View source for Early modern Europe

{{short description|European history from mid-1400s to late 1700s}}
[[File:Abraham Ortelius Map of Europe.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Abraham Ortelius]]: Map of Europe, 1595]]
'''Early modern Europe''', also referred to as the '''post-medieval period''', is the period of [[European history]] between the end of the [[Middle Ages]] and the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]], roughly the mid 15th century to the late 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of the period with the invention of [[moveable type]] printing in the 1450s, the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and end of the [[Hundred Years' War]] in 1453, the end of the [[Wars of the Roses]] in 1485, the beginning of the [[High Renaissance]] in Italy in the 1490s, the end of the [[Reconquista]] and subsequent [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]] to the Americas in 1492, or the start of the Protestant [[Reformation]] in 1517. The precise dates of its end point also vary and are usually linked with either the start of the [[French Revolution]] in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in late 18th century England.

Some of the more notable trends and events of the early modern period included the first [[Magellan expedition|circumnavigation of the Earth]], the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas and [[South Asia|South]] and East Asia and the [[European colonization of the Americas]]. The Protestant [[Reformation]] and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the [[French Wars of Religion]] and the [[Thirty Years' War]]), greatly altered the religious balance of [[Christendom]], creating a formidable new opposition to the dominance of the [[Catholic Church]], especially in Northern Europe. 

[[Scientific Revolution|Modern science]] emerged during the 17th century and was followed by increasingly rapid [[History of technology|technological progress]], as well as the establishment of secularized civic politics, [[law court]]s and the [[nation state]].  [[Capitalist economy|Capitalist economies]] began to develop in a nascent form, first in the [[Low Countries]], and later in France, Germany and England. The period is often associated with the rise and dominance of the economic theory of [[mercantilism]] and the decline and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) of [[feudalism]] and [[serf]]dom. The ensuing rise of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an important role in the development of [[capitalism]] and represents an identifiable early phase of [[globalization]].

== Periodization ==
[[File:Europe about 1560.jpg|thumb|Europe about 1560, as in the 1923 [[William Robert Shepherd|William Shepherd]] Atlas]]
{{More citations needed|section|date=June 2021}}
Regardless of the precise dates used to define its beginning and end points, the early modern period is generally agreed to have comprised the [[Renaissance]], the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], the [[Scientific Revolution]], and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. As such, historians have attributed a number of fundamental changes to the period, notably the increasingly rapid progress of science and technology, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the absolute authority of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as well as the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early modern period as the epoch in which individuals began to think of themselves as belonging to a national polity—a notable break from medieval modes of self-identification, which had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universal [[Christendom]]), language, or feudal allegiance (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particular [[magnate]] or [[lord]]). 

The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted to be in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:

* 1450: The invention of the first European [[movable type]] printing process by [[Johannes Gutenberg]], a device that fundamentally changed the circulation of information. Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words and which is an invention separate from the printing press, had been invented earlier in China.

* 1453: [[Fall of Constantinople|The conquest of Constantinople]] by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] signalled the end of the [[Byzantine Empire]]; the [[Battle of Castillon]] concluded the [[Hundred Years' War]].

* 1485: The last [[Plantagenet]] king of England, [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], was killed at [[Battle of Bosworth Field|Bosworth]] and the [[medieval]] [[Wars of the Roses]] gave way to early modern [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] monarchy, in the person of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]].

* 1492: The first documented European voyage to the Americas by the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] explorer [[Christopher Columbus]]; the end of the [[Reconquista]], with the final expulsion of the [[Moors]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula]]; the Spanish government [[Alhambra Decree|expels the Jews]].

* 1494: French king [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] invaded Italy, drastically altering the status quo and beginning a [[Italian Wars|series of wars]] which would punctuate the [[Italian Renaissance]].

* 1503: [[Amerigo Vespucci]]'s [[New_World#Mundus_Novus|Mundus Novus]] letter is published.

* 1513: First formulation of modern politics with the publication of [[Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]''.

* 1517: The [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] begins with [[Martin Luther]] nailing his [[95 theses|ninety-five theses]] to the door of the church in [[Wittenberg]], Germany.

* 1526: [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] gains the crowns of [[Bohemia]] and [[Hungary]].

* 1527: [[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome]] by the mutinous troops of the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]].

* 1545: The [[Council of Trent]] begins [[Counter-Reformation]] and marks the end of the medieval [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref name="ODCC">"Trent, Council of" in Cross, F. L. (ed.) ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', Oxford University Press, 2005 ({{ISBN|978-0-19-280290-3}}).</ref><ref>Quoted in [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813100622/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html |date=August 13, 2013 }}</ref>
The end date of the early modern period is variously associated with the [[Industrial Revolution]], which began in Britain in about 1750, or the beginning of the [[French Revolution]] in 1789, which drastically transformed the state of [[European politics]] and ushered in the [[Napoleonic era]] and modern Europe.

The role of nobles in the [[feudalism|Feudal System]] had yielded to the notion of the [[Divine Right of Kings]] during the [[Middle Ages]] (in fact, this consolidation of power from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was one of the most prominent themes of the Middle Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition of [[serfdom]] and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], the notion of [[Christendom]] as a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the world to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For instance, many of the Germanic states (as well as [[England|English Reformation]]) converted to [[Protestantism]] in an attempt to slip out of the grasp of the Pope.

The intellectual developments of the period included the creation of the economic theory of [[mercantilism]] and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such as [[Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'' (1513) and [[Thomas More]]'s ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]'' (1515). In the 17th century, the Scientific Revolution was defined by the foundational works of [[Johannes Kepler]]'s ''[[Astronomia Nova]]'' (1609), [[Galileo Galilei]]'s ''[[Sidereus Nuncius|Starry Messenger]]'' (1610) and [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687).

== Printing Revolution ==
{{Further|Printing press#Circulation of information and ideas}}
[[File:Printing towns incunabula.svg|thumb|alt=Map of Europe with dots marking cities where printing presses were established by the end of the fifteenth century|The spread of printing between 1440 and 1500.]]
From a single print shop in [[Mainz]], Germany around 1440, the [[movable type]] [[printing-press]] had [[Printing_press#Mass_production_and_spread_in_Europe|spread to no less than around 270 cities]] in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century.<ref name="Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean 1976 by Anderson, Benedict 1993, 58f.">Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). ''The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800''. London: New Left Books. Quoted in: Anderson, Benedict. ''Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo''. Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico, 1993. {{ISBN|978-968-16-3867-2}}. pp. 58f.</ref> Printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars.<ref>"Printing made it possible for [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]] to survey a wide range of publications (there were over a hundred on the [[Great_Comet_of_1577#Observations_by_Tycho_Brahe|comet of 1577]], though many were merely astrological prognostications) and demonstrate that the four best observers had produced results compatible with his own. It also ensured that Brahe's new system was quickly known throughout Europe, so that his arguments could be tested against the [[Kepler's Supernova|nova of 1604]] and the [[C/1618_W1#Scientific_evaluation|comets of 1618]]. Printing created a community of astronomers working on common problems with common methods and reaching agreed solutions." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). pp.197-198. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> Printing ended the [[manuscript culture]] of the Middle Ages, where [[fact|facts]] were few and far between, and replaced it with a [[printing culture]] where reliable and documented facts rapidly proliferated and became the secure foundation for scientific knowledge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |author-link=David Wootton (historian) |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |publisher=Penguin |year=2015 |page=282 |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |quote=...a manuscript culture, in which experience is unspecific, indirect, and amorphous...a print culture, in which experience is specific, direct, documented and retrievable...In comparison to the world of print, manuscript culture is one of rumour and gossip. The printing press represents an information revolution, and secure facts are its consequence.}}</ref>

== Age of Discovery ==
{{Further|Age of Discovery|New World#Mundus Novus|Waldseemüller map}}
The [[Age of Discovery]] was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which [[Seamanship|seafarers]] from European countries explored, colonized, and conquered regions across the globe. The opening of maritime routes to the [[East Indies]] and [[European colonization of the Americas]] by the [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], later joined by the [[British Empire|English]], [[French colonial empire|French]], and [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]], spurred [[International trade|international global trade]] that connected previously isolated parts of the world to each other. The interconnected [[globalization|global economy]] of the 21st century has its origins in the expansion of trade networks during this era.
[[File:Waldseemuller map 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|''Universalis Cosmographia'', Waldseemüller's 1507 [[Waldseemüller map|world map]], which was the first to show the Americas separate from Asia]]
[[Amerigo Vespucci]]'s [[New_World#Mundus_Novus|Mundus Novus]] letter, published in 1503 and repeatedly reprinted, provided the first explicit articulation in print that the lands discovered by European navigators to the West were not the edges of Asia, but rather an entirely different continent (a "New World").<ref>Varnhagen, ''Amerígo Vespucci'' (1865:  [https://books.google.com/books?id=R9QOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA13 pp. 13–26]) provides side-by-side reproductions of both the 1503 Latin version ''Mundus Novus'', and the 1507 Italian re-translation "El Nuovo Mondo de Lengue Spagnole interpretato in Idioma Ro. Libro Quinto" (from ''Paesi Nuovamente retrovati''). The Latin version of ''Mundus Novus'' was reprinted many times (see Varnhagen, 1865: [https://books.google.com/books?id=R9QOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9 p. 9] for a list of early reprints).</ref> Between 1519 and 1522, the [[Magellan_expedition|Magellan–Elcano expedition]] achieved the first circumnavigation of Earth in history,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Ferdinand Magellan |url=https://library.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/magellan/magellan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315154103/https://library.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/magellan/magellan.html |archive-date=15 March 2024 |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=library.princeton.edu |publisher=[[Princeton University Library]] |quote=}}</ref> including the first crossing of the Pacific by a European expedition, revealing the vast scale of that ocean.<ref>Redondo, J.M.G., & Martín, J.M.M. (2021). [https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=5141676&publisher=FZ1670#page=11 Making a Global Image of the World: Science, Cosmography and Navigation in Times of the First Circumnavigation of Earth, 1492–1522]. [[Spanish National Research Council]]''. Culture & History Digital Journal''. 10(2). {{ISSN|2253-797X}}</ref> Every continent was visited and mostly mapped by Europeans, except the south polar continent now known as [[Antarctica]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=David |title=The History of Cartography, Volume Three: Cartography in the European Renaissance |date=2007 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago and London |isbn=978-0226907338}}</ref> The continents drawn by European mapmakers developed from abstract "{{linktext|blob}}s" into the outlines more recognizable to us.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbIEAQAAQBAJ&q=The+Age+of+Discovery,+1400-1600 |title=The Age of Discovery, 1400-1600 |date=2013-09-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-47968-7 |language=en}}</ref>

European exploration also initiated the [[Columbian exchange]] between the [[Old World]] (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and [[New World]] (Americas). This exchange involved the transfer of plants, animals, human populations (including [[Slavery|slaves]]), [[Infection|communicable diseases]], and culture across the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Western Hemisphere]]s. The Age of Discovery and [[Major explorations after the Age of Discovery|European exploration]] involved [[History of cartography|mapping the world]], shaping a new worldview and facilitating contact with distant civilizations. Simultaneously, the spread of new diseases, especially [[Native American disease and epidemics|affecting Native Americans]], led to [[Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|rapid declines in some populations]]. The era saw widespread enslavement, exploitation and military conquest of [[Indigenous peoples]], concurrent with the growing economic influence and spread of [[Western culture]], science and technology leading to a [[Estimates of historical world population|faster-than-exponential population growth]] world-wide.

The discovery of continents that were completely unknown to the [[classical_antiquity|ancients]] had a profound impact on European intellectual life in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=[[Lorraine Daston]] and [[Katharine Park]]|title=Wonders and the Order of Nature|year=1998|publisher=Zone Books|location=USA: New York |page=147|quote=...the revelation that the world included whole new continents undreamed of by the ancients opened up a fissure in time as well as space. Compared to earlier writing on travel, the work from the decades after 1492 demonstrate a heightened sense of novelty and possibility - of just how new and different things were able to be.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mauries|first=Patrick|title=Cabinets of Curiosities|year=2002|publisher=Thames and Hudson}}</ref> By revealing a "[[New_World#Mundus_Novus|New World]]" unknown to the ancients, the European encounter with the [[Americas]] also specifically undermined the authority of [[Claudius Ptolemy]], the 2nd-century scholar whose [[Geography_(Ptolemy)|geographic]] and [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|astronomical]] models had long been considered infallible.<ref>"...before Columbus discovered America in 1492 there was no clear-cut and well-established idea of discovery; the idea of discovery is, as will become apparent, a precondition for the invention of science....the discovery of America disproved a central claim about the world which had been generally accepted before 1492...This was a crucial precondition for the astronomical revolution which followed." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015) . xiv + 769 pp. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref>

== Reformation ==
{{Main|Reformation}}

The Protestant Reformation was a reform-oriented [[schism]] from the Roman [[Catholic Church]] initiated by [[Martin Luther]] and continued by [[John Calvin]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and other early [[Protestant Reformers]]. It is typically dated from 1517 - when Luther posted his [[95 Theses]] criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church in [[Wittenberg]], Germany - to the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648). The four most important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were [[Lutheran]]ism, the [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] (also called [[Calvinist]] or [[Presbyterian]]) tradition, [[Anglicanism]], and the [[Anabaptist]]s. Subsequent Protestant churches generally trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. The [[Radical Reformation]] also gave rise to the [[Anabaptist]], [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] and other [[Pietism|Pietistic]] movements.<ref>George Huntston Williams, ''The Radical Reformation'' (3rd ed, 2000).</ref> The core motivation behind the Reformation was [[Christian theology|theological]], though many other factors played a part, including the rise of [[nationalism]], the [[Western Schism]] that eroded faith in the [[Papacy]], the perceived corruption of the [[Roman Curia]], the impact of [[humanism]], and the new learning of the [[Renaissance]] that questioned much traditional thought.<ref>For a wide range of causes see G.R. Elton, ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559'' (1st ed. 1958) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111462 online]</ref>

[[File:After Hans Holbein the Younger - Portrait of Henry VIII - Google Art Project.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] broke England's ties with the Catholic Church, becoming the sole head of the English Church.]]
The Reformation reshaped the [[Church of England]] decisively after 1547. The separation of the [[Church of England]] (or Anglican Church) from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement; however, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (''[[via media]]'') between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.<ref>A.G. Dickens, ''The English Reformation'' (1991).</ref>

The Roman Catholic Church responded with a [[Counter-Reformation]] initiated by the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563), which included a variety of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the clarification of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church.<ref>Kenneth G. Appold, ''The Reformation: A Brief History'' (2011) [https://www.questia.com/library/120083934/the-reformation-a-brief-history online]</ref><ref>Andrew Johnston, ''The protestant reformation in Europe'' (Routledge, 2014).</ref>  Much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]]. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years' War, which left it devastated.<ref>A.D. Wright, ''The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian World'' (Ashgate, 2005).</ref>

Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation.  Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli.  Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the [[social history|new social history]] in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation was then seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement and textured and rich because of its diversity."<ref>{{cite book|author=Margaret C. Jacob|title=Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9y1pF-Na3UC&pg=PA215|year=1991|page=215|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199762798}}</ref>

== Scientific Revolution ==
{{Main|Scientific Revolution}}
[[File:Pleiades_Sidereus_Nuncius_(cropped).png|thumb|200px|Galileo reported in the ''[[Starry Messenger]]'' (1610) that he saw at least ten times more stars through the telescope than are visible to the naked eye.]]
[[Galileo Galilei]]’s [[Galileo_Galilei#Phases_of_Venus|early 17th-century telescopic observations]] began the transformation of what had been a narrowly technical revision of [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|classical astronomy]] by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] into an increasingly aggressive challenge to [[Celestial spheres|traditional cosmology]] and the long-standing synthesis of [[Aristotelian physics]] and Christian theology. The upheaval of the [[Scientific Revolution]] ended the medieval view of [[natural philosophy]] as the servant (or "handmaiden") of theology.<ref>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | author-link=Edward Grant | year = 2007 | chapter = The Relations between Natural Philosophy and Theology | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | pages = 241 | quote=...Christians developed the concept that philosophy and science are 'handmaids to theology'... [[Augustine]] strongly urged Christians not to seek secular knowledge for its own sake but to take only what is useful for a better understanding of scripture...The handmaiden theory of secular knowledge also tended to emphasize the role of authorities, from the divine Scriptures themselves to the church fathers who had interpreted Scripture. The handmaiden tradition remained strong in Western Europe up to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, during the period when natural philosophy was relatively weak. | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Applebaum |first=Wilbur |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Foundations of Modern Science | pages = 7, 113-114 | quote=Natural philosophy had long been perceived as a handmaiden to theology, which was called the "queen of the sciences." It was now coming to be thought as independent of theological constraints, with its own methods, functions, and purposes different from those of religion...Traditional conceptions of natural philosophy as a handmaid to religion were transformed in the course of the seventeenth century. Some challenged the new scientific outlooks for...denying the truth of Scripture. The new natural philosophers answered by denying the validity of [[Sola scriptura|literal interpretations]] of certain passages in the Bible, which were written to appeal to the common understanding of ordinary people...Centuries earlier St. Augustine had said the function of the Bible was not to teach us about nature. Galileo, Kepler, and others held that the Book of Nature was not designed to prepare us for salvation. They urged that natural philosophy and theology should be seen as distinct areas with their own methods and criteria, and that their practitioners should not intervene in one another's provinces. |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |series=Greenwood Guides to Historic Events, 1500–1900 |location=Westport, CT |isbn=978-0-313-32314-0}}</ref> As natural philosophy continued to grow in power, self-confidence and independence during the 17th century, European society around it began to undergo a tectonic shift in intellectual attitude — from ''[[fides quaerens intellectum]]'' to a new mode of understanding that was, increasingly, completely uncoupled from religion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |date=2015 |pages=6-11|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |location=New York |quote=...let us take for a moment a typical well-educated European in 1600...He believes in witchcraft...He believes [[Circe]] really did turn [[Odysseus]]'s crew into pigs. He believes [[Spontaneous_generation#Aristotle|mice are spontaneously generated in piles of straw]]...He believes that [[Horror_vacui_(philosophy)|nature abhors a vacuum]]. He believes the rainbow is a sign from God and that comets portend evil...He believes, of course, that the earth stands still and the sun and stars turn around the earth once every twenty-four hours...But now let us jump far ahead [to 1733]...He does not know anyone (or at least not anyone educated and reasonably sophisticated) who believes in witches, magic, alchemy or astrology; he thinks the ''Odyssey'' is fiction, not fact....He knows that the rainbow is produced by refracted light and that comets have no significance for our lives on earth. He believes that the future cannot be predicted. He knows that the heart is a pump...He believes that science is going to transform the world and that the moderns have outstripped the ancients in every possible respect. He has trouble believing in miracles, even the ones in the Bible...Between 1600 and 1733...the intellectual world of the educated elite changed more rapidly than at any time in previous history...The only name we have for this great transformation is 'the Scientific Revolution'.}}</ref> The "New Science" that ultimately emerged by the end of the century broke sharply with the natural philosophy that had preceded it,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions,<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= 1 June 2018|archive-date= 11 December 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> was more mechanistic in its worldview and more integrated with mathematics,<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> and was obsessed with the acquisition and interpretation of new evidence.<ref> Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.136. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref>

==Age of Enlightenment==
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2026}}
{{Main|Age of Enlightenment}}
"The Age of Enlightenment" refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement, ''The Enlightenment''. This movement advocated [[rationalism|rationality]] as a means to establish an authoritative system of [[aesthetics]], ethics, and [[logic]].  The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as a courageous elite, and regarded their purpose as one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called the ''[[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]]''.  This movement also provided a framework for the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s, the Latin American independence movement, and the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] [[Constitution of May 3]], and also led to the rise of liberalism and the birth of [[socialism]] and [[communism]].<ref>Bax, Ernest Belfort. "Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of the Equals", 1911 [http://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1911/babeuf/index.htm], accessed June 12, 2011.</ref>  It is matched by the high [[baroque]] and classical eras in music, and the [[Neoclassicism|neo-classical]] period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includes [[logical positivism]].

== Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2026}}
The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the term [[Renaissance]], and vice versa. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—especially central and northern Italy—and span the transition from late [[Medieval]] civilization and the opening of the early modern period.

The term "early modern" is most often applied to Europe, and its overseas empire.  However, it has also been employed in the history of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the historiography of Japan, the [[Edo period]] from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the "early modern" period.

== Diplomacy and warfare ==
[[File:Herman Moll Map of Europe.jpg|thumb|left|350px|After the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll]]
{{Main|International relations 1648–1814}}
The 17th century saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.)<ref>John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army In Seventeenth-Century Europe," ''Social Science Quarterly'' (1969) 50#1 pp. 106–115 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42858465 in JSTOR]</ref>   The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement.  Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was:

"prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability.  It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite.  It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies."<ref>Frederick L. Nussbaum, ''The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685'' (1953) pp. 147–48.</ref>

The worst came during the [[Thirty Years' War]], 1618–1648, which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society.

=== Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 ===
[[File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Treaty of Westphalia]] allowed [[Calvinism]] to be freely exercised.]]
The Reformation led to a [[European wars of religion|series of religious wars]] that culminated in the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648), which devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 History of Europe – Demographics]". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Roman Catholic [[House of Habsburg]] and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Crown of Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovene Lands]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

Two main tenets of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:

* All parties would now recognise the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'').
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.

The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull ''Zelo Domus Dei''. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<ref name=ODCCWestphalia>Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''</ref>

Scholars taking a [[Realism (international relations)|"realist" perspective]] on wars and diplomacy have emphasized the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648) as a dividing line. It ended the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648), where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare.   Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands Using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits.<ref>Norman Davies, ''Europe: A History'' (1996) pp. 593–94.</ref> According to [[Hamish Scott (historian)|Hamish Scott]], the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.'<ref>Hamish Scott, book review in ''English Historical Review'' (Oct 2013) pp. 1239–1241.</ref>

Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were too often squandered.  In England, for example, King Charles II paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous.  During the Dutch war of 1665–67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden.  When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism.  Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies.<ref>J.R. Jones, ''Britain and the World: 1649–1815'' (1980), pp. 38–39.</ref> King Louis XIV of France, by contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and minor capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin.<ref>Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History'' vol. 5 (1961) pp. 198–99, 206.</ref>  By 1700, the British and the Dutch, with small land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing as needed land powers to fight on their side, or as in the case of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, ''The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785'' (2003).</ref> The balance of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory there, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants.  Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory.<ref>Davies, ''Europe'' (1996) pp. 581–82.</ref>

==Major states==
===Holy Roman Empire===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2026}}
Since 1512, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was also known as the ''Holy Roman Empire of the [[Germans|German nation]]''. The Habsburg [[House of Austria]] held the position of [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s since the mid-1400s and for the entire Early modern period. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a period in which national monarchies were emerging, the Habsburg Emperors of the Early modern period came close to form a [[universal monarchy]] in Western Europe.

The Habsburgs expanded their control within and outside the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Maximilian I married [[Mary of Burgundy]], thus bringing the [[Burgundian Netherlands]] into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son, [[Philip the Handsome]], married [[Joanna the Mad]] of Spain (daughter of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]]). [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the [[Habsburg Netherlands]] in 1506, [[Habsburg Spain]] and its territories in 1516, and [[Archduchy of Austria|Habsburg Austria]] in 1519.

The main opponents of the Habsburg Empire were the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Kingdom of France]]. The Habsburgs clashed [[French-Habsburg rivalry|with France]] in a series of Italian wars. The [[Battle of Pavia]] (1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italy and the replacement of France as the main European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and divide the Habsburg possessions between Spain and Austria. The next Holy Roman [[Emperor Ferdinand I]] completed the [[Council of Trent]] and maintained Germany at peace until the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia as well, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains.

=== Spain ===
{{Further|History of Spain|Early Modern period|Crown of Castile|Crown of Aragon|Age of Discovery}}

In 1492 the [[Catholic Monarchs]] of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] funded [[Christopher Columbus]]'s plan to sail west to reach the [[Indies]] by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a [[new world]], the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands.<ref>Edward Gaylord Bourne, ''The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation Established by Pope Alexander VI Between the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization'' (1892) online in Gutenberg.org.</ref>

The structure of the Spanish Empire was established under the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Habsburgs]] (1516–1700) and under the [[House of Bourbon|Spanish Bourbon]] monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown control and increased its revenues from the Indies.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=heEdZziizrUC&pg=PA35|title=The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350–1750|last=Tracy|first=James D.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-521-45735-4|page=35}}</ref><ref>Lynch, John. ''Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1989, p. 21.</ref> The crown's authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant of [[Patronato Real|powers of patronage]], giving it power in the religious sphere.<ref>Schwaller, John F., "Patronato Real" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'' vol. 4, pp. 323–24.</ref><ref>Mecham, J. Lloyd, ''Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations'', revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, pp. 4–6.</ref><ref>[[Clarence Haring|Haring, Clarence]], ''The Spanish Empire in America''. New York: Oxford University Press 1947, pp. 181–82.</ref>

Under [[Philip II of Spain]], Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more powerful nation than France and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Spain retained its position of dominance with apparent ease. Spain controlled the Netherlands until the [[Dutch revolt]], and important states in southern Italy. The Spanish claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred by rival claims until the mid-16th century and the rule of Philip II. There would be no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperor [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in 1566 and the naval victory over the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571 cemented the status of Spain as a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Spanish Monarch in the Americas, Asia ([[Spanish Philippines]]), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania.

=== France ===
{{Further|History of France|Early modern France|Kingdom of France|Ancien Régime}}
The [[Ancien Régime]] (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the [[Kingdom of France]] from about 1450 until the [[French Revolution]] that started in  1789.<ref>{{citation|title=Ancien Regime|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/ancient-history-middle-ages-and-feudalism/ancien-regime|encyclopedia=Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World|publisher=The Gale Group Inc.|access-date=26 February 2017|language=en|date=2004|via=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> The Ancien Régime was ruled by the [[House of Valois|late Valois]] and [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] dynasties.  Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in the [[Hundred Years' War]], and the Valois Dynasty's attempts at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]]). Much of the reigns of [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]], [[Louis XIII]] and the early years of [[Louis XIV]] were focused on administrative centralisation. Despite, however, the notion of "[[absolute monarchy]]" (typified by the king's right to issue ''[[lettres de cachet]]'') and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative (including taxation), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like the [[The Fronde|Fronde]]) protested against this centralization.<ref>See William Doyle, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime'' (2012) 656 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Ancien-Handbooks-History/dp/0199291209/ excerpt and text search].</ref>

The need for centralization in this period was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the wars between Catholics and Protestants and the [[Habsburg]]'s internal family conflict) and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century demanded great sums which needed to be raised through taxes, such as the land tax (''{{lang|fr|[[taille]]}}'') and the tax on salt (''{{lang|fr|[[gabelle]]}}'') and by contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personal [[patronage]] systems organized around the king and other nobles by institutional systems around the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Major|1994|pp=xx–xxi}}</ref> The creation of [[intendant]]s—representatives of royal power in the provinces—did much to undermine local control by regional nobles. The same was true of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" as judges and royal counselors. The creation of regional [[parlement]]s had initially the same goal of facilitating the introduction of royal power into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-assurance, they began to be sources of disunity.<ref>Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610–1774'' (1999), political survey [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631211969 excerpt and text search].</ref>

===England===
{{Further|Early modern Britain|Kingdom of England|Kingdom of Scotland|Commonwealth of England|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
[[File:Elizabeth succession allegory.jpg|thumb|right|'''Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty.'''  Detail from ''The Family of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession'', c. 1572, attributed to [[Lucas de Heere]].]]

The [[Elizabethan Era]] is the period associated with the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] (1558–1603) and was a [[golden age]] in English cultural history. It was the height of the [[English Renaissance]], and saw the flowering of [[English literature]] and [[English poetry|poetry]]. This was also the time during which [[Elizabethan theatre]] grew.  [[William Shakespeare]], among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At home the [[Protestant Reformation]] was established and successfully defended against the Catholic powers of Spain and France.<ref>D. M. Palliser, ''The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603'' (1983)</ref>

The ''[[Jacobean era]]'' was the reign  [[James I of England]] (1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped up, with the first permanent settlements in North America at [[Jamestown, Virginia]] in 1607, in [[Colony of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] in 1610, and at [[Plymouth Colony]] in Massachusetts in 1620. One king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully absorbed by the [[Acts of Union 1707]].<ref>Barry Coward, and Peter Gaunt. ''The Stuart Age: England, 1603–1714'' (5th ed. 2017), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GjElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 excerpt]</ref>

The tumultuous [[Caroline era]] was the reign of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] (1625–1645), followed by his beheading by [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s regime  in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the King and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the [[Puritan]] opposition that evolved in response to particular aspects of Charles' rule. The colonization of North America continued apace, with new colonies in [[Maryland]] (1634), [[Connecticut]] (1635), and [[Rhode Island]] (1636).<ref>Godfrey Davies, ''The Early Stuarts, 1603–1660'' (Oxford UP, 1959).</ref>

===Poland===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2026}}
{{Further|History of Poland|History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Crown of Poland|Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Golden Liberties}}
In early modern Europe, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was the largest country with a large population and was very powerful. It was the largest semi-democratically governed polity of its time. It had low taxes but managed to field thousands of [[Winged Hussars]] who composed of nobility who followed [[Sarmatism]]. The [[Polish military]] routinely beat other respectable opponents such as the Ottomans, the Swedes and the Russians.

=== Papacy ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2026}}
The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy Leagues to assert Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance, [[Julius II]] and [[Paul III]] were largely involved in the [[Italian Wars]] and worked to preserve their primacy among the Italian princes. During the Counter-Reformation, the Papacy supported Catholic powers and factions all over Europe. [[Pope Pius V]] assembled the Catholic coalition that won the [[Battle of Lepanto]] against the Turks. [[Pope Sixtus V]] sided with the Catholics during the [[French wars of religion]]. Worldwide religious missions, such as the [[Jesuit China mission]], were established by [[Pope Gregory XIII]]. Gregory XIII is also responsible for the establishment of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Following the [[Peace of Westphalia]] and the birth of [[nation-states]], Papal claims to universal authority came effectively to an end.

== Other political powers ==
* [[Ottoman Empire]]
* [[History of early modern Italy|Early Modern Italy]]
** [[Papal States]]
** [[Republic of Florence]], [[Duchy of Florence]], [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]]
** [[Republic of Venice]]
** [[Duchy of Milan]]
** [[Republic of Genoa]]
** [[Kingdom of Naples]]
* [[Kingdom of Portugal]]
* [[Dutch Republic]]
* [[Holy Roman Empire]]
** [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] (Czech)
** [[Habsburg monarchy]] (Austria)
* [[Early Modern history of Germany|Early Modern Germany]]
** [[Duchy of Prussia]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
** [[Duchy of Bavaria]], [[Electorate of Bavaria]]
** [[Electorate of the Palatinate]]
* [[Tsardom of Russia]], [[Russian Empire]]
* [[History of Sweden#Early Modern|Early Modern Sweden]]
* [[Denmark–Norway]]
* [[Early Modern Romania]]
* [[Kingdom of Hungary]]

==See also==
* [[Renaissance]]
* [[Early Modern warfare]]
* [[Age of Discovery]]
* [[Protestant Reformation]]
* Catholic [[Counter-Reformation]]
* [[Scientific Revolution]]
* [[Thirty Years' War]]
* [[International relations (1648–1814)|International relations 1648–1814]]
* [[Age of Enlightenment]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Major |first=J. Russell |title=From Renaissance Monarchy to Absolute Monarchy: French Kings, Nobles & Estates |date=1994 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=0-8018-5631-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Rice|first=Eugene, F. Jr. |title=The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460–1559|year=1970|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|author-link=Eugene F. Rice, Jr.}}
* John Coffey (2000), ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689'', Studies in Modern History, Pearson Education
* Benjamin J. Kaplan (2007), ''Divided by Faith. Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe.'' Cambridge University Press
* [[Joseph S. Freedman]] (1999), ''Philosophy and the Arts in Central Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities'' Aldershot: Ashgate

==Further reading==
* Black, Jeremy. '' European International Relations, 1648–1815'' (2002) 
* Blanning, T. C. W. ''The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789'' (2003)
* Cameron, Euan. ''Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History'' (2001)
* de Gouges, Linnea. ''Witch Hunts and State Building in Early Modern Europe'' Nisus Publications, 2017.
* de Vries, Jan. ''The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750'' (1976)
* de Vries, Jan. ''European Urbanization, 1500–1800'' (1984)
* Dewald, Jonathan. "The Early Modern Period." in ''Encyclopedia of European Social History'', edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1: 2001), pp. 165–177. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500030/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=c0c7f990 online]
* Dorn, Walter L. ''Competition For Empire 1740–1763'' (1940) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505410 online]
* DuPlessis, Robert S. ''Transitions to capitalism in early modern Europe'' (2019).
* Flinn, Michael W. ''The European Demographic System, 1500–1820'' (1981)
* Gatti, Hilary. ''Ideas of Liberty in Early Modern Europe'' (2015).
* Gershoy, Leo. ''From Despotism To Revolution: 1763–1789'' (1944) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499216 online]
* Grafton, Anthony. ''Inky Fingers: The Making of Books in Early Modern Europe'' (2020).
* Gribben, Crawford, and Graeme Murdock, eds. ''Cultures of Calvinism in Early Modern Europe'' (Oxford UP, 2019).
* Gutmann, Myron P. ''Toward the Modern Economy: Early Industry in Europe, 1500–1800'' (1988)
* Hesmyr, Atle: ''Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era''(2017).
* Hill, David Jayne. ''A history of diplomacy in the international development of Europe'' (3 vol. 1914) [https://archive.org/search.php?query=Jayne%20diplomacy%20Europe online]
* Jacob, Margaret C. ''Strangers nowhere in the world: the rise of cosmopolitanism in early modern Europe'' (2017).
* Kennedy, Paul. ''The rise and fall of the great powers'' (2010).
* Klein, Alexander, and Jelle Van Lottum. "The Determinants of International Migration in Early Modern Europe: Evidence from the Maritime Sector, c. 1700–1800." ''Social Science History'' 44.1 (2020): 143–167 [https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/175521/1/1710.pdf online].
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline
* Levine, David. "The Population of Europe: Early Modern Demographic Patterns." in ''Encyclopedia of European Social History,'' edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2, 2001), pp. 145–157. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3460500079/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=e9e450e5 online]
* Lindsay, J. O. ed. ''New Cambridge Modern History: The Old Regime, 1713–1763'' (1957) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.111467 online]
* Merriman, John. ''A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present'' (3rd ed. 2009, 2 vol), 1412 pp.
* Mowat, R. B. ''History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789'' (1928) 324 pp. [https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowa online free]
* Nussbaum, Frederick L. ''The triumph of science and reason, 1660–1685'' (1953), Despite the narrow title is a general survey of European history.
* Parker, Geoffrey. ''The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800'' (1996)
* Petrie, Charles. ''Earlier diplomatic history, 1492–1713'' (1949), covers all of Europe; [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015027344731 online]
** Petrie, Charles. ''Diplomatic History, 1713–1933'' (1946), broad summary [https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000petr online]
* Pollmann, Judith. ''Memory in early modern Europe, 1500–1800'' (Oxford UP, 2017).
* Rice, Eugene F. ''The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460–1559'' (2nd ed. 1994) 240 pp.
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3696068/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848 online]; advanced diplomatic history 
* [[Hamish Scott (historian)|Scott, Hamish]], ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume I: Peoples and Place'' (2015); Volume II: Cultures and Power (2015).
* "The State Church in Early-Modern Europe." in ''Arts and Humanities Through the Eras'', edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., (vol. 5: The Age of the Baroque and Enlightenment 1600–1800, Gale, 2005), pp. 336–341. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3427400915/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=d5fa9bdf online]
* Stearns, Peter N., ed. ''Encyclopedia of European Social History'' (6 vol 2000), 3000 pp; overview vol. 1 pp. 165–77, plus hundreds of articles
* Tallett, Frank. ''War and Society in Early Modern Europe: 1495–1715'' (2016).
* Wiesner, Merry E. ''Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789'' (3rd ed. 2022)
* Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. ''Women and gender in early modern Europe'' (Cambridge UP, 2019).
* Wolf, John B. ''The Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685–1715'' (1951) [https://archive.org/details/emergenceofgreat0000wolf online]

==External links==
{{commons category|Early Modern Europe}}
* [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmhint.html Discussion of the medieval/modern transition], from the introduction to the pioneering ''[[Cambridge Modern History]]'' (1903)
* [http://www.rensoc.org.uk/ Society for Renaissance Studies]

{{Early Modern Europe}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{Ottoman Empire by modern countries}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Early Modern Europe}}
[[Category:Early modern period|*]]
[[Category:History of Europe by period]]
[[Category:Western culture]]