View source for Bebop

== History ==

===Swing era influences===
[[File:Dizzy Gillespie at the Downbeat Club, ca 1947.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Dizzy Gillespie, at the Downbeat Club, NYC, c. 1947]]

Bebop grew out of the culmination of trends that had been occurring within [[swing music]] since the mid-1930s: less explicit timekeeping by the drummer, with the primary rhythmic pulse moving from the bass drum to the ride cymbal; a changing role for the piano away from rhythmic density towards accents and fills; less ornate horn section arrangements, trending towards riffs and more support for the underlying rhythm; more emphasis on freedom for soloists; and increasing harmonic sophistication in arrangements used by some bands. "One of the greatest revolutions of 1940s jazz is the relationship between the interpretative act and the compositional act."<ref> Elisabeta Campău-Firtescu, "Jazzul anilor 1940 în spațiul nord-american", Editura Artes, Iaşi, 2025, p. 104.</ref> The path towards rhythmically streamlined, solo-oriented swing was blazed by the [[territory bands]] of the southwest with [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] as their musical capital; their music was based on blues and other simple chord changes, riff-based in its approach to melodic lines and solo accompaniment, and expressing an approach adding melody and harmony to swing rather than the other way around.  Ability to play sustained, high energy, and creative solos was highly valued for this newer style and the basis of intense competition.  Swing-era jam sessions and "cutting contests" in Kansas City became legendary.  The [[Kansas City jazz|Kansas City approach to swing]] was epitomized by the [[Count Basie Orchestra]], which came to national prominence in 1937.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}

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| width = 23em|Bebop wasn't developed in any deliberate way.|—[[Thelonious Monk]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=DownBeat Archives |url=https://downbeat.com/archives/detail/genius-of-bop-thelonious-monk |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=downbeat.com |archive-date=2024-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241206150752/https://downbeat.com/archives/detail/genius-of-bop-thelonious-monk |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

One young admirer of the Basie orchestra in Kansas City was a teenage alto saxophone player named [[Charlie Parker]]. He was especially enthralled by their tenor saxophone player [[Lester Young]], who played long flowing melodic lines that wove in and out of the chordal structure of the composition but somehow always made musical sense.  Young was equally daring with his rhythm and phrasing as with his approach to harmonic structures in his solos.  He would frequently repeat simple two or three note figures, with shifting rhythmic accents expressed by volume, articulation, or tone.  His phrasing was far removed from the two or four bar phrases that horn players had used until then. They would often be extended to an odd number of measures, overlapping the musical stanzas suggested by the harmonic structure. He would take a breath in the middle of a phrase, using the pause, or "free space", as a creative device. The overall effect was that his solos were something floating above the rest of the music, rather than something springing from it at intervals suggested by the ensemble sound. When the Basie orchestra burst onto the national scene with its 1937 recordings and widely broadcast New York engagements, it gained a national following, with legions of saxophone players striving to imitate Young, drummers striving to imitate [[Jo Jones]], piano players striving to imitate Basie, and trumpet players striving to imitate [[Buck Clayton]]. Parker played along with the new Basie recordings on a [[Victrola]] until he could play Young's solos note for note.<ref>Bird Lives!The High Life And Hard Times of Charlie (Yardbird) Parker, by Ross Russell, p. 89-92, Da Capo Press, 1996, 404 p.</ref>

In the late 1930s the [[Duke Ellington Orchestra]] and the [[Jimmie Lunceford|Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra]] were exposing the music world to harmonically sophisticated musical arrangements by [[Billy Strayhorn]] and [[Sy Oliver]], respectively, which implied chords as much as they spelled them out. That understatement of harmonically sophisticated chords would soon be used by young musicians exploring the new musical language of bebop.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}

The brilliant technique and harmonic sophistication of pianist [[Art Tatum]] inspired young musicians including Charlie Parker and [[Bud Powell]].  In his early days in New York, Parker held a job washing dishes at an establishment where Tatum had a regular gig.<ref>Bird Lives!The High Life And Hard Times of Charlie (Yardbird) Parker, by Ross Russell, p. 100-102, Da Capo Press, 1996, 404 p.</ref>

One of the divergent trends of the swing era was a resurgence of small ensembles playing "head" arrangements, following the approach used with Basie's big band.  The small band format lent itself to more impromptu experimentation and more extended solos than did the bigger, more highly arranged bands.  The 1939 recording of "[[Body and Soul (1930 song)|Body and Soul]]" by [[Coleman Hawkins]] with a small band featured an extended saxophone solo with minimal reference to the theme that was unique in recorded jazz, and which would become characteristic of bebop. That solo showed a sophisticated harmonic exploration of the composition, with implied passing chords. Hawkins would eventually go on to lead the first formal recording of the bebop style in early 1944.<ref>see Early bebop recordings</ref>

===Going beyond swing in New York===
As the 1930s turned to the 1940s, Parker went to New York as a featured player in the [[Jay McShann|Jay McShann Orchestra]]. In New York he found other musicians who were exploring the harmonic and melodic limits of their music, including [[Dizzy Gillespie]], a [[Roy Eldridge]]-influenced trumpet player who, like Parker, was exploring ideas based on upper chord intervals, beyond the [[Seventh (chord)|seventh]] chords that had traditionally defined jazz harmony. While Gillespie was with [[Cab Calloway]], he practiced with bassist [[Milt Hinton]] and developed some of the key harmonic and chordal innovations that would be the cornerstones of the new music; Parker did the same with bassist [[Gene Ramey]] while with McShann's group. Guitarist [[Charlie Christian]], who had arrived in New York in 1939 was, like Parker, an innovator extending a southwestern style. Christian's major influence was in the realm of rhythmic [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]]. Christian commonly emphasized weak beats and off beats and often ended his phrases on the second half of the fourth beat. Christian experimented with asymmetrical phrasing, which was to become a core element of the new bop style.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}

Bud Powell was pushing forward with a rhythmically streamlined, harmonically sophisticated, virtuosic piano style,<ref>{{Cite news |last=N |last2=P |last3=R |date=2008-04-09 |title=Bud Powell: Bebop Pianism |url=https://www.npr.org/2008/04/09/89483119/bud-powell-bebop-pianism |access-date=2026-03-06 |work=NPR |language=en |archive-date=2025-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509012542/https://www.npr.org/2008/04/09/89483119/bud-powell-bebop-pianism |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Thelonious Monk]] was adapting the new harmonic ideas to his style that was rooted in Harlem [[stride piano]] playing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DownBeat Archives |url=https://downbeat.com/archives/detail/genius-of-bop-thelonious-monk |access-date=2026-03-06 |website=downbeat.com |archive-date=2026-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260210065959/https://downbeat.com/archives/detail/genius-of-bop-thelonious-monk |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Vitale |first=Tom |date=2017-10-10 |title=After Midnight: Thelonious Monk At 100 |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/10/10/556842176/after-midnight-thelonious-monk-at-100 |access-date=2026-03-06 |work=NPR |language=en}}</ref>

Drummers such as [[Kenny Clarke]] and [[Max Roach]] were extending the path set by Jo Jones, adding the ride cymbal to the high hat cymbal as a primary timekeeper and reserving the bass drum for accents.  Bass drum accents were colloquially termed "bombs", which referenced events in the world outside of New York as the new music was being developed. The new style of drumming supported and responded to soloists with accents and fills, almost like a shifting [[call and response (music)|call and response]].  This change increased the importance of the string bass. Now, the bass not only maintained the music's harmonic foundation, but also became responsible for establishing a metronomic rhythmic foundation by playing a "walking" bass line of four quarter notes to the bar. While small swing ensembles commonly functioned without a bassist, the new bop style required a bass in every small ensemble.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}

The kindred spirits developing the new music gravitated to sessions at [[Minton's Playhouse]], where Monk and Clarke were in the house band, and [[Monroe's Uptown House]], where Max Roach was in the house band.<ref name="Davis89Auto">[[Miles Davis]] (1989) ''Autobiography'', chapter 3, pp. 43–5, 57–8, 61–2</ref>  Part of the atmosphere created at jams like the ones found at Minton's Playhouse was an air of exclusivity: the "regular" musicians would often reharmonize the standards, add complex rhythmic and phrasing devices into their melodies, or "heads", and play them at breakneck tempos in order to exclude those whom they considered outsiders or simply weaker players.<ref name="Double" /> These pioneers of the new music (which would later be termed ''bebop'' or ''bop'', although Parker himself never used the term, feeling it demeaned the music) began exploring advanced harmonies, complex syncopation, altered chords and chord substitutions. The bop musicians advanced these techniques with a more freewheeling, intricate and often arcane approach. Bop improvisers built upon the phrasing ideas first brought to attention by Lester Young's soloing style. They would often deploy phrases over an odd number of bars and overlap their phrases across bar lines and across major harmonic cadences. Christian and the other early boppers would also begin stating a harmony in their improvised line before it appeared in the song form being outlined by the rhythm section. This momentary dissonance creates a strong sense of forward motion in the improvisation.  The sessions also attracted top musicians in the swing idiom such as [[Coleman Hawkins]], [[Lester Young]], [[Ben Webster]], [[Roy Eldridge]], and [[Don Byas]].  Byas became the first tenor saxophone player to fully assimilate the new bebop style in his playing.  In 1944 the crew of innovators was joined by [[Dexter Gordon]], a tenor saxophone player from the west coast in New York with the [[Louis Armstrong]] band, and a young trumpet player attending the [[Juilliard School of Music]], [[Miles Davis]].<ref name="Davis89Auto" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Scheinman |first=Ted |title=Miles Davis Emerged From Middle America to Become the ‘Picasso of Jazz’ and Taught Us All How to Be Cool |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/miles-davis-emerged-middle-america-become-picasso-jazz-taught-us-all-how-to-be-cool-180987828/ |access-date=2026-03-06 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

===Early recordings===
Bebop originated as "musicians' music", played by musicians with other money-making gigs who did not care about the commercial potential of the new music. It did not attract the attention of major record labels nor was it intended to. Some of the early bebop was recorded informally. Some sessions at Minton's in 1941 were recorded, with Thelonious Monk alongside an assortment of musicians including [[Joe Guy (musician)|Joe Guy]], [[Hot Lips Page]], Roy Eldridge, Don Byas, and Charlie Christian. Christian is featured in recordings from May 12, 1941 (Esoteric ES 548). Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie were both participants at a recorded jam session hosted by [[Billy Eckstine]] on February 15, 1943, and Parker at another Eckstine jam session on February 28, 1943 (Stash ST-260; ST-CD-535).

Much of bebop's development happened during [[1942–1944 musicians' strike|the 1942-1944 musicians' strike]], when the American Federation of Musicians barred its more than 130,000 members from recording on major labels (singers were exempted). The strike had major effects, as some of the larger swing bands dispersed into smaller combos more suited to experimentation, and it meant bebop's evolution went largely unrecorded.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=When Bebop Was Born |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4337359 |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=Kenyon Review |jstor=4337359 |archive-date=2022-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709011849/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4337359 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first formal recordings of bebop were in 1944 under small specialty labels, which were less concerned than major labels with mass-market appeal. On February 16, 1944, Coleman Hawkins led a session including Dizzy Gillespie and Don Byas, with a rhythm section consisting of [[Clyde Hart (pianist)|Clyde Hart]] (piano), [[Oscar Pettiford]] (bass) and Max Roach (drums) that recorded "[[Woody 'n' You|Woody'n You]]" ([[Apollo Records (1944)|Apollo]] 751), the first formal recording of bebop. Charlie Parker and Clyde Hart were recorded in a quintet led by guitarist [[Tiny Grimes]] for the [[Savoy Records|Savoy]] label on September 15, 1944 (''Tiny's Tempo, I'll Always Love You Just the Same, Romance Without Finance, Red Cross'').  Hawkins led another bebop-influenced recording session on October 19, 1944, this time with Thelonious Monk on piano, Edward Robinson on bass, and [[Denzil Best]] on drums (''On the Bean, Recollections, Flyin' Hawk, Driftin' on a Reed''; reissue, [[Prestige Records discography|Prestige]] PRCD-24124-2).

Parker, Gillespie, and others working the bebop idiom joined the [[The Earl Hines Orchestra|Earl Hines Orchestra]] in 1943, then followed vocalist Billy Eckstine out of the band into the [[Billy Eckstine|Billy Eckstine Orchestra]] in 1944.  The Eckstine band was recorded on [[V-discs]], which were broadcast over the Armed Forces Radio Network and gained popularity for the band showcasing the new bebop style.  The format of the Eckstine band, featuring vocalists and entertaining banter, would later be emulated by Gillespie and others leading bebop-oriented big bands in a style that might be termed "popular bebop".  Starting with the Eckstine band's session for the [[De Luxe Records|De Luxe]] label on December 5, 1944 (''If That's the Way You Feel, I Want to Talk About You, Blowing the Blues Away, Opus X, I'll Wait and Pray, The Real Thing Happened to Me''), bebop recording sessions grew more frequent. Parker had left the band by that date, but it still included Gillespie along with Dexter Gordon and [[Gene Ammons]] on tenor, [[Leo Parker]] on baritone, [[Tommy Potter]] on bass, [[Art Blakey]] on drums, and [[Sarah Vaughan]] on vocals. ''Blowing the Blues Away'' featured a tenor saxophone duel between Gordon and Ammons.

On January 4, 1945, Clyde Hart led a session including Parker, Gillespie, and Don Byas recorded for the [[Continental Records|Continental]] label (''What's the Matter Now, I Want Every Bit of It, That's the Blues, G.I. Blues, Dream of You, Seventh Avenue,  Sorta Kinda, Ooh Ooh, My My, Ooh Ooh''). Gillespie recorded his first session as a leader on January 9, 1945, for the [[Manor Records|Manor]] label, with Don Byas on tenor, [[Trummy Young]] on trombone, Clyde Hart on Piano, Oscar Pettiford on bass, and [[Irv Kluger]] on drums.  The session recorded ''I Can't Get Started, Good Bait, Be-bop (Dizzy's Fingers)'', and ''Salt Peanuts'' (which Manor wrongly named "Salted Peanuts").  Thereafter, Gillespie would record bebop prolifically and gain recognition as one of its leading figures.  Gillespie featured Gordon as a sideman in a session recorded on February 9, 1945 for the Guild label (''Groovin' High, Blue 'n' Boogie'').  Parker appeared in Gillespie-led sessions dated February 28 (''Groovin' High, All the Things You Are, Dizzy Atmosphere'') and May 11, 1945 (''Salt Peanuts, Shaw 'Nuff, Lover Man, Hothouse'') for the Guild label. Parker and Gillespie were sidemen with Sarah Vaughan on May 25, 1945, for the Continental label (''What More Can a Woman Do, I'd Rather Have a Memory Than a Dream, Mean to Me''). Parker and Gillespie appeared in a session under vibraphonist Red Norvo dated June 6, 1945, later released under the [[Dial Records (1946)|Dial]] label (''Hallelujah, Get Happy, Slam Slam Blues, Congo Blues''). [[Charles Thompson (jazz)|Sir Charles Thompson's]] all-star session of September 4, 1945 for the Apollo label (''Takin' Off, If I Had You, Twentieth Century Blues, The Street Beat'') featured Parker and Gordon.  Gordon led his first session for the Savoy label on October 30, 1945, with [[Sadik Hakim]] (Argonne Thornton) on piano, Gene Ramey on bass, and [[Eddie Nicholson]] on drums (''Blow Mr Dexter, Dexter's Deck, Dexter's Cuttin' Out, Dexter's Minor Mad'').  Parker's first session as a leader was on November 26, 1945, for the Savoy label, with Miles Davis and Gillespie on trumpet, Hakim/Thornton and Gillespie on piano, [[Curley Russell]] on bass and Max Roach on drums (''Warming Up a Riff, Now's the Time, Billie's Bounce, Thriving on a Riff, Ko-Ko, Meandering''). After appearing as a sideman in the R&B-oriented [[Cootie Williams]] Orchestra through 1944, Bud Powell was in bebop sessions led by Frankie Socolow on May 2, 1945 for the Duke label (''The Man I Love, Reverse the Charges, Blue Fantasy, September in the Rain''), then Dexter Gordon on January 29, 1946 for the Savoy label (''Long Tall Dexter, Dexter Rides Again, I Can't Escape From You, Dexter Digs In'').  The growth of bebop through 1945 is also documented in informal live recordings.

===Breakout===
By 1946 bebop was established as a broad-based movement among New York jazz musicians, including trumpeters [[Fats Navarro]] and [[Kenny Dorham]], trombonists [[J. J. Johnson]] and [[Kai Winding]], alto saxophonist [[Sonny Stitt]], tenor saxophonist [[James Moody (saxophonist)|James Moody]], baritone saxophonists [[Leo Parker]] and [[Serge Chaloff]], vibraphonist [[Milt Jackson]], pianists [[Erroll Garner]] and [[Al Haig]], bassist [[Slam Stewart]], and others who would contribute to what would become known as "modern jazz".  The new music was gaining radio exposure with broadcasts such as those hosted by [[Symphony Sid|"Symphony Sid" Torin]].  Bebop was taking root in Los Angeles as well, among such modernists as trumpeters [[Howard McGhee]] and [[Art Farmer]], alto players [[Sonny Criss]] and [[Frank Morgan (musician)|Frank Morgan]], tenor players [[Teddy Edwards]] and [[Lucky Thompson]], trombonist [[Melba Liston]], pianists [[Dodo Marmarosa]], Jimmy Bunn and [[Hampton Hawes]], guitarist [[Barney Kessel]], bassists [[Charles Mingus]] and [[Red Callender]], and drummers [[Roy Porter (drummer)|Roy Porter]] and [[Connie Kay]].  Gillespie's "Rebop Six" (with Parker on alto, Lucky Thompson on tenor, Al Haig on piano, Milt Jackson on vibes, [[Ray Brown (musician)|Ray Brown]] on bass, and [[Stan Levey]] on drums) started an engagement in Los Angeles in December 1945. Parker and Thompson remained in Los Angeles after the rest of the band left, performing and recording together for six months before Parker suffered an addiction-related breakdown in July.  Parker was again active in Los Angeles in early 1947.  Parker and Thompson's tenures in Los Angeles, the arrival of Dexter Gordon and [[Wardell Gray]] later in 1946, and the promotional efforts of [[Ross Russell (jazz)|Ross Russell]], [[Norman Granz]], and [[Gene Norman]] helped solidify the city's status as a center of the new music.

Gillespie landed the first recording date with a major label for the new music, with the [[RCA Bluebird]] label recording Dizzy Gillespie And his Orchestra on February 22, 1946 (''52nd Street Theme, A Night in Tunisia, Ol' Man Rebop, Anthropology''). Later Afro-Cuban styled recordings for Bluebird in collaboration with Cuban ''rumberos'' [[Chano Pozo]] and [[Sabu Martinez]], and arrangers [[Gil Fuller]] and [[George Russell (composer)|George Russell]] (''Manteca, Cubana Be, Cubana Bop, Guarache Guaro'') would be among his most popular, giving rise to the Latin dance music craze of the late 1940s and early 1950s.  Gillespie, with his extroverted personality and humor, glasses, lip beard and beret, would become the most visible symbol of the new music and new jazz culture in popular consciousness.  That of course slighted the contributions of others with whom he had developed the music over the preceding years.  His show style, influenced by [[Black Vaudeville|black vaudeville circuit]] entertainers, seemed like a throwback to some and offended some purists ("too much grinning" according to Miles Davis), but it was laced with a subversive sense of humor that gave a glimpse of attitudes on racial matters that black musicians had previously kept away from the public at large.  Before the Civil Rights Movement, Gillespie was confronting the [[racial segregation|racial divide]] by lampooning it.  The intellectual subculture that surrounded bebop made it something of a sociological movement as well as a musical one.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}

With the imminent demise of the big swing bands, bebop had become the dynamic focus of the jazz world, with a broad-based "progressive jazz" movement seeking to emulate and adapt its devices.  It was to be the most influential foundation of jazz for a generation of jazz musicians.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}

===Beyond===
By 1950, bebop musicians such as [[Clifford Brown]] and [[Sonny Stitt]] began to smooth out the rhythmic eccentricities of early bebop. Instead of using jagged phrasing to create rhythmic interest, as the early boppers had, these musicians constructed their improvised lines out of long strings of eighth notes and simply accented certain notes in the line to create rhythmic variety.  The early 1950s also saw some smoothing in Charlie Parker's style.

During the early 1950s bebop remained at the top of awareness of jazz, while its harmonic devices were adapted to the new "cool" school of jazz led by Miles Davis and others. It continued to attract young musicians such as [[Jackie McLean]], [[Sonny Rollins]], and [[John Coltrane]].  As musicians and composers began to work with expanded music theory during the mid-1950s, its adaptation by musicians who worked it into the basic dynamic approach of bebop would lead to the development of [[post-bop]].  Around that same time, a move towards structural simplification of bebop occurred among musicians such as [[Horace Silver]] and [[Art Blakey]], leading to the movement known as [[hard bop]].  Development of jazz would occur through the interplay of bebop, cool, post-bop, and hard bop styles through the 1950s.