View source for RDX

==History==
RDX was used by both sides in World War II. The US produced about {{convert|15,000|LT|t}} per month during WWII and Germany about {{convert|7,000|LT|t|order=flip}} per month.<ref name=Urbanski-78>{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|p=78}}</ref> RDX had the major advantages of possessing greater explosive force than [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] and required no additional raw materials for its manufacture. Thus, it was also extensively used in [[World War I]].<ref name=Urbanski-78/>

===Germany===
RDX was reported in 1898 by Georg Friedrich Henning (1863-1945), who obtained a [[Germany|German]] [[patent]]<ref name="Henning" /> for its manufacture by nitrolysis of hexamine ([[hexamethylenetetramine]]) with concentrated nitric acid.<ref name=urbanski>{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=77–119}}</ref> In this patent, only the medical properties of RDX were mentioned.<ref name=urbanski/>

During WWI, Heinrich Brunswig (1865-1946) at the private military-industrial laboratory {{Ill|Zentralstelle für wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen|de}} (Center for Scientific-Technical Research) in [[Neubabelsberg]] studied the compound more closely and in June 1916 filed two patent applications, one for its use in [[smokeless propellant]]s<ref>{{Cite patent|country=DE|number=298539|title=Verfahren zur Herstellung eines Geschoßtreibmittels, das gegen Schlag verhältnismäßig unempfindlich ist|pubdate=1919-09-22|gdate=1916-06-15|assign1=Zentralstelle für wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen GmbH}}</ref> and another for its use as an explosive, noting its excellent characteristics.<ref>{{Cite patent|country=DE|number=299028|title=Verfahren zur Herstellung von Sprengstoffen und Detonationsüberträgern|pubdate=1919-10-15|gdate=1916-06-15|assign1=Zentralstelle für wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen GmbH}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gartz |first=Jochen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNogAQAAIAAJ&q=Brunswig |title=Vom griechischen Feuer zum Dynamit: eine Kulturgeschichte der Explosivstoffe |date=2007 |publisher=Mittler |isbn=978-3-8132-0867-2 |page=153 |language=de}}</ref> The German military hadn't considered its adoption during the war due to the expense of production<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Kristensen |first=Tor Erik |title=heksogen |date=2024-03-05 |work=Store norske leksikon |url=https://snl.no/heksogen |access-date=2024-10-31 |language=no}}</ref> but started investigating its use in 1920, referring to it as hexogen.<ref name="Gartz" />

Research and development findings were not published further until Edmund von Herz,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|p=125}} credits "G. C. V. Herz" for the patent, but the patentee is Edmund von Herz.</ref> described as an Austrian and later a German citizen, rediscovered the explosive properties of RDX<ref name=":0" /> and applied for an Austrian patent in 1919, obtaining a British one in 1921<ref name="Herz-British" /><!-- Also FR51577A and CH88759A --> and an American one in 1922.<ref name="Herz-US" /> All patents described the synthesis of the compound by nitrating hexamethylenetetramine.<ref name="Herz-British" /><ref name="Herz-US" /> The British patent claims included the manufacture of RDX by nitration, its use with or without other explosives, its use as a bursting charge and as an initiator.<ref name="Herz-British" /> The US patent claim was for the use of a hollow explosive device containing RDX and a detonator cap containing it.<ref name="Herz-US" /> Herz was also the first to identify the cyclic nature of the molecule.<ref name=":0" />

In the 1930s, Germany developed improved production methods.<ref name="Gartz" />

During World War II, Germany used the code names W Salt, SH Salt, K-method, the E-method, and the KA-method. These names represented the identities of the developers of the various chemical routes to RDX. The W-method was developed by Wolfram in 1934 and gave RDX the code name "W-Salz". It used [[sulfamic acid]], formaldehyde, and nitric acid.<ref name="urbanski-W">{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=107–109}}</ref> SH-Salz (SH salt) was from Schnurr, who developed a batch-process in 1937–38 based on nitrolysis of hexamine.<ref name="urbanski-SH">{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=104–105}}</ref> The K-method, from Knöffler, involved addition of ammonium nitrate to the hexamine/nitric acid process.<ref name="urbanski-K">{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=105–107}}</ref> The E-method, developed by Ebele, proved to be identical to the Ross and Schiessler process described below.<ref name="urbanski-E">{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=109–110}}</ref> The KA-method, also developed by Knöffler, turned out to be identical to the Bachmann process described below.<ref name="urbanski-KA">{{Harvtxt|Urbański|1967|pp=111–113}}</ref>

The explosive shells fired by the [[MK 108 cannon]] and the warhead of the [[R4M rocket]], both used in [[Luftwaffe]] fighter aircraft as offensive armament, both used hexogen as their explosive base.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMY9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17|title=World War 2 In Review No. 23: Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|last=Press|first=Merriam|publisher=Lulu Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-387-32257-2|page=17}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===UK===
In the [[United Kingdom]], RDX was manufactured from 1933 by the research department in a pilot plant at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, [[London]], a larger pilot plant being built at the [[Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills|RGPF Waltham Abbey]] just outside London in 1939.<ref name=cocroft/><ref name=Akhavan/> In 1939 a twin-unit industrial-scale plant was designed to be installed at a new {{convert|700|acre|ha|adj=on}} site, [[ROF Bridgwater]], away from London and production of RDX started at Bridgwater on one unit in August 1941.<ref name=cocroft/><ref name=hornby/> The ROF Bridgwater plant brought in ammonia and methanol as raw materials: the methanol was converted to formaldehyde and some of the ammonia converted to nitric acid, which was concentrated for RDX production.<ref name=sfb/> The rest of the ammonia was reacted with formaldehyde to produce hexamine. The hexamine plant was supplied by [[Imperial Chemical Industries]]. It incorporated some features based on data obtained from the United States (US).<ref name=sfb/> RDX was produced by continually adding hexamine and concentrated nitric acid to a cooled mixture of hexamine and nitric acid in the nitrator.<ref name=sfb/> The RDX was purified and processed for its intended use; recovery and reuse of some methanol and nitric acid also was carried out.<ref name=sfb/> The hexamine-nitration and RDX purification plants were duplicated (i.e. twin-unit) to provide some insurance against loss of production due to fire, explosion, or air attack.<ref name=cocroft/>

The United Kingdom and [[British Empire]] were fighting without allies against [[Nazi Germany]] until the middle of 1941 and had to be [[self-sufficient]]. At that time (1941), the UK had the capacity to produce {{convert|70|LT|tonne}} <!-- {{convert|71000|kg|lb}} -->(160,000&nbsp;lb) of RDX per week; both [[Canada]], an allied country and self-governing dominion within the British Empire, and the US were looked upon to supply ammunition and explosives, including RDX.<ref name=baxter-253-259>{{Harvtxt|Baxter III|1968|pp=253–239}}</ref> By 1942, the [[Royal Air Force]]'s annual requirement was forecast to be {{convert|52000|LT|tonne}} of RDX, much of which came from North America (Canada and the US).<ref name=hornby/>

===Canada===
A different method of production to the Woolwich process was found and used in Canada, possibly at the [[McGill University]] department of chemistry. This was based on reacting paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate in [[acetic anhydride]].<ref name=Gilman/> A UK patent application was made by Robert Walter Schiessler (Pennsylvania State University) and James Hamilton Ross (McGill, Canada) in May 1942; the UK patent was issued in December 1947.<ref name=Schiessler/> Gilman states that the same method of production had been independently discovered by Ebele in Germany prior to Schiessler and Ross, but that this was not known by the Allies.<ref name=urbanski/><ref name=Gilman/> Urbański provides details of five methods of production, and he refers to this method as the (German) E-method.<ref name=urbanski-E/>

===UK, US and Canadian production and development===
At the beginning of the 1940s, the major US explosive manufacturers, [[duPont|E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company]] and [[Hercules Inc.|Hercules]], had several decades of experience of manufacturing TNT and had no wish to experiment with new explosives. US Army Ordnance held the same viewpoint and wanted to continue using TNT.<ref name=baxter-253-254>{{Harvtxt|Baxter III|1968|pp=253–254}}</ref> RDX had been tested by [[Picatinny Arsenal]] in 1929, and it was regarded as too expensive and too sensitive.<ref name=baxter-253-259/> The Navy proposed to continue using [[ammonium picrate]].<ref name=baxter-253-254/> In contrast, the [[National Defense Research Committee]] (NDRC), who had visited The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, thought new explosives were necessary.<ref name="baxter-253-254"/> [[James B. Conant]], chairman of Division B, wished to involve academic research into this area. Conant therefore set up an experimental explosives research laboratory at the [[United States Bureau of Mines|Bureau of Mines]], [[Bruceton, Pennsylvania]], using [[Office of Scientific Research and Development]] (OSRD) funding.<ref name=baxter-253-259/>

====Woolwich method====
In 1941, the UK's [[Tizard Mission]] visited the US Army and Navy departments and part of the information handed over included details of the "Woolwich" method of manufacture of RDX and its stabilisation by mixing it with [[beeswax]].<ref name=baxter-253-259/> The UK was asking that the US and Canada, combined, supply {{convert|220|ST|tonne}} <!-- {{convert|200000|kg|lb}} --> (440,000&nbsp;lb) of RDX per day.<ref name=baxter-253-259/> A decision was taken by [[William H. P. Blandy]], chief of the [[Bureau of Ordnance]], to adopt RDX for use in mines and [[torpedo]]es.<ref name=baxter-253-259/> Given the immediate need for RDX, the US Army Ordnance, at Blandy's request, built a plant that copied the equipment and process used at Woolwich. The result was the [[Newport Chemical Depot|Wabash River Ordnance Works]] run by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company.<ref>{{Harvtxt|MacDonald and Mack Partnership|1984|p=19}}</ref> At that time, this works had the largest nitric acid plant in the world.<ref name=baxter-253-259/> The Woolwich process was expensive: it needed {{convert|11|lb}} of [[nitric acid#Grades|strong nitric acid]] for every pound of RDX produced.<ref name="MM-13">{{Harvtxt|MacDonald and Mack Partnership|1984|p=13}} These pages need to be checked. Page 13 may actually be page 18.</ref>

By early 1941, the NDRC was researching new processes.<ref name="MM-13"/> The Woolwich or direct nitration process has at least two serious disadvantages: (1) it used large amounts of nitric acid and (2) at least one-half of the formaldehyde is lost. One mole of hexamethylenetetramine could produce at most one mole of RDX.<ref name="Elder-6">{{Harvtxt|Elderfield|1960|p=6}}</ref> At least three laboratories with no previous explosive experience were instructed to develop better production methods for RDX; they were based at [[Cornell University|Cornell]], [[University of Michigan|Michigan]], and [[Pennsylvania State University|Pennsylvania State]] universities.<ref name=baxter-253-259/>{{efn|These were not the only laboratories to work on RDX, Gilman's 1953 account of the Ross–Schiessler method was based on unpublished work from laboratories at the Universities of Michigan, Pennsylvania, Cornell, Harvard, Vanderbilt, McGill (Canada), Bristol (UK), Sheffield (UK), Pennsylvania State College, and the UK's research department.}} [[Werner Emmanuel Bachmann]], from Michigan, successfully developed the "combination process" by combining the Ross and Schiessler process used in Canada (aka the German E-method) with direct nitration.<ref name=urbanski-KA/><ref name=baxter-253-259/> The combination process required large quantities of acetic anhydride instead of nitric acid in the old British "Woolwich process". Ideally, the combination process could produce two moles of RDX from each mole of hexamethylenetetramine.<ref name="Elder-6"/>

The expanded production of RDX could not continue to rely on the use of natural beeswax to desensitize the explosive as in the original British composition (RDX/BWK-91/9). A substitute stabilizer based on petroleum was developed at the Bruceton Explosives Research Laboratory in Pennsylvania, with the resulting explosive designated Composition A-3.<ref name=baxter-253-259/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rowland |first=Buford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqNZ5hjPOVMC&pg=PA208 |title=U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II |date=1953 |publisher=Bureau of Ordnance, Department of the Navy |language=en}}</ref>

====Bachmann process====
The National Defence Research Committee (NDRC) instructed three companies to develop pilot plants. They were the Western Cartridge Company, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, and [[Eastman Chemical Company|Tennessee Eastman Company]], part of Eastman Kodak.<ref name=baxter-253-259/> At the Eastman Chemical Company (TEC), a leading manufacturer of acetic anhydride, Werner Emmanuel Bachmann developed a continuous-flow process for RDX utilizing an ammonium nitrate/nitric acid mixture as a nitrating agent in a medium of acetic acid and acetic anhydride. RDX was crucial to the war effort and the current batch-production process was too slow. In February 1942, TEC began producing small amounts of RDX at its Wexler Bend pilot plant, which led to the US government authorizing TEC to design and build [[Holston Ordnance Works]] (H.O.W.) in June 1942. By April 1943, RDX was being manufactured there.<ref name=Bachmann-Sheehan/> At the end of 1944, the Holston plant and the Wabash River Ordnance Works, which used the Woolwich process, were producing {{convert|25000|ST|tonne}} (50 million pounds) of Composition B per month.<ref>{{Harvtxt|MacDonald and Mack Partnership|1984|p=32}}</ref>

The Bachmann process yields both RDX and [[HMX]], with the major product determined by the specific reaction conditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yinon |first1=Jehuda |title=Toxicity and Metabolism of Explosives |date=30 June 1990 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-0529-9 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BD3c7FN4x5YC |language=en}}</ref>

===Military compositions===
The United Kingdom's intention in World War II was to use "desensitised" RDX. In the original Woolwich process, RDX was [[phlegmatized]] with beeswax, but later [[paraffin wax]] was used, based on the work carried out at Bruceton. In the event the UK was unable to obtain sufficient RDX to meet its needs, some of the shortfall was met by substituting [[amatol]], a mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT.<ref name=hornby/>

[[Karl Dönitz]] was reputed to have claimed that "an aircraft can no more kill a U-boat than a crow can kill a [[Mole (animal)|mole]]".<ref name=Baxter-42>{{Harvtxt|Baxter III|1968|page=42}}</ref> Nonetheless, by May 1942 [[Vickers Wellington|Wellington bombers]] began to deploy [[depth charge]]s containing Torpex, a mixture of RDX, TNT, and aluminium, which had up to 50 percent more destructive power than TNT-filled depth charges.<ref name=Baxter-42/> Considerable quantities of the RDX–TNT mixture were produced at the Holston Ordnance Works, with [[Tennessee Eastman]] developing an automated mixing and cooling process based around the use of stainless steel [[conveyor belt]]s.<ref name="baxter-257&259">{{Harvtxt|Baxter III|1968|pp=257 & 259}}</ref>

===Terrorism===
A [[Semtex]] bomb was used in the [[Pan Am Flight 103]] (known also as the Lockerbie) bombing in 1988.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bolz|first1=F. (Jr.)|last2=Dudonis|first2=K.J.|last3=Schulz|first3=D.P.|title=The Counterterrorism Handbook: Tactics, Procedures, and Techniques|date=2012|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-1-4398-4670-4|pages=340–341|edition=4th}}</ref> A belt laden with {{Convert|700|g|lbs|abbr=on}} of RDX explosives tucked under the dress of the assassin was used in the [[Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi|assassination]] of former Indian prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] in 1991.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/01021999/rdx.html |author=Ramesh Vinayak |title=The Nation: Terrorism: The RDX Files |publisher=India-today.com |date=1 February 1999 |access-date=7 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009004813/http://india-today.com/itoday/01021999/rdx.html |archive-date=9 October 2010 }}</ref> The [[1993 Bombay bombings]] used RDX placed into several vehicles as bombs. RDX was the main component used for the [[11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings|2006 Mumbai train bombings]] and the [[Jaipur bombings]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Small-logical-steps-cracked-case-Roy/articleshow/2062187.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018060634/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-10-02/mumbai/27800879_1_blast-sites-pakistan-for-arms-training-mumbai-police-commissioner |url-status=live |archive-date=October 18, 2012 |title=Mumbai |date=October 2, 2006 |first1=Anil |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |last1=Singh}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Jaipur blasts: RDX used, HuJI suspected |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jaipur-blasts-RDX-used-HuJI-suspected/articleshow/3038962.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811053815/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-05-14/india/27777786_1_serial-blasts-jaipur-blasts-sufi-shrine |url-status=live |archive-date=August 11, 2011 |access-date=May 13, 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=May 14, 2008}}</ref> It also is believed to be the explosive used in the [[2010 Moscow Metro bombings]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8593961.stm |title= Moscow Metro bombing masterminds 'will be destroyed'|work= BBC News|date= March 29, 2010 |access-date= April 2, 2010}}</ref>

Traces of RDX were found on pieces of wreckage from [[1999 Russian apartment bombings]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/10/world/debate-on-cause-of-moscow-blast-heats-up.html |title= Debate on Cause of Moscow Blast Heats Up |newspaper= New York Times|date= September 10, 1999|access-date= November 14, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url = https://www.cardin.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/us-senator-ben-cardin-releases-report-detailing-two-decades-of-putins-attacks-on-democracy-calling-for-policy-changes-to-counter-kremlin-threat-ahead-of-2018-2020-elections |title = U.S. Senator Ben Cardin Releases Report Detailing Two Decades of Putin's Attacks on Democracy, Calling for Policy Changes to Counter Kremlin Threat Ahead of 2018, 2020 Elections {{! }} U.S. Senator Ben Cardin of Maryland |website=cardin.senate.gov |access-date=17 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214223120/https://www.cardin.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/us-senator-ben-cardin-releases-report-detailing-two-decades-of-putins-attacks-on-democracy-calling-for-policy-changes-to-counter-kremlin-threat-ahead-of-2018-2020-elections |archive-date=14 February 2018 |url-status=live}}, pages 165-171.</ref> and [[2004 Russian aircraft bombings]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/28/world/explosive-suggests-terrorists-downed-plane-russia-says.html |title= Explosive Suggests Terrorists Downed Plane, Russia Says |newspaper= New York Times |date= August 28, 2004 |access-date= November 14, 2011}}</ref> FSB reports on the bombs used in the 1999 apartment bombings indicated that while RDX was not a part of the main charge, each bomb contained plastic explosive used as a [[explosive booster|booster charge]].<ref name="Mironov">{{cite news |last1=Миронов |first1=Иван |title=Кто и как взрывал Москву |url=http://www.fsb.ru/fsb/smi/interview/single.htm%21id%3D10342755%40fsbSmi.html |work=[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]] |publisher=[[Federal Security Service|FSB]] |date=9 September 2002 |language=ru}}</ref><ref name="FSB">{{cite web |title=О результатах расследования ряда актов терроризма |url=http://www.fsb.ru/fsb/press/message/single.htm%21id%3D10407754%40fsbMessage.html |publisher=[[Federal Security Service]] |language=ru |date=March 14, 2002}}</ref>

[[Ahmed Ressam]], the [[al-Qaeda]] [[2000 millennium attack plots|Millennium Bomber]], used a small quantity of RDX as one of the components in the bomb that he prepared to detonate in [[Los Angeles International Airport]] on [[New Year's Eve]] 1999–2000; the bomb could have produced a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating [[car bomb]].<ref name="febninth">{{cite web|url=http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/US_v_Ressam_9thcircuitappeals0210.pdf|title=U.S. v. Ressam|last=U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|date=February 2, 2010|access-date=February 27, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004023628/http://www.nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/US_v_Ressam_9thcircuitappeals0210.pdf|archive-date=October 4, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="comp">{{cite web|url=http://nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/U.S._v_Ressam_Complaint.pdf|title=Complaint; U.S. v. Ressam|date=December 1999|publisher=NEFA Foundation|access-date=February 26, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301162643/http://nefafoundation.org/miscellaneous/FeaturedDocs/U.S._v_Ressam_Complaint.pdf|archive-date=March 1, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In July 2012, the Kenyan government arrested two Iranian nationals and charged them with illegal possession of {{Convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=off}} of RDX. According to the [[Kenyan Police]], the Iranians planned to use the RDX for "attacks on Israeli, US, UK and Saudi Arabian targets".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ap-exclusive-iranian-agents-in-kenya-planned-attacks-on-israel-us-uk-saudi-arabian-targets/2012/07/02/gJQAgSuWIW_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703210535/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ap-exclusive-iranian-agents-in-kenya-planned-attacks-on-israel-us-uk-saudi-arabian-targets/2012/07/02/gJQAgSuWIW_story.html |archive-date=July 3, 2012 |title=Iranian agents in Kenya planned attacks on Israel, US, UK, Saudi Arabian targets |newspaper=Washington Post |date=July 2, 2012 |access-date=July 2, 2012}}</ref>

RDX was used in the [[assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri]] on February 14, 2005.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/magazine/the-hezbollah-connection.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/magazine/the-hezbollah-connection.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited |title=The Hezbollah Connection |author=Ronen Bergman |newspaper=New York Times |date=February 10, 2015 |access-date=February 16, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In the [[2019 Pulwama attack]] in India, 250&nbsp;kg of high-grade RDX was used by [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]]. The attack resulted in the deaths of 44 [[Central Reserve Police Force]] (CRPF) personnel as well as the attacker.<ref>{{cite news |title=2019 Pulwama attack: RDX used |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/80-kg-high-grade-rdx-used-by-jaish-terrorist-in-pulwama-attack/articleshow/68016262 |access-date=Feb 15, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |date=Feb 15, 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Two [[Letter bomb|letter bombs]] sent to journalists in [[Ecuador]] were disguised as [[USB flash drive|USB flash drives]] which contained RDX that would detonate when plugged in.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-21 |title=At least 5 news stations receive letter bombs in Ecuador, one explodes: "Clear message to silence journalists" - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/news-stations-letter-bombs-ecuador-one-explodes-clear-message-to-silence-journalists/ |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>