View source for Theodoret

==Works==

===Exegetical===
Theodoret's [[Exegesis|exegetical]] works constitute his most extensive literary output and are considered his most significant contribution to theology. Scholars establish a chronology of these works by studying Theodoret's references in later works to his earlier ones. The commentary on the [[Song of Songs]], written while he was a young bishop (though not before 430), precedes his work on the [[Psalms]]. His commentaries on the prophets began with [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], followed by [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] and the [[Minor Prophets]]. Subsequently, his commentary on the Psalms was completed before 436, while those on [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], and the [[Pauline Epistles]] (including [[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]]) were written before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were the ''Interpretations of Difficult Passages'' in the ''[[Octateuch]]'' and the ''Quaestiones'' dealing with the books of ''[[Book of Samuel|Samuel]]'', ''[[Books of Kings|Kings]]'', and ''[[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]'', written {{Circa|452–453}}.<ref name="CCELT" />

With the exception of a few verses from the commentary on [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] (2:6–13) and fragments of the commentary on Isaiah preserved in the ''catenae'', Theodoret's exegetical writings are extant. Exegetical material attributed to him on the [[Gospels]] in the ''catenae'' may have originated from his other works, and spurious interpolations occur in his comments on the ''Octateuch''.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

His representation of orthodox doctrine consists of a collection of Scripture passages.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} For Theodoret, the biblical authors are instruments of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], though they do not lose their individual  characteristics. He states that understanding is hindered by the unavoidable imperfection of translations. Unacquainted with [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], Theodoret uses the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation, the [[Septuagint]], and other Greek versions.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

In principle, his exegesis is grammatical-historical, and he criticizes the intrusion of the commentator's own ideas. His aim is to avoid the extremes of excessive [[Biblical literalism|literalism]] and unrestrained [[Allegorical interpretation of the Bible|allegory]]. Consequently, he protests against the literal interpretation of the Song of Songs as [[Solomon|Solomonic]] erotic poetry, viewing it as degrading to the Holy Spirit; instead, he argues that Scripture often speaks "figuratively" and "in riddles." In the [[Old Testament]], many elements carry typological significance and already prophetically embody Christian doctrine. Divine illumination affords the right understanding, following apostolic teaching and recognizing [[New Testament]] fulfillment. The exegetical tradition of the Church Fathers is considered valuable, though not binding. Theodoret prefers to select the best among various interpretations available to him, especially those of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]], and supplements them with his own insights. His work is characterized by clarity and simplicity of statement; he is credited with preserving the exegetical heritage of the [[School of Antioch]].{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

===Dogmatic===
Many of Theodoret's dogmatic works have been lost; five major treatises, however, have survived.

His chief Christological work is the ''Eranistes'' (The Beggar), written in three dialogues. In it, Theodoret describes his opponents, principally the Eutychians, as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources, and himself as the orthodox defender. The work is interspersed with lengthy ''florilegia'' (anthologies of patristic citations), which scholars suggest may be the reason for its preservation. These ''florilegia'' provide evidence of Theodoret's learning, comprising 238 texts drawn from 88 works, including pre-Nicene writers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus, and Hippolytus, as well as theologians such as [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]] and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. This use of ''florilegia'' is cited as heralding a new stage in doctrinal development by creating a new authority for Christian theology: that of the Fathers.{{sfn|Louth|2004|p=350}}{{sfn|Young|Teal|2004|pp=333-338}}

Two works, ''On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity'' and ''On the Incarnation of the Lord'', survived historically through misattribution to his opponent, [[Cyril of Alexandria]].{{sfn|Louth|2004|p=350}}<ref>In the nineteenth century, A Ehrhard showed that these two works, though ascribed to Cyril, in fact present the doctrinal views of Theodoret; some fragments, quotations cited under Theodoret's name, prove that these are in fact works by Theodoret, not Cyril. {{harvnb|Young|Teal|2004|p=328}}</ref><ref>To the same belong chapters xiii-xv, xvii, and brief parts of other chapters of the fragments which [[Jean Garnier]] (''Auctarium'') included under the title, ''Pentology of Theodoret on the Incarnation'' as well as three of the five fragments referred by [[Marius Mercator]] to the fifth book of some writing of Theodoret. They are [[polemic]]s against Arianism and Apollinarianism.</ref>

Another surviving work is the ''Refutation of the Twelve Anathemas'', a rejection of the anathemas pronounced against Nestorius by Cyril of Alexandria. The text was preserved within Cyril's apology against Theodoret.<ref>''PG'', cxxvi. 392 sqq.</ref> Theodoret identifies [[Apollinarianism]] in Cyril's teaching and rejects the idea of a "contracting into one" of the two natures of the Only-Begotten, as well as a separation into two sons (''Epistle 143''). Instead of a "[[hypostatic union]]," he accepts only a union that "manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures." The man united to [[God in Christianity|God]] was born of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]]; between God the ''[[Logos]]'' and the form of a servant, a distinction must be drawn.

The ''Expositio rectae fidei'' (Exposition of the True Faith) was preserved among the writings of [[Justin Martyr]]. However, Lebon (1930) and Sellers (1945) independently identified it as the work of Theodoret, likely dating it to before the outbreak of the [[Nestorianism|Nestorian controversy]].{{sfn|Young|Teal|2004|p=328}}

Only minor fragments (cf. ''Epistle'' 16) of Theodoret's defence of Diodorus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (438-444) have been preserved.<ref>Glubokovskij ii. 142</ref>

Theodoret mentions having written against [[Arius]] and [[Eunomius of Cyzicus|Eunomius]],<ref>(''Epist.'' cxiii, cxvi)</ref> which is generally assumed to be a single combined work, to which were joined three treatises against the Macedonians. Additionally, there were two works against the Apollinarians, and of the ''Opus adversus Marcionem'', no complete text has been preserved.

For Theodoret, God is immutable even in [[Incarnation (Christianity)|becoming man]]; the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassible. Each nature remained "pure" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of a collection of twenty-seven orations in defence of various propositions, the first six align with Theodoret's theology. A few extracts from the five panegyric orations on John Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (''Bibliotheca, codex 273'').

===Apologetic and Historical===
One of the [[apologetics|apologetic]] writings was the ''Ad quaestiones magorum'' (composed between 429 and 436), now lost, in which Theodoret justified the [[Old Testament]] sacrifices as alternatives to Egyptian idolatry<ref>{{sic|?|Qquestion}} 1, Lev., ''PG'', lxxx. 297 sqq.</ref> and criticised the accounts of the [[Magi]] who worshipped the elements; the work is mentioned in his ''Ecclesiastical'' ''History'' (Book V, Chapter 38).

''De providentia'', or ''Ten Discourses on Providence'', consists of apologetic discourses arguing for divine providence based on the physical order (Discourses I-IV) and the moral and social order (Discourses VI-X). Scholars generally place their delivery to the educated Greek-speaking audience of Antioch between 431 and 435. Unlike most sermons of the period, they consist of systematic philosophical arguments and lectures rather than homilies on scriptural texts.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

The ''Graecarum Affectionum Curatio'' (''Cure of the Greek Maladies''), subtitled ''The Truth of the Gospel proved from Greek Philosophy,'' is a work in twelve books that attempted to demonstrate the truth of Christianity using [[Greek philosophy]], in contrast to pagan ideas and practices. It forms one of the last apologies written, as the need for such works diminished in an age of Christian dominance. Theodoret argued that the truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured by error and that it validates itself as the power of life, whereas philosophy is only a presentiment of it. Scholars consider this work noteworthy for its clarity of arrangement and style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521880732&ss=exc |title=Plato And Theodoret Christian Appropriation Platonic Philosophy And Hellenic Intellectual Resistance: Ancient philosophy: Cambridge University Press |publisher=Cambridge.org |access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref>

The ''Ecclesiastical History'' of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and ends with the death of Theodore of Mopsuestia in 429, is different in style from the histories of [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and [[Sozomen]]; although the work was completed in 449–450, it does not cover the period between 429 and its completion. It contains many sources otherwise lost, especially letters on the [[Arian controversy]]. However, critics describe the book as partisan, noting that opposing theological factions are consistently portrayed negatively and described as afflicted with the "Arian plague." The narrative is more concise than that of other historians, and Theodoret often juxtaposes documents with only brief commentary. Original material regarding the church of Antioch appears chiefly in the latter books.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

Scholarly opinion regarding the sources used by Theodoret varies. According to [[Henri Valois|Henricus Valesius]], the main sources were Socrates and Sozomen. Albert Güldenpenning placed [[Tyrannius Rufinus|Rufinus]] first in importance, followed by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], [[Athanasius]], Sozomen, [[Sabinus (4th century)|Sabinus]], [[Philostorgius]], [[Gregory Nazianzen]], and Socrates. N. Glubokovskij identifies Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus as sources.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

At the request of [[Sporacius]], a military commander, Theodoret compiled a ''Compendium of Heretical Accounts'' (''Haereticarum fabularum compendium''), which includes a [[heresiology]] (Books I-IV) and a ''Compendium of Divine Dogmas'' (Book V). Apart from [[Origen]]'s ''De principiis'' and the ''De fide orthodoxa'' of [[John of Damascus]], scholars consider this work to be one of the few systematic representations of the theology of the [[Church Fathers|Greek Fathers]].{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

====''A History of the Monks of Syria''====
The ''Philotheos historia,'' also known as ''A History of the Monks of Syria'', which includes the treatise ''De divina charitate'', contains the biographies of thirty ascetics and anchorites, presented as religious models. It presents a view into the distinct monastic tradition of northern Syria; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority that contrasts sharply with Athanasius's ''Life of Anthony''.

Of the thirty ascetics detailed in ''A History of the Monks of Syria'', the last ten subjects were living when Theodoret completed the work, generally dated to {{Circa|444}}.<ref>Price, R. M. (1985). ''A History of the Monks of Syria by Theodoret of Cyrrhus''. Cistercian Studies 88. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications.</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
*[[James of Nisibis]] (d. 337-8)
*[[Julian Sabas]] (d. 367)
*Marcianus (d. 380s)
*[[Eusebius of Teleda]] ({{fl.}} 350s)
*Publius (fl. 350s)
*[[Symeon the Elder]] (fl. 370s)
*[[Palladius of Antioch]] (fl. 370s)
*Aphrahat (d. c. 410)
*[[Peter the Hermit of Galatia|Peter the Galatian]] (d. {{c.}} 403)
*Theodosius (d. c. 405)
*Romanus (d. c. 400)
*[[Zeno the Hermit]] (d. 410s)
*[[Macedonius of Syria]] (d. 420)
*[[Maesymas]] (fl. late 4th century)
*[[Acepsimas]] (fl. late 4th century)
*[[Maron]] (d. 410s)
*[[Abraham Kidunaia|Abraham]] (d. 420s)
*[[Eusebius the Hermit| Eusebius of Asikha]] (d. 430s)
*[[Salamanes]]
*Maris (d. c. 430)
*[[James of Cyrrhestica]]
*[[Thalassius and Limneus|Thalassius]], [[Thalassius and Limneus|Limnaeus]], John
*[[Zebinas]], [[Polychronius]], Asclepius
*[[Symeon Stylites]]
*[[Baradates]]
*[[Thalelaeus]]
*[[Marana and Cyra]]
*[[Domnina of Syria]]
}}

===Letters===
Compared to the more than 500 letters known to [[Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos]] in the fourteenth century, only 232 have survived to the modern era. Three collections survive, though there is some overlap between them. 179 letters were edited by [[Jacques Sirmond]] in 1642. To these, Ioannes Sakkelion added another 48 letters (known as the ''Collectio Patmensis'') which he published from a manuscript he found at the [[Monastery of Saint John the Theologian]] in 1885.<ref>M. Monica Wagner, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291050 "A Chapter in Byzantine Epistolography the Letters of Theodoret of Cyrus", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers''], '''4''' (1948), p. 126</ref> Thirty-six letters have been preserved in the official records (Acta) of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. These letters document rural Christianity in northern Syria, as well as insight into episcopal relationships; the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon is evident. There are letters of consolation and commendation, valued for their detail on episcopal life and rhetoric.{{sfn|Louth|2004|p=350}}

An English translation of the surviving letters is part of the ''[[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]'' (Second Series, Vol. 3, pp. 250–348).<ref>{{EB1911|wstitle=Theodoret|volume=26|inline=1}}</ref>

=== Linguistics ===
Theodoret's works address linguistic issues regarding translations of sacred texts and theological works, and his interest was focused mainly on the exchange between Greek and Syriac.{{sfn|Guinot|1993||p=60-71}}{{sfn|Lehmann|2008|p=187-216}} Because of his fluency in [[Syriac language|Syriac]]{{sfn|Canivet|1957|p=27}} and his life in the Hellenized regions of western [[Roman Syria]],{{sfn|Millar|2007|p=105-125}} he had a degree of familiarity with the dialect and noted its variations. He explained that "the Osroenians, the Syrians, the people of the [[Euphrates]], the [[Roman Palestine|Palestinians]], and the [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Phoenicians]] all speak Syriac," a term he used to refer to various local Aramaic dialects, "but with a multitude of pronunciation differences."{{sfn|Petruccione|Hill|2007b|p=343}} In this passage, he distinguished "Syrians" as the inhabitants to the west of the Euphrates and "Osroenians" (the people of Edessa) to the east, noting their different dialects of the same language.{{sfn|Brock|1994|p=149}}{{sfn|Taylor|2002|p=302}}