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== Warfare ==
{{Main|Phalanx formation|Ancient Greek warfare}}
[[File:Hoplite 5th century.jpg|thumb|left|Hoplite, 5th century]]
[[File:Two hoplites.jpg|thumb|left|Hoplites shown in two attack positions, with both an underhand and an overhand stance]]
The fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city-states to form large armies which could operate for long periods because they were generally not formed from professional soldiers. Most soldiers had careers as farmers or workers and returned to these professions after the campaign. All hoplites were expected to take part in any military campaign when called for duty by leaders of the state. The [[Spartan army|Lacedaemonian]] citizens of [[Sparta]] were renowned for their lifelong combat training and almost mythical military prowess, while their greatest adversaries, the Athenians, were exempted from service only after the age of 60. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns and often resulted in the campaign season being restricted to one summer.{{clarify|Why?|date=June 2019}}

Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in some cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on level ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days.

When battles occurred, they were usually [[set piece battle|set piece]] and intended to be decisive. The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare. These battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, when [[cavalry]] was present, its role was restricted to protection of the flanks of the phalanx, pursuit of a defeated enemy, and covering a retreat if required. [[Light infantry]] and missile troops took part in the battles but their role was less important. Before the opposing phalanxes engaged, the light troops would skirmish with the enemy's light forces, and then protect the flanks and rear of the phalanx.

The military structure created by the Spartans was a rectangular phalanx formation. The formation was organised from eight to ten rows deep and could cover a front of a quarter of a mile or more if sufficient hoplites were available. The two lines would close to a short distance to allow effective use of their spears, while the {{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|[[psiloi]]}} threw stones and javelins from behind their lines. The shields would clash and the first lines ([[protostates]]) would stab at their opponents, at the same time trying to keep in position. The ranks behind them would support them with their own spears and the mass of their shields gently pushing them, not to force them into the enemy formation but to keep them steady and in place. The soldiers in the back provided motivation to the ranks in the front being that most hoplites were close community members. At certain points, a command would be given to the phalanx or a part thereof to collectively take a certain number of steps forward (ranging from half to multiple steps). This was the famed ''[[othismos]]''.<ref>{{LSJ|w)qismo/s|othismos|ref}}.</ref>

[[File:Amphora phalanx Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1429.jpg|thumb|Phalanx fighting on a black-figure [[amphora]], {{Circa|560 BC}}. The hoplite phalanx is a [[Hoplite formation in art|frequent subject]] in ancient Greek art.]]
At this point, the phalanx would put its collective weight to push back the enemy line and thus create fear and panic among its ranks. There could be multiple such instances of attempts to push, but it seems from the accounts of the ancients that these were perfectly orchestrated and attempted organised ''en masse''. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, sometimes chased by [[psiloi]], [[peltast]]s, or light cavalry.

If a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome {{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|[[aspis]]}}, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family (becoming a {{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|ripsaspis}}, one who threw his shield).<ref>{{LSJ|r(i/yaspis|ripsaspis|ref}}.</ref> To lessen the number of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles, soldiers were positioned to stand shoulder to shoulder with their [[aspis]]. The hoplites' most prominent citizens and generals led from the front. Thus, the war could be decided by a single battle.

[[File:Vix crater hoplite circa 500 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Probable [[Spartan]] hoplite ([[Vix crater]], c. 500 BC)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Charles |title=Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199651917 |page=154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXIVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT172 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Individual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, protecting themselves and the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|page=10}}</ref> It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx, to counteract these problems. According to [[Plutarch|Plutarch's]] ''Sayings of Spartans'', "a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line".<ref>{{cite book|title=Hoplites: Classical Greek Battle Experience|last=Hanson|first=Victor Davis|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|page=303}}</ref>

The phalanx is an example of a military formation in which single combat and other individualistic forms of battle were suppressed for the good of the whole. In earlier [[Iliad|Homeric]], [[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Age]] combat, the words and deeds of supremely powerful heroes turned the tide of battle. Instead of having individual heroes, hoplite warfare relied heavily on the community and unity of soldiers. With friends and family pushing on either side and enemies forming a solid wall of shields in front, the hoplite had little opportunity for feats of technique and weapon skill, but great need for commitment and mental toughness. By forming a human wall to provide a powerful defensive armour, the hoplites became much more effective while suffering fewer casualties. The hoplites had a lot of [[discipline]] and were taught to be [[Loyalty|loyal]] and [[trustworthy]]. They had to trust their neighbours for mutual protection, so a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest elements. Its effectiveness depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat, and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win. Often engagements between various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing after their phalanx had broken formation.

As important as unity among the ranks was in phalanx warfare, individual fighting skill played a role in battle. Hoplites' shields were not locked all of the time. Throughout many points of the fight there were periods where the hoplites separated as far as two to three feet apart in order to have room to swing their shields and swords at the enemy. This led to individual prowess being more important than previously realised by some historians. 
It would have been nearly impossible to swing both shield and sword if the man next to you is practically touching.<ref>Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}} One piece of evidence of this is the picking of individual champions after each battle was fought. This is most evident in Herodotus' account of the Battle of Thermopylae. "Although great valor was displayed by the entire corps of Spartans and Thespians, the man who proved himself best was a Spartan Officer named [[Dienekes]]".<ref>Herodotus on Thermopylae</ref> The brothers Alpheus and Maron were also honoured for their battlefield prowess as well. This is just one example of an ancient historian giving credit to a few individual soldiers and the individuality of phalanx warfare.