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==Functions of "to be"==
In English, the verb 'to be' (also known as the ''[[copula (linguistics)|copula]]'') has several distinct functions:

* [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]]: ''noun-phrase copula definite-noun''
** ''The cat is my only pet.''
* [[Class (philosophy)|class membership]]: ''definite-noun copula noun-phrase''
** ''Garfield is a cat.''
* [[Class (philosophy)|class inclusion]]: ''noun-phrase copula noun-phrase''
** ''A cat is an animal.''
* [[Predicate (grammar)|predication]]: ''noun-phrase copula adjective''
** ''The cat is furry.''
* [[Possessive|ownership]]: ''noun-phrase copula possessive-noun''
** ''The cat is theirs.''
* [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]]: ''noun-phrase copula verb-phrase''
** ''The cat is sleeping.''{{snd}} with the copula being part of the [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] with the [[Participle#Forms|present participle]]
** ''The cat is being bitten by the dog.''{{snd}} with the copula being part of the [[English passive voice|passive]] with the [[Participle#Forms|past participle]] of a [[transitive verb]]
* [[existence]]: ''medial-proadverb-of-location copula noun-phrase''
** ''There is a cat.''
* [[Location (geography)|location]]: ''noun-phrase copula location-phrase''
** ''The cat is nowhere to be found.''

Bourland sees specifically the "identity" and "predication" functions as pernicious but advocates the exclusion of all forms for the sake of simplicity. In the case of the "existence" form or the "location" form, terms such as  ''exist'', ''sit'' or ''lie'' could substitute for the copula.

Some [[ergative verb]]s may substitute the copula, including ''taste'', ''feel'', ''smell'', ''sound'', ''grow'', ''hinge'', ''remain'', ''rest'', ''stay'', ''reside'', and ''turn'', among others.<ref>Miller, Sally. “SEVENTH AND NINTH GRADE WRITING EXERCISES: Candy, Biographies, and E-Prime.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics, vol. 56, no. 1, 1999, pp. 91–101. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/42579866. Accessed 7 Feb. 2021.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|editor1-last = Bourland|editor1-first = D. David|editor2-last = Johnston|editor2-first = Paul Dennithorne|title=E-Prime III! : a third anthology |year=1997 |publisher=International Society for General Semantics |location=Concord, California |isbn=0-918970-46-6 }}</ref>