPA|/ɖ/ ~ /ɖʱ/}}). Sometimes both phenomena are analysed as a single aspiration contrast. The places and manners of articulation which allow contrastive aspiration vary by language; e.g. Sindhi permits phonemic {{IPA|/mʱ/}}, but the phonemic status of this sound in Hindustani is uncertain, and many "Dardic" languages lack aspirated retroflex sibilants despite having unaspirated equivalents.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=101–102}}</ref>

In languages that have lost breathy-voice, the contrast has often been replaced with tone.

==== Regional developments ====
Some of these are mentioned in {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=104–105}}.

* '''[[Implosive consonant|Implosives]]''': Languages in the [[Sindhi languages|Sindhic]] subfamily, as well as [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], western [[Marwari language|Marwari]] dialects, and some dialects of Gujarati have developed implosive consonants from historical intervocalic geminates and word-initial stops. Sindhi has a full implosive series except for the dental implosive: {{IPA|/ɠ ʄ ᶑ ɓ/}}. It has been claimed that [[Wadiyari Koli]] has the dental implosive too. Other languages have less complete implosive series, e.g. Kacchi has just {{IPA|/ᶑ ɓ/}}.
* '''[[Prenasalized stops]]''': Sinhala and Maldivian (Dhivehi) have a series of prenasalised stops covering all places except for palatal: {{IPA|/ᵐb ⁿd ᶯɖ ᵑɡ/}}.
* '''[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalization]]''': Kashmiri (natively) and some Romani dialects (from contact with Slavic languages) have contrastive palatalisation.
* '''[[ɬ|Voiceless lateral]]''' In Gawarbati, some Pashai dialects, partly Bashkarik and some Shina dialects have /ɬ/ from clusters of tr kr or sometimes pr; dr gr and br merged with /l/ in these languages.
* '''[[Lateral affricate]]s''': [[Bhadarwahi language|Bhadarwahi]] has an unusual series of lateral retroflex affricates ({{IPA|/ʈ͡ꞎ ɖ͡ɭ ɖ͡ɭʱ/}} derived from historical {{IPA|/Cɾ/}} clusters.

=== Vowels ===
Vowel typologies are varied across Indo-Aryan due to diachronic mergers and (in some cases) splits, as well as different accounts by linguists for even the widely-spoken languages. Vowel systems per {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=108–113}} are listed below. Many languages also have phonemic nasal vowels.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! 
! Vowels
! Languages
|-
| 16 || {{IPA|/iː i eː e ɨː ɨ əː ə aː a ɔː ɔ oː o uː u/}} || Kashmiri
|-
| 14 || {{IPA|/ɪ iː ʊ uː e eː ə~ɐ əː o oː æ~ɛ a aː ɔ/}} || Maithili
|-
| 13 || {{IPA|/iː i eː e æː æ aː a ə oː o uː u/}} || Sinhala
|-
| 10 || {{IPA|/i ɪ e ɛ &middot; a ə &middot; ɔ o ʊ u/}} || Hindustani, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kacchi, Hindko, Rajasthani (most varieties)
|-
| rowspan=3 | 9 || {{IPA|/i ɪ e æ~ɛ &middot; a ə &middot; o ʊ u/}} || W. Pahari (Dogri, Rudhari, Mandeali, Pangwali, Khashali, Churahi), Saraiki
|-
| {{IPA|/i ɪ e &middot; a ə &middot; ɔ o ʊ u/}} || W. Pahari (Shodochi, Surkhuli)
|-
| {{IPA|/i ɪ e ɛ &middot; a &middot; ɔ o ʊ u/}} || W. Pahari (Jaunsari, Shoracholi, Kullui)
|-
| rowspan=3 | 8 || {{IPA|/i e ɛ &middot; a ə &middot; ɔ o u/}} || Gujarati
|-
| {{IPA|/i e ɛ a &middot; ɒ ɔ o u/}} || Assamese
|-
| {{IPA|/i ɪ e &middot; a ə &middot; o ʊ u/}} || Halbi, Bhatri, W. Pahari (Garhwali, Chameali, Gaddi)
|-
| 7 || {{IPA|/i e æ &middot; a &middot; ɔ o u/}} || Bengali
|-
| rowspan=3 | 6 || {{IPA|/i e a &middot; ɔ o u/}} || Odia, Bishnupriya Manipuri
|-
| {{IPA|/i e &middot; a ə &middot; o u/}} || Marathi, Lambadi, Sadri/Sadani
|-
| {{IPA|/i e &middot; a ʌ &middot; o u/}} || Nepali
|-
| 5 || {{IPA|/i e &middot; a &middot; o u/}} || Romani (European dialects)
|}

[[Sylheti language]] is one of the few [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] Indo-Aryan languages, others being Punjabi and a few Dardic languages. The vowels of Sylheti language listed below.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mahanta |first1=Shakuntala |last2=Gope |first2=Amalesh |date=1 September 2018 |title=Tonal polarity in Sylheti in the context of noun faithfulness |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000117302851 |journal=Language Sciences |language=en |volume=69 |pages=81 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2018.06.010 |s2cid=149759441 |issn=0388-0001|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! 
! Vowels
! Languages
|-
| 5 || {{IPA|/i e &middot; a &middot; ɔ u/}} || Sylheti
|}

=== Charts ===
The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, mostly following {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=106–107}}, though here they are in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

{|
|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" 
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Romani
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|(ts)}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|pʲ}} || {{IPA|tʲ}} || {{IPA|kʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|(dz)}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|bʲ}} || {{IPA|dʲ}} || {{IPA|ɡʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|tʰ}} || || {{IPA|tʃʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || {{IPA|nʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|(f)}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|x}} || {{IPA|(fʲ)}} || {{IPA|sʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|(z)}} || || {{IPA|ʒ}} || {{IPA|ɦ}} || {{IPA|vʲ}} || {{IPA|zʲ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ}} || {{IPA|l}} || || || || {{IPA|lʲ}}
|-
| || || || {{IPA|j}}
|}
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Shina
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|tʂ}} || {{IPA|k}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɖʐ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tsʰ}} || {{IPA|tʃʰ}} || {{IPA|tʂʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}} || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| {{IPA|(f)}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|ʂ}} || || {{IPA|ɕ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʐ}} || || {{IPA|ʑ}} || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ l}} || {{IPA|ɽ}}
|-
| {{IPA|w}} || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|}
| colspan="2"|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Kashmiri
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|pʲ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʲ}} || {{IPA|ʈʲ}} || {{IPA|tsʲ}} || {{IPA|kʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|bʲ}} || {{IPA|d̪ʲ}} || {{IPA|ɖʲ}} || || {{IPA|ɡʲ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tsʰ}} || {{IPA|tʃʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || {{IPA|pʲʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʲʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʲʰ}} || {{IPA|tsʲʰ}} || {{IPA|kʲʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || || {{IPA|mʲ}} || {{IPA|nʲ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|s}} || || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || {{IPA|sʲ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|z}} || || || || {{IPA|ɦ}} || || {{IPA|zʲ}} || || || {{IPA|ɦʲ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ l}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɾʲ lʲ}} ||
|-
| {{IPA|w}} || || || || {{IPA|j}} || || {{IPA|wʲ}}
|}
|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" 
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Saraiki
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|k}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tʃʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖʱ}} || {{IPA|dʒʱ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɓ}} || || {{IPA|ɗ}} || {{IPA|ʄ}} || {{IPA|ɠ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| {{IPA|mʱ}} || {{IPA|nʱ}} || {{IPA|ɳʱ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|(ʃ)}} || {{IPA|(x)}}
|-
| || {{IPA|(z)}} || || || {{IPA|(ɣ) ɦ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ l}} || {{IPA|ɽ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}} || {{IPA|ɽʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|w}} || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
| {{IPA|wʱ}}
|}
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Punjabi
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|k}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʼ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʼ}} || {{IPA|ʈʼ}} || {{IPA|tʃʼ}} || {{IPA|kʼ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| {{IPA|(f)}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|(z)}} || || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ l}} || {{IPA|ɽ ɭ}}
|-
| {{IPA|[w]}} || || || {{IPA|[j]}}
|}
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Nepali
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|k}}
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || {{IPA|dz}} || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tsʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
|-
| {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖʱ}} || {{IPA|dzʱ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|s}} || || || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|ɾ l}}
|-
| {{IPA|[w]}} || || || {{IPA|[j]}}
|}
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Sylheti<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0630.pdf |title=An Acoustic Analysis of Sylheti Phonemes |last1=Gope |first1=Amalesh |last2=Mahanta |first2=Shakuntala |date=2015 |location=Glasgow |conference=ICPhS 2015 |access-date=11 November 2022}}</ref>

|-
| || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || ||
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || || {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɸ}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{nbsp}}ʃ{{nbsp}} || {{IPA|x}}
|-
| || {{IPA|z}} || || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|r l}} || 
|-
| || || || 
|}
|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" 
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Sindhi<ref>{{cite web |last=Pandey |first=Anshuman |title=Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script in ISO/IEC 10646 |url=http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n3871.pdf |access-date=11 November 2022 |date=10 September 2010}}</ref>
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| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|t̪}} || {{IPA|ʈ}} || {{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|k}}
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| {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖʱ}} || {{IPA|dʒʱ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}}
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| {{IPA|ɓ}} || || {{IPA|ɗ}} || {{IPA|ʄ}} || {{IPA|ɠ}}
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
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| {{IPA|mʱ}} || {{IPA|nʱ}} || {{IPA|ɳʱ}}
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| {{IPA|(f)}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|(ʃ)}} || {{IPA|(x)}}
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| {{IPA|w}} || || || {{IPA|j}}
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| {{IPA|wʱ}}
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{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Marwari
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| {{IPA|ɓ}} || {{IPA|ɗ̪}} || {{IPA|ɗ}} || || {{IPA|ɠ}}
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}}
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| {{IPA|mʱ}} || {{IPA|nʱ}}
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| {{IPA|wʱ}}
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|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+Hindustani
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| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}}
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| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tʃʰ}}
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}}
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{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Assamese
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| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|g}}
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| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|tʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
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| {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|dʱ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}}
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
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| {{IPA|[w]}}
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|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" 
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{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Bengali
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| {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || {{IPA|ʈʰ}} || {{IPA|tʃʰ}} || {{IPA|kʰ}}
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| {{IPA|bʱ}} || {{IPA|d̪ʱ}} || {{IPA|ɖʱ}} || {{IPA|dʒʱ}} || {{IPA|ɡʱ}}
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} ||  ||  || {{IPA|ŋ}}
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|  || {{IPA|[s]}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}}|| {{IPA|ɦ}}
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|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" -->
|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Gujarati
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|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Marathi
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| {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|d̪}} || {{IPA|ɖ}} || {{IPA|dz}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || {{IPA|ɡ}}
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| {{IPA|wʱ}}
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|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Odia
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɳ}}
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|
{| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black"
|+ Sinhala
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|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
| || {{IPA|s}} || || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
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|}
|}

== Sociolinguistics ==

=== Register ===
In many Indo-Aryan languages, the literary register is often more archaic and utilises a different lexicon (Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic) than spoken vernacular. One example is Bengali's high literary form, [[Sadhu bhasha|Sādhū bhāṣā]], as opposed to the more modern [[Calita bhasa|Calita bhāṣā]] (Cholito-bhasha).{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=57}} This distinction approaches [[diglossia]].

=== Language and dialect ===
In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations [[Language or dialect|"language" and "dialect"]] is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In one general colloquial sense, a language is a "developed" dialect: one that is standardised, has a written tradition and enjoys [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|social prestige]]. As there are degrees of development, the boundary between a language and a dialect thus defined is not clear-cut, and there is a large middle ground where assignment is contestable.
There is a second meaning of these terms, in which the distinction is drawn on the basis of linguistic similarity. Though seemingly a "proper" linguistics sense of the terms, it is still problematic: methods that have been proposed for quantifying difference (for example, based on [[mutual intelligibility]]) have not been seriously applied in practice; and any relationship established in this framework is relative.{{sfn|Masica|1991|pp=23–27}}

== See also ==
* [[Indo-Aryans]]
* [[Iranic languages]]
* [[Proto-Vedic Continuity]]
* [[Brahmic scripts|The family of Brahmic scripts]]
* [[Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil]]
* [[Dravidian languages]]
* [[Languages of Bangladesh]]
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[Maldives#Languages|Languages of Maldives]]
* [[Languages of Nepal]]
* [[Languages of Pakistan]]
* [[Languages of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Languages of South Asia]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*Morgenstierne, Georg. "Early Iranic Influence upon Indo-Aryan." Acta Iranica, I. série, Commemoration Cyrus. Vol. I. Hommage universel (1974): 271–279.
* [[John Beames]], ''A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali''. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
* Madhav Deshpande (1979). ''Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction''. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. {{ISBN|0-89720-007-1}}, {{ISBN|0-89720-008-X}} (pbk).
* [[Byomkes Chakrabarti|Chakrabarti, Byomkes]] (1994). ''A comparative study of Santali and Bengali''. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. {{ISBN|81-7074-128-9}}
* Erdosy, George. (1995). ''The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity''. Berlin: [[Walter de Gruyter]]. {{ISBN|3-11-014447-6}}.
* {{cite web |url=http://homepages.fh-giessen.de/kausen/klassifikationen/Indogermanisch.doc |first=Ernst |last=Kausen |date=2006 |title=Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen (Microsoft Word, 133 KB)}}
* Kobayashi, Masato.; & [[George Cardona]] (2004). ''Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants''. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. {{ISBN|4-87297-894-3}}.
* {{Citation |last=Masica |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1991 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |place= Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=indo-aryan+languages}}.
* Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). ''Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology''. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
* Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). ''The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar'' (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
* Sen, Sukumar. (1995). ''Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages''. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
* Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). ''The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area''. Prague: Charles University.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19991007065656/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/1335/Lang/prakrit.html The Indo-Aryan languages], 25 October 2009
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141029054109/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/The%20Indo-Aryan%20Languages_Masica.pdf The Indo-Aryan languages] Colin P.Masica 
* [http://web.mit.edu/rbhatt/www/24.956/l1.pdf Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages] (Rajesh Bhatt), 7 February 2003.

{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Indo-Iranian languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Aryan Languages}}
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages| ]]