View source for Saloum

==History==
[[Image:EthniesSénégal.jpg|thumb|left|''Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853)'': an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked "''Peuple Sérère''".]] 
{{further|Serer ancient history|Serer history (medieval era to present)|Timeline of Serer history}}
===Early history===
{{see|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history}}
Saloum and the surrounding region is known for its many ancient burial mounds or "[[tumuli]]" (''podoom'' in [[Serer language|Serer]]) containing the graves of kings and others. The kingdom also has numerous mysterious stone circles whose function and history are still debated by scholars, most of which pre-date the formation of the kingdom.<ref name="Becker"/> The [[Serer people]] who are very diverse, are noted by scholars as one of the oldest inhabitants of the [[Senegambia region]]<ref>[[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]], ''La Civilisation Sérère - Pangool'', Les Nouvelles éditions africaines du Sénégal, 1990, p. 77 {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}</ref><ref>''Bulletin de la Société de géographie, Volume 26.'' Société de Géographie (1855), pp. 35 - 36. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hJ9bQf7f-RoC&pg=PA35] (7 mars 2025). Quote:
:« La nation sérère, aujourd'hui dispersée en plusieurs petits États sur la côte ou refoulée dans les bois de l'intérieur, doit être une des plus anciennes de la Sénégambie ».</ref> who saw the entire region as their home.{{sfn|Mwakikagile|2010|p=97}} In the 11th century, the Serers of [[Takrur]] [[Religious persecution#Persecution of Serers|were persecuted for their]] [[Serer religion|Serer religious beliefs]] by the new Muslim convert and usurper, king [[War Jabi]] and his Muslim ally forces - resulting in the [[Takrur#Serer Exodus|Serer exodus from Takrur]]. Those Serers headed south including Saloum - joining their distant Serer relatives. For more on that, see [[Serer medieval history]].<ref>Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, {{ISBN|2-86537-143-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Mwakikagile|2010|p=11}}<ref>Diop, Abdoulaye Bara, "Le tenure foncière en milieu rural Wolof (Sénégal): Historique et actualité." Notes Africaines, no. 118, (April 1968), IFAN, Dakar, pp. 48–52 </ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Thiaw |first1=Ibrahima |editor1-last=Bosma |editor1-first=Ulbe |editor2-last=Kessler |editor2-first=Gijs |editor3-last=Lucassen |editor3-first=Leo |title=Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004241831 |chapter=From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia.}}</ref>

Fall has advanced the claim that, the first inhabitants of the region, according to oral tradition{{which|date=March 2025}}, were a [[Mande people]] who immigrated from the [[Wagadu Empire]] to flee a drought, likely towards the end of the first millennium CE.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=144-5}} The princess of Wagadou would marry into the Serer noble families such as the Joof, Njie, etc., giving birth to a Wagadou maternal dynasty in much of Serer country.  For more on that, see [[Joof family]], [[Teigne]], and [[Serer maternal clans]].

Before [[Maad Saloum]] [[Mbegan Ndour]], Saloum existed in some form, but it is unclear what form it took.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=161}} The area was composed a series of chiefdoms and independent villages, many of which led by Serer [[Lamane]]s and/or part of the [[Jolof Empire]]'s sphere of influence.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=158}}{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=221}} The core of what would become the Kingdom of Saloum was a Lamanic state called Mbey, with the capital at [[Njop]].<ref>Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 707 (p 5)</ref><ref name = Ba/>{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=288}} The king/chief of Mbey using the Serer noble title '' [[Maad]]'' -referred to as ''Maada Mbey/Maad a Mbey'' (as in [[Maad a Sinig]] and [[Maad Saloum]], titles of the kings of Sine and Saloum respectively).

===Founding===
{{See|Serer medieval history|Mbegane Ndour|Maad Saloum}}
[[File:Apartment of the King of Salum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Apartment of the [[Maad Saloum]] (king of Saloum) in 1821.]]

In the late 15th century, Ali Elibana, a [[Toucouleur people|Toucouleur]] [[marabout]], established himself at [[Njop]] and took control of the surrounding salt-producing region, Mbey, mostly populated by the Serer.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=161}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=112}} This was a period of profound destabilization and succession disputes in the Jolof Empire, which had extended its hegemony south to the [[Gambia River]] under [[Biram Njeme Eler]] (c.1465–c.1481). While the southern and eastern parts of the region that became Saloum were under the influence of Jolof, Saloum the kingdom was never a part of the empire.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=221}}

[[Mbegane Ndour]], whose paternal roots were in the region, came to Mbey from Sine likely with the intention of carving out a kingdom for himself.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=243}} Around the turn of the 16th century, he launched a religious conflict against the Muslim Elibana, strengthened by the purchase of horses and guns from European merchants on the coast. In the legend, after proving unable to overcome him on the battlefield, Ndour transformed into a snake and hid outside Elibana's mosque; when the marabout emerged from his prayers, the snake bit him, and he died. He then fought and defeated Diattara Tambedou, who was either Elibana's successor or a former ally of Ndour's. Tambedou, a Muslim [[Soninke people|Soninke]], was likely a salt merchant. Control over this vital resource underpinned the conflict as much or more than religious differences.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=158-9}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=112-3}}

Ndour renamed Njop [[Kahone]], meaning 'this is the one' in Serer, and made it the capital of a kingdom modeled on his homeland, Sine.{{sfn|Boulegue|2013|p=159}}{{sfn|Sakho|2021|p=113}}{{sfn|Fall|2022}} He built up his power by allying with the various smaller powers of the region, including Serer Lamanes, [[Soninke people|Soninke]] or Toucouleur marabouts, and local village chiefs, but he only directly controlled Mbey.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=260-1}} At some point, he may have served as regent to the underage [[Maad a Sinig]] (King of the [[Kingdom of Sine]]).{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=243}}

===Height===
After Mbegane Ndour's death he was succeeded by Giran O Ngap, a [[Guelwar]], but his reign was consumed by civil conflict first with local marabouts and finally with Ndour's nephew Latmenge Dielene, who poisoned him and took power. Rather than relying on a balance of alliances like his uncle had done, Latmenge Dielene built a military powerful state with clearly defined provinces run by families loyal to the Maad Saloum. He fought numerous wars to build up the power of the ruling aristocracy and impose central power and tribute on previously independent villages or statelets, including the kingdom of [[Niumi]].{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=291-4}}

By 1566, the process of unification and centralization was completed under [[Maad Saloum]] Lat Ciloor Bajaan, who extended Saloum's power to the north bank of the Gambia and made the [[Kingdom of Niani]] pay tribute.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=305-314}} [[Upper Saloum|Two]] [[Lower Saloum|districts]] of [[The Gambia]] retain the name Saloum today. A major part of this expansion process was the welcoming of immigrant families fleeing conflict elsewhere in the region, granting them fiefs either to extend control over uninhabited areas or ensure the loyalty of conquered regions. At its height, four major trading ports on the Gambia river fell within Saloum's zone of influence: [[Barra, Gambia|Barra]] in [[Niumi]], Iambor in [[Upper Baddibu|Baddibu]], [[Kaur, The Gambia|Kaur]] in Saloum itself, and [[Kassang]] in Niani.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=319}}

The most important offices of the state were monopolized by members of the [[Guelwar]] clan. But the multiplication of titles and the importance of trade on the Gambia gradually undermined central control.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=356-7}}

===Clashes with Colonialism and Islam===
{{Serer religion}}
As one of the wealthiest and most stable states in the region, the Maad Saloum was able to play [[France]] and [[England]] off of each other for centuries to ensure the best terms of trade. In 1785 Saalum Sandene signed a trade treaty with the French, but the upheavals of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Napoleonic Era]] ensured continued English dominance of the important Saloum-Saloum market. The end of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] saw the kingdom's foreign trade limited mostly to foodstuffs, which further increased the power of landowners relative to the monarchy, and pushed the ''[[ceddo]]'' (denoting followers of [[Serer religion]] in this context) warrior class to increasingly prey on their subjects.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=397-402}} 

In 1857 the French trading post at [[Albreda]] on the Gambia was given to the English in exchange for [[Portendick]], and Saloum was left unable to balance the two colonial powers against each other. Two years later, Governor [[Louis Faidherbe]] led an expedition up the [[Saloum River]] and imposed a new treaty on the Maad Saloum.{{sfn|Fall|2022|p=403}} 

In 1861, [[Maba Diakhou Bâ]], a Muslim cleric and slave trader,{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=73}} took control of [[Badibu]], also known as Rip, on Saloum's southern edge. Shortly afterwards, Sambou Oumanneh Touray,  Maba disciple defeated and killed the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, joined the two countries together (hence : ''[[Sabach Sanjal|Sabakh-Sandial]]'') and ruled it.<ref name = Ba/>{{rp|18}}{{sfn|Klein|1968|pp=74-5}} Maba soon controlled most of Saloum and part of [[Kingdom of Niumi|Niumi]].{{sfn|Charles|1977|pp=54}} His forces clashed with the French and, despite a defeat, continued to attract new recruits, with the army numbering up to 11,000 fighting men. In 1864 the French recognized him as [[Almamy]] of Baddibu and Saloum, but his growing power threatened to unify Senegambia against them.<ref name="Isichei">{{cite book |last1=Isichei |first1=Elizabeth |title=History of West Africa since 1800 |date=1977 |publisher=Africana Publishing Company |location=New York |page=51 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestafrOOOOisic |access-date=31 May 2023}}</ref> An alarmed French governor [[Émile Pinet-Laprade]] marched on Saloum at the head of 1,600 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, and 4,000 volunteers and footsoldiers. At the [[Battle of Pathé Badiane]] outside of Nioro, however, the marabout forces led by [[Lat Dior]] drove the French back towards [[Kaolack]].{{sfn|Barry|1998|pp=199}}

As well as forcibly converting traditional states and their populations to [[Islam]], Maba Diakhou Bâ sought to abolish the traditional caste system of the [[Serer people|Serer]] states.<ref name = Isichei/> In 1867, aided by the kings of Cayor and Jolof with their respective armies, he tried to invaded the ultra-conservative Serer [[Kingdom of Sine]], but was defeated and killed at the [[Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune]].{{sfn|Barry|1998|pp=199}} The Kingdom of Saloum, was the only Senegambian kingdom that came to the aid of its sister Serer kingdom against the Muslim ally forces in that battle. 

After Maba's defeat, Saloum was incorporated into the colony of [[Senegal]]. The kings continued to hold their court in [[Kahone]], but the city was eclipsed commercially by neighboring [[Kaolack]]. However, like the Kingdom of Sine, the royal dynasty survived up to 1969, when the last [[Maad Saloum|King of Saloum]] [[Fode N'Gouye Joof]], and the last [[Maad a Sinig|King of Sine]] [[Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof]] died. After their deaths, both were incorporated into newly independent Senegal.

===Restoration of the Monarchy===
In 2017, the Serer of Saloum decided to reinstate their monarchy, and Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao was selected from the Guelowar matrilineage to succeed the throne. After a contentious election, he was crowned King on 21 May 2017 at Kahone.<ref>Leral.net, "Guédel Mbodj et Thierno Ndaw intronisés: Un Saloum, deux Buur." (23 May  2017) [https://www.leral.net/Guedel-Mbodj-et-Thierno-Ndaw-intronises-Un-Saloum-deux-Buur_a201750.html] (retrieved 12 April 2017)</ref> He is the current King of Saloum as of 2024, and the maternal uncle of the current King of Sine, Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf,<ref name="Xibaaru - King of Sine Niokhobaye">Xibaaru, "Situation politique les chefs coutumiers banissent la violence." (24 February 2023) [https://www.xibaaru.sn/situation-politique-les-chefs-coutumiers-banissent-la-violence/] (retrieved 12 April 2024)</ref> from [[the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof]].