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{{About|the region|the continent|Antarctica|other uses|Antarctic (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Polar region around Earth's South Pole}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
[[File:Antarctic-Overview-Map-EN.tif|thumb|A map of the Antarctic region, including the [[Antarctic Convergence]] and the [[60th parallel south]]]]
[[File:AntarcticPlate.png|thumb|The [[Antarctic Plate]]]]

The '''Antarctic''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|n|ˈ|t|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}}; {{IPAc-en|USalso|æ|n|t|ˈ|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}}, commonly {{IPAc-en|æ|n|ˈ|ɑr|t|ɪ|k}}){{refn|The word was originally pronounced without the first {{IPA|/k/}} sound, but the [[spelling pronunciation]] has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation without the first /k/ and the first /t/ is however widespread and a typical phenomenon of English in many other similar words too.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208004718/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica|url-status=dead |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Antarctica |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |archive-date=2015-12-08 |website=ahdictionary.com}}</ref> The ''c'' was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crystal|first=David |date=2006 |title=The Fight for English |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-920764-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172 172] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Antarctic |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antarctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |access-date=16 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111152745/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antarctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |archive-date=11 January 2012}}</ref>|group="Note"}} is the [[polar regions of Earth|polar region]] of [[Earth]] that surrounds the [[South Pole]], lying within the [[Antarctic Circle]]. It is [[antipodes|diametrically opposite]] of the [[Arctic]] region around the [[North Pole]].

The Antarctic comprises the continent of [[Antarctica]], the [[Kerguelen Plateau]], and other [[list of Antarctic and Subantarctic islands|island territories]] located on the [[Antarctic Plate]] or south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]]. The Antarctic region includes the [[ice shelf|ice shelves]], waters, and all the [[island]] territories in the [[Southern Ocean]] situated south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]], a zone approximately {{convert|32|to|48|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide and varying in latitude seasonally.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scar.org/ |title=Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research website |publisher=SCAR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214094758/http://www.scar.org/ |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=}}</ref> The region covers some 20 percent of the [[Southern Hemisphere]], of which 5.5 percent (14&nbsp;million km<sup>2</sup>) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of [[60th parallel south|60°S latitude]] are administered under the [[Antarctic Treaty System]].

[[Biogeography|Biogeographically]], the [[Antarctic realm]] is one of eight [[biogeographic realm]]s on Earth's land surface. [[Climate change in Antarctica]] is particularly important because the melting of the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] has a high potential to add to the global [[sea level rise]]. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of [[Southern Ocean overturning circulation]], which would have significant effects on the local climate and [[marine ecosystem]] functioning. There is no permanent country in Antarctica.

== Geography ==
[[File:Antarctica 6400px from Blue Marble.jpg|thumb|An October 2006 [[NASA]] satellite image of the Antarctic without its periphery of unattached [[sea ice]]]]

[[File:Orthographic projection centered on the Prince Edward Island.png|thumb|Location of the Antarctic on a map of the [[Earth]]]]
As defined by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]], the Antarctic region is everything south of the [[60th parallel south|60°S latitude]]. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the [[archipelago]]s of the [[Balleny Islands]], [[Peter I Island]], [[Scott Island]], the [[South Orkney Islands]], and the [[South Shetland Islands]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Antarctic Treaty {{!}} NSF  |url=https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp |access-date=7 October 2020 |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |website=www.nsf.gov |archive-date=11 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511130543/http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref> However, this area does not include the [[Antarctic Convergence]], a transition zone where the cold waters of the [[Southern Ocean]] collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources – Department of Agriculture |url=https://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/international/ccamlr |access-date=7 October 2020 |website=www.agriculture.gov.au |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920181241/https://www.agriculture.gov.au/fisheries/international/ccamlr |url-status=live }}</ref> Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along [[circle of latitude|parallels of latitude]] and [[meridian (geography)|meridians of longitude]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/e/e_pubs/bd/pt1.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505214806/http://www.ccamlr.org/pu/E/e_pubs/bd/pt1.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources|archivedate=5 May 2010}}</ref> The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in [[Hobart]], Australia, by an efficient system of annual [[fishing]] quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as [[satellite]] surveillance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Schedule of Conservation Measures in Force 2023/24 |url=https://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-schedule2023-24.pdf |website=CCAMLR |access-date=15 April 2024 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208225737/https://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-schedule2023-24.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the [[Antarctic Convergence]] to the north and their respective {{convert|200|nmi|km|adj=on}} [[exclusive economic zone]]s fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] (United Kingdom), [[Bouvet Island]] (Norway), and [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]] (Australia).

[[Kerguelen Islands]] (France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the [[Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego]], [[Falkland Islands]], [[Isla de los Estados]], [[Hornos Island]] with [[Cape Horn]], [[Diego Ramírez Islands]], [[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]], [[Macquarie Island]], [[Île Amsterdam|Amsterdam]] and [[Île Saint-Paul|Saint Paul]] Islands, [[Crozet Islands]], [[Prince Edward Islands]], [[Gough Island]], and [[Tristan da Cunha|Tristan da Cunha group]] remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region.

== Ecology ==
{{See also|Antarctic realm|Antarctic microorganism|Wildlife of Antarctica}}

=== Antarctica ===
[[File:Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba).jpg|thumb|Antarctic krill.]]
A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including:<ref>{{cite web |title=Polar Wildlife |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801003734/https://www.bas.ac.uk/web/20230801003734/https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/ |archive-date=1 August 2023 |access-date= |publisher=Natural Environment Research Council |website=British Antarctic Survey}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Vanessa Woods |date=14 October 2011 |title=Antarctic wildlife |url=http://www.csiro.au/Portals/Education/Kids/Read-it/Polar-eyes/About-Antarctica/Antarctic-wildlife.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214120508/http://www.csiro.au/Portals/Education/Kids/Read-it/Polar-eyes/About-Antarctica/Antarctic-wildlife.aspx |archive-date=14 December 2013 |access-date=20 November 2012 |publisher=[[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]]}}</ref>
* [[Pinniped|Seals]]
* [[Penguins]]
* [[South Georgia pipit]]s
* [[Albatross]]es
* [[Antarctic petrel]]s
* [[Whale]]s
* Fish, such as [[Antarctic icefish]], [[Antarctic toothfish]]
* [[Squid]], including the [[colossal squid]]
* [[Antarctic krill]]
[[File:South Shetland-2016-Deception Island%E2%80%93Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) 04.jpg|thumb|Chinstrap penguin.]]
Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, [[Antarctic hair grass]] and [[Antarctic pearlwort]], but a range of [[moss]]es, [[liverwort]]s, [[lichen]]s and [[macrofungi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Plants |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/plants/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926072301/https://www.bas.ac.uk/web/20230926072301/https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/plants/ |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date= |publisher=[[Natural Environment Research Council]] |website=British Antarctic Survey}}</ref>

=== Sub-Antarctic Islands ===
[[Biodiversity]] among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chown |last2=Gremmen |last3=Gaston |date=1998 |title=Ecological Biogeography of Southern Ocean Islands: Species-Area Relationships, Human Impacts, and Conservation |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/472624/Chown_ea_2534.pdf |journal=[[The American Naturalist]]|volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=562–75 |doi=10.2307/2463357 |jstor=2463357 |pmid=18811364 |issn=0003-0147}}</ref>
* {{Flagdeco|Argentina}} [[Isla de los Estados]] ([[Argentina]])
* {{Flagdeco|Chile}} [[Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego]] ([[Chile]])

== Conservation ==
[[File:Mt Herschel, Antarctica, Jan 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Moubray Bay]] and [[Mount Herschel]] in Eastern Antarctica]]
The Antarctic hosts the world's largest [[protected area]] comprising 1.07&nbsp;million&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Marine%20Protected%20Area/MPA%20Management%20Plan%20v2.0.pdf |title=SGSSI Marine Protection Area (Management Plan). |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029111949/http://www.gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Marine%20Protected%20Area/MPA%20Management%20Plan%20v2.0.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the [[Greenland National Park]]'s {{Convert|972,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428161458/http://www.stat.gl/LinkClick.aspx?link=Intranet%2fGIF_2009_WEB.pdf&tabid=57&mid=473&language=en-US |title=Greenland in figures 2009 |date=2009 |url=http://www.stat.gl/LinkClick.aspx?link=Intranet%2fGIF_2009_WEB.pdf&tabid=57&mid=473&language=en-US |archive-date=28 April 2010 |publisher=Statistics Greenland}}</ref> (While the [[Ross Sea]] Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170423204236/https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/ccamlr-create-worlds-largest-marine-protected-area CCAMLR to create world's largest Marine Protected Area.] CCAMLR Website</ref><ref name="Guardian Slezak 2016">{{cite web |last1=Slezak |first1=Michael |date=26 October 2016 |title=World's largest marine park created in Ross Sea in Antarctica in landmark deal |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/28/worlds-largest-marine-park-created-in-ross-sea-in-antarctica-in-landmark-deal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028152059/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/28/worlds-largest-marine-park-created-in-ross-sea-in-antarctica-in-landmark-deal |archive-date=28 October 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the [[International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters|Polar Code]], adopted by the [[International Maritime Organization]] (in force since 1 January 2017).<ref name="IMOPolar">{{cite web |url=https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx |title=Shipping in polar waters |publisher=IMO |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802101244/https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Polar-default.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="IMOPolar1Year">{{cite web |url=https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on |title=The Polar Code, One Year On |publisher=The Maritime Executive |access-date=2 August 2021 |archive-date=2 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802101829/https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/the-polar-code-one-year-on |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Climate change ==
{{excerpt|Climate change in Antarctica|paragraphs=1,2}}
[[File:NOAA SMOC changes.png|thumb|upright=1.25|left|Since the 1970s, the upper cell of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has strengthened, while the lower cell weakened. These changes have been linked to the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet.]]
{{excerpt|Climate change in Antarctica|paragraphs=3,4|files=no}}

==Society==
[[File:Expeditions in Antarctica before 1897.svg|thumb|A map of the Antarctic voyages of [[Anthony de la Roché]] and others in the [[Southern Ocean]]]]
=== People ===
The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the [[Spaniards|Spaniard]] [[Gabriel de Castilla]], who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands#Geography|South Georgia]], visited by the [[Kingdom of England|English]] merchant [[Anthony de la Roché]] in 1675. 

Although such myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of [[Antarctica]] is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the [[List of Russian explorers|Russian expedition]] of [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Lazarev]] on ''[[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|Vostok]]'' and ''[[Mirny (sloop-of-war)|Mirny]]''.

The Australian [[James Kerguelen Robinson]] (1859–1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the [[Seal hunting|sealing]] ship ''Offley'' in the [[Golfe du Morbihan (Kerguelen)|Gulf of Morbihan]] (Royal Sound then), [[Kerguelen Islands|Kerguelen Island]] on 11 March 1859.<ref>{{cite report |last=Robinson |first=James |year=1906 |chapter=Appendix&nbsp;B: Log of the ''Offley'' |title=Reminiscences |pages=98–99 |editor-first=D. |editor-last=Cerchi |publisher=Archives Office of Tasmania |place=Hobart, Tasmania, AU |chapter-url=http://www.cerchi.net/destinations/2002_sioe/sioe_kerguelen.html |archive-date=6 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206155915/http://www.cerchi.net/destinations/2002_sioe/sioe_kerguelen.html}}</ref><ref>L. Ivanov and N. Ivanova. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364087925_The_World_of_Antarctica ''The World of Antarctica''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101200659/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364087925_The_World_of_Antarctica |date=1 November 2022 }} Generis Publishing, 2022. 241 pp. {{ISBN|979-8-88676-403-1}}</ref> The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was [[Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen]] born on 8 October 1913 in [[Grytviken]], South Georgia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Headland |first=Robert |title=The Island of South Georgia |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1984 |isbn=9780521424745}}</ref>
[[File:Port of Ushuaia, Argentina.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ushuaia]] in [[Argentina]] is the most active gateway to Antarctica.]]
[[Emilio Marcos Palma]] (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the [[Esperanza Base]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.diarioc.com.ar/inf_general/Emilio_Palma_argentino_y-Adan-de_la_Antartida/2029|title=Emilio Palma, argentino y "Adán" de la Antártida &#124; Información General|website=www.diarioc.com.ar|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225015801/http://www.diarioc.com.ar/inf_general/Emilio_Palma_argentino_y-Adan-de_la_Antartida/2029|url-status=live}}</ref> His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma's birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed [[Argentine Antarctica]]. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican.
[[File:SPSM.05.jpg|thumb|The [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], the [[geographic South Pole]], with its signpost in the background]]
The Antarctic region had no [[indigenous population]] when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient [[science|scientific]] and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen [[Research stations in Antarctica|research stations]] maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://image.zenn.net/REPLACE/CLIENT/1000037/1000116/application/pdf/touristsbynationality_total2.pdf|title=IAATO tourist statistics 2007/08|access-date=20 July 2009|archive-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801191534/http://image.zenn.net/REPLACE/CLIENT/1000037/1000116/application/pdf/touristsbynationality_total2.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] area (especially the [[South Shetland Islands]]) and [[South Georgia (island)|South Georgia Island]].

In December 2009, the growth of [[tourism in Antarctica|tourism]], with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]]. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010.<ref>[http://www.680news.com/news/world/article/5976 Antarctic Nations Considering New Controls On Ships Amid Tourism Explosion.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118154613/http://www.680news.com/news/world/article/5976 |date=18 January 2012 }} Ray Lilley, [[The Associated Press]], 8 December 2009.</ref>

=== Time zones ===
{{Main|Time in Antarctica}}
Because Antarctica surrounds the [[South Pole]], it is theoretically located in all [[time zone]]s. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|territorial claims]] or the time zone of a station's owner country or supply base.<ref>{{cite web |author=[[National Geographic Spciety]]|title=South Pole |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-pole/ |website=National Geographic Society |access-date=9 April 2022 |language=en |date=14 August 2012 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328154532/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/south-pole/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==List of offshore islands==
{{Wide image|061212-nordkapp.jpg|590px|A [[Norway|Norwegian]] cruise ship at [[Petermann Island]] with [[Kyiv Peninsula]] of [[Graham Land]] in the background}}

=== North of 60°S latitude ===
[[File:Grytviken museum.jpg|thumb|[[South Georgia Museum]], [[Grytviken]]]]
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* {{Flag|Bouvet Island}} ([[Norway]])
* {{Flag|Heard Island and McDonald Islands}} ([[Australia]])
** [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands#Geography|Heard Island]]
** [[McDonald Islands (Australia)|McDonald Islands]]
* {{Flagdeco|French Southern Territories}} [[Kerguelen Islands]] ([[France]])
* {{Flag|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands}} ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
** [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands#South Georgia group|South Georgia Islands]]
*** [[Shag Rocks (South Georgia)|Shag Rocks]]
*** [[South Georgia (island)|South Georgia]]
** [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands#South Sandwich Islands|South Sandwich Islands]]
}}

=== South of 60°S latitude ===
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* {{Flagdeco|Antarctic Treaty}} [[Balleny Islands]] (''[[Antarctic Treaty System]]'')
* {{Flagdeco|Antarctic Treaty}} [[Peter I Island]] (''[[Antarctic Treaty System]]'')
* {{Flagdeco|Antarctic Treaty}} [[Scott Island]] (''[[Antarctic Treaty System]]'')
* {{Flagdeco|Antarctic Treaty}} [[South Orkney Islands]] (''[[Antarctic Treaty System]]'')
* {{Flagdeco|Antarctic Treaty}} [[South Shetland Islands]] (''[[Antarctic Treaty System]]'')
}}

== See also ==
* [[Anthony de la Roché]]
* [[Antarctic Circle]]
* [[Antarctic ice sheet]]
* [[History of Antarctica]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{main|Bibliography of Antarctica}}
* Krupnik, Igor; Michael A. Lang; Scott E. Miller (eds). [http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?series=IPY&toplevel=1 ''Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science'']. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.

== External links ==
* [http://www.bsae2012.co.uk/ British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012]
* [http://www.cep.aq/ Committee for Environmental Protection of Antarctica]
* [http://www.ats.aq/ Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.ccamlr.org/ CCAMLR Commission]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090106182938/http://www.heritage-antarctica.org/AHT/HistoryHutPointCrew/ Antarctic Heritage Trusts]
* [http://www.iaato.org/ International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318122231/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/the_antarctic_convergence Map of the Antarctic Convergence]
* [http://www.subantarctic.org.uk/ The South Atlantic and Subantarctic Islands]
* [https://adventuresallaround.com/ushuaia-gateway-to-antarctica-a-beginners-guide/ Ushuaia is the most popular gateway to Antarctica]

{{Antarctica|expanded}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Polar regions}}
{{Antarctic claims}}
{{Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories}}
{{Polar exploration |state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Geography}}

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[[Category:Antarctic region| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica]]