View source for European Union

{{Short description|Supranational political and economic union}}
{{Redirect|EU}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox geopolitical organisation
| conventional_long_name = European Union
| native_name              = {{Name in various languages
 | name = {{nobold|''(in other official languages)''}} <!-- This list must match https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/1958/1(1)/2013-07-01/eng. Please do not add "recognised minority languages" (European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML). This is a treaty of the Council of Europe.) -->
 | bg = Европейски съюз{{efn|{{transliteration|bg|Evropeĭski sŭyuz}}}}
 | hr = Europska unija
 | it = Unione europea
 | cs = Evropská unie
 | da = Den Europæiske Union
 | nl = Europese Unie
 | et = Euroopa Liit
 | fi = Euroopan unioni
 | fr = Union européenne
 | de = Europäische Union
 | el = Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση{{efn|{{transliteration|el|Evropaïkí Énosi}}}}
 | hu = Európai Unió
 | ga = An tAontas Eorpach
 | lv = Eiropas Savienība
 | lt = Europos Sąjunga
 | mt = Unjoni Ewropea
 | pl = Unia Europejska
 | pt = União Europeia
 | ro = Uniunea Europeană
 | sk = Európska únia
 | sl = Evropska unija
 | es = Unión Europea
 | sv = Europeiska unionen
 }}
| linking_name             = the European Union
| image_flag               = Flag of Europe.svg
| alt_flag                 = Circle of 12 gold stars on a blue background
| flag_border              = yes
| symbol_width             = 
| motto                    = {{Native name|la|"[[Motto of the European Union|In Varietate Concordia]]"|italics=off}}
| englishmotto             = "United in Diversity"
| anthem                   = "[[Anthem of Europe|European Anthem]]"{{Paragraph break}}{{Center|[[File:Anthem of Europe (US Navy instrumental short version).ogg]]}}
| text_symbol_type         = 
| text_symbol              = 
| image_map                = {{Switcher
 | [[File:Europe and the European Union.svg|upright=1.25|frameless]]
 | Show globe
 | [[File:Special member state territories and the European Union.svg|upright=1.25|frameless]]
 | Show [[Special member state territories and the European Union|special territories]]
 }}
| loctext                  = 
| alt_map                  = Globe projection with the EU in green
| map_caption              = {{Map_caption|countryprefix=the|location_color=dark green|region=Europe|region_color=dark grey}}
| capital                  = [[City of Brussels|Brussels]] {{small|(''[[Brussels and the European Union|de facto]]'')}}<ref name="capital">{{cite book |last=Cybriwsky |first=Roman Adrian |title=Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-61069-248-9 |page=[{{GBurl|id=qb6NAQAAQBAJ|p=64}} 64] |quote=Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is considered to be the de facto capital of the EU}}</ref>
| admin_center_type        = [[Institutional seats of the European Union|Institutional seats]]
| admin_center             = {{collapsible list
 | framestyle="border: none; padding: 0;"<!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
 | title = {{nowrap|[[Brussels]]}}{{efn|Due to the concentration of key institutions, [[Brussels and the European Union]] are often closely associated, and the city is frequently regarded as the ''de facto'' capital of the EU. However, as the European Union is not a [[sovereign state]], it does not have an official capital in the strict sense.}}
 | bullets = true
 | [[European Commission|Commission]]
 | [[European Council]] <!-- Do not shorten to "Council". That is the official title of the Council of the EU in the treaties, so it's confusing. -->
 | [[Council of the European Union|Council of the EU]]
 | [[European Parliament|Parliament]] (secondary)
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
 | framestyle="border: none; padding: 0;"<!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
 | title = {{nowrap|[[Frankfurt]]}}
 | bullets = true
 | [[European Central Bank|Central Bank]]
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
 | framestyle="border: none; padding: 0;"<!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
 | title = {{Nowrap|[[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]]}}
 | bullets = true
 | [[European Court of Auditors|Court of Auditors]]
 | [[Court of Justice of the European Union|Court of Justice]]
 | Council of the EU (April, June and October sessions)
 | [[Secretariat of the European Parliament|Secretariat of the Parliament]]
 | Commission (various departments and services)
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
 | framestyle="border: none; padding: 0;"<!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
 | title = {{nowrap|[[Strasbourg]]}}
 | bullets = true
 | Parliament
 }}
| largest_settlement_type  = [[metropolis]]
| largest_settlement       = [[Paris metropolitan area|Paris]]<!-- if the parameter is metropolis, then link to the article about the metropolitan area. If the parameter is municipality, then Berlin is largest, not Paris -->
| official_languages       = [[Languages of the European Union|24 languages]]
| languages_type           = Official scripts
| languages                = {{hlist|[[Latin script|Latin]]|[[Greek alphabet|Greek]]|[[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]]}}
| religion                 = {{tree list}}
* 71.6% [[Christianity in Europe|Christianity]]
** 45.3% [[Catholic Church in Europe|Catholic]]
** 11.1% [[Protestantism in Europe|Protestant]]
** 9.6% [[Eastern Orthodoxy in Europe|Eastern Orthodox]]
** 5.6% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
* 24.0% [[Irreligion in Europe|no religion]]
* 1.8% [[Islam in Europe|Islam]]
* 2.6% [[Religion in the European Union|other]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| religion_year            = 2015
| religion_ref             = <ref name="EB2015" />
| demonym                  = [[European Union citizenship|European]]
| org_type                 = [[Supranational union]]
| membership               = {{Collapsible list|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
 |title = [[Member state of the European Union|27 members]]
 |[[Austria]]
 |[[Belgium]]
 |[[Bulgaria]]
 |[[Croatia]]
 |[[Cyprus]]
 |[[Czech Republic]]
 |[[Denmark]]
 |[[Estonia]]
 |[[Finland]]
 |[[France]]
 |[[Germany]]
 |[[Greece]]
 |[[Hungary]]
 |[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
 |[[Italy]]
 |[[Latvia]]
 |[[Lithuania]]
 |[[Luxembourg]]
 |[[Malta]]
 |[[Netherlands]]
 |[[Poland]]
 |[[Portugal]]
 |[[Romania]]
 |[[Slovakia]]
 |[[Slovenia]]
 |[[Spain]]
 |[[Sweden]]
 }}
| government_type          = Mixed [[Supranational union|supranational]] and [[intergovernmentalism|intergovernmental]] directorial parliamentary [[confederation]]<!-- PLEASE DO NOT change this to say the European Union is a "Staatenverbund". The term is only recognised by the German Federal Constitutional Court. No EU institution and none of the other 26 Member States has been using this term in a legal document. -->
| leader_title1            = [[President of the European Council]]<!-- Do not shorten to "Council". That is the official title of the Council of the EU in the treaties, so it's confusing. -->
| leader_name1             = [[António Costa]]
| leader_title2            = [[President of the European Commission]]
| leader_name2             = [[Ursula von der Leyen]]
| leader_title3            = [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]
| leader_name3             = [[Cyprus]]<ref name="presidency-council">{{cite web |title=Council of the European Union |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/presidency-council-eu/ |publisher=Council of the EU |access-date=1 January 2026 |archive-date=4 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260204223933/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/presidency-council-eu/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| leader_title4            = [[President of the European Parliament]]
| leader_name4             = [[Roberta Metsola]]
| sovereignty_type         = [[History of the European Union|Formation]]<ref>Current Article 1 of the [[Treaty of Maastricht|Treaty on European Union]] reads: "The Union shall be founded on the present Treaty and on the [[Treaty of Rome|Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]]. Those [[Treaties of the EU|two Treaties]] shall have the same legal value. The Union shall replace and succeed the [[European Community]]".</ref>
| legislature              = [[European Parliament]] • [[Council of the European Union]]
| established              = <!-- Usually a date, in lieu of event/s hereafter -->
| established_event1       = [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]]
| established_date1        = 23 July 1952
| established_event2       = '''[[Treaty of Rome]]'''
| established_date2        = 1 January 1958
| established_event3       = [[Single European Act]]
| established_date3        = 1 July 1987
| established_event4       = <span style=white-space:nowrap;>'''[[Maastricht Treaty|Treaty of Maastricht]]'''</span><!-- NOTE: [[Template:Nowrap]] is ignored on mobile. -->
| established_date4        = 1 November 1993
| established_event5       = [[Treaty of Lisbon]]
| established_date5        = 1 December 2009
| area                     = <!-- Major area size (in [[Template:convert]] either km2 or sqmi first) -->
| area_km2                 = 4,225,104<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
| area_sq_mi               = {{Convert|4,225,104|km2|sqmi|disp=number}}<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
| area_footnote            = <!-- Optional footnote for area --><br/>(incl. [[outermost regions]])<ref>{{cite web|title=Area by NUTS 3 region|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/reg_area3__custom_17346318/default/table?lang=en|date=14 February 2025|access-date=4 July 2025|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|website=ec.europa.eu/eurostat}}</ref>
| percent_water            = 2.93
| area_label               = Total
| area_label2              = <!-- label below area_label (optional) -->
| area_dabodyalign         = <!-- text after area_label2 (optional) -->
| population_estimate      = {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{Spaces}}450,646,971<ref name="Population.EU">{{Cite web |title=Population on 1 January by age and sex |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/demo_pjan/default/table?lang=en&category=demo.demo_pop |publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |date=10 April 2026 |access-date=19 April 2026 }}</ref>
| population_census        = {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{Spaces}}443,883,877<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population Census 2021 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/cens_21agr2__custom_21063170/default/table |publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |date=22 May 2025 |access-date=19 April 2026 }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2025
| population_census_year   = 2021
| population_density_km2   = {{#expr: 450646971/4225104 round 1}}
| population_density_sq_mi = {{#expr: 450646971/1631322 round 1}}
| GDP_PPP                  = {{increase}} $30.678 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.EU">{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=19 April 2026 |archive-date=22 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251022132817/https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year             = 2026
| GDP_PPP_per_capita       = {{increase}} $67,957<ref name="IMFWEO.EU" />
| GDP_nominal              = {{increase}} $23.035 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.EU" />
| GDP_nominal_year         = 2026
| GDP_nominal_per_capita   = {{increase}} $51,027{{efn|Nominal GDP / (PPP/Per capita)}}<ref name="IMFWEO.EU" />
| Gini                     = 29.3
| Gini_change              = decrease<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| Gini_year                = 2024
| Gini_ref                 = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|website=ec.europa.eu/eurostat|date=16 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2025|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009091832/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref>
| currency                 = [[Euro]] ([[€]]) ([[ISO 4217|EUR]]) {{Break}}{{Collapsible list
 | framestyle="border: none; padding: 0;" <!--Hides borders and improves row spacing-->
 | title = Others
 | {{Nowrap|[[Czech koruna]] (CZK)}}
 | {{Nowrap|[[Danish krone]] (DKK)}}
 | {{Nowrap|[[Hungarian forint]] (HUF)}}
 | {{Nowrap|[[Polish złoty]] (PLN)}}
 | {{Nowrap|[[Romanian leu]] (RON)}}
 | {{Nowrap|[[Swedish krona]] (SEK)}}
}}
| time_zone                = [[Western European Time|WET]], [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset               = <!-- NOTE:No offset -->{{Nowrap| to UTC+2}}
| time_zone_DST            = [[Western European Summer Time|WEST]], [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]], [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset_DST           = {{Nowrap|+1 to UTC+3}}
| DST_note                 = ''(see also [[Summer time in Europe]])''{{efn|With the exception of the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Madeira]], the [[Special member state territories and the European Union#Outermost regions|outermost regions]] observe different time zones not shown: [[Martinique]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]] (UTC−4); [[French Guiana]] (UTC−3); [[Azores]] (UTC−1 / UTC); [[Mayotte]] (UTC+3); and [[La Réunion]] (UTC+4); which, other than the Azores, do not observe DST.}}
| cctld                    = [[.eu]], [[.ευ]], [[.ею]]{{efn|.eu, .ευ, and .ею are representative of the whole of the EU; member states also have their own TLDs.}}
| official_website         = {{Official URL}}
| footnote1                = 
| footnote2                = 
| footnote7                = 
| footnotes                = <!-- For generic non-numbered footnotes -->
}}

The '''European Union''' ('''EU''') is a [[political union|political]] and [[economic union]] of {{EUnum}} [[Member state of the European Union|member states]] that are [[Geography of the European Union|located primarily<!-- Please do not remove this. The EU is also a community of values. Parts of Spain, Portugal and France are outside Europe, and the geographical location of Cyprus is not clear. This word has been extensively discussed. -->]] in Europe<!-- Please do not wikilink well-known locations, etc. Read MOS:OL instead. -->.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2016 |title=The EU in brief |url=https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en |website=European Union |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=28 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128065215/https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rumford |first1=Chris |title=The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization |chapter=European Union |date=2016 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog188.pub2 |isbn=9780470670590}}</ref> A [[supranational union]] with a total area of {{convert|4,233,255|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and an estimated population of over 450{{nbsp}}million as of 2025,<ref name="Population.EU"/> [[Economy of the European Union|its member states generated]] a nominal [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of around €18.802 trillion in 2025, accounting for approximately one sixth of [[global economic output]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) - annual data |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nama_10_gdp/default/table?lang=en |publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |date=17 April 2026 |access-date=19 April 2026 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413110831/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nama_10_gdp/default/table?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The EU is often described as a ''[[sui generis]]'' political entity combining characteristics of both a [[federation]] and a [[confederation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Phelan |first=William |date=2012 |title=What Is ''Sui Generis'' About the European Union? Costly International Cooperation in a Self-Contained Regime |journal=International Studies Review |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=367–385 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2486.2012.01136.x| issn=1468-2486}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hlavac |first=Marek |date=2010 |title=Less than a State, More than an International Organization: The Sui Generis Nature of the European Union |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/27179/1/MPRA_paper_27179.pdf |journal=Central European Labour Studies Institute |location=Rochester, N.Y. |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1719308 |s2cid=153480456 |archive-date=23 October 2020 |access-date=9 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023033636/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/27179/1/MPRA_paper_27179.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Its cornerstone, the [[European Union Customs Union|Customs Union]], paved the way to establishing [[European Single Market|an internal single market]] based on standardised [[European Union law|legal framework and legislation]] that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market;<ref name="Europa Internal Market">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=The EU Single Market: Fewer barriers, more opportunities |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001122551/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 |access-date=27 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal }}<br />{{Cite web |title=Activities of the European Union: Internal Market |url=http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm |access-date=29 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=25 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625121825/http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on [[Common Commercial Policy (EU)|trade]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common commercial policy |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/commercial_policy_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116092625/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/commercial_policy_en.htm |archive-date=16 January 2009 |access-date=6 September 2008 |website=Europa Glossary |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> [[Common Agricultural Policy|agriculture]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture and Fisheries Council |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/policies/council-configurations/agriculture-and-fisheries |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=The Council of the European Union |archive-date=11 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311075105/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/policies/council-configurations/agriculture-and-fisheries |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Common Fisheries Policy|fisheries]], and [[Regional policy of the European Union|regional development]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regional Policy Inforegio |url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/index_en.cfm |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=21 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621083915/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/index_en.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the [[Schengen Area]].<ref name="Internal borders">{{Cite web |title=Schengen area |url=http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/borders/borders_schengen_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810094618/http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/borders/borders_schengen_en.htm |archive-date=10 August 2011 |access-date=8 September 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The [[eurozone]] is a group composed of the 21 EU member states that have fully implemented the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EU's economic and monetary union]] and use the [[euro]] currency. Through the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], the union has developed [[Foreign relations of the European Union|a role in external relations]] and [[Military of the European Union|defence]]. It maintains permanent [[Diplomatic missions of the European Union|diplomatic missions]] throughout the world and represents itself at the [[United Nations]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[European Union and the G7|G7]] and the [[G20]]. In 2012, the EU [[2012 Nobel Peace Prize|was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize]].

The EU was established, along with [[European Union citizenship|its citizenship]], when the [[Maastricht Treaty]] came into force in 1993, and was incorporated as an [[international law|international legal]] [[juridical person]]{{clarify|reason=what does this mean? It's not in the body, and the article linked to doesn't mention the EU. Use simpler wording in the lead!|date=December 2023}} upon entry into force of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] in 2009.{{sfn|Craig|De Burca|2011|page=15}} Its beginnings can be traced to the [[Inner Six]] states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and [[West Germany]]) at the start of modern [[European integration]] in 1948, and to the [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]], the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]], the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], the [[European Economic Community]] and the [[European Atomic Energy Community]], which were established by treaties. These increasingly amalgamated bodies grew, with their legal successor the EU, both in size through [[Enlargement of the European Union|the accessions of a further 22 states]] from 1973 to 2013, and in power through acquisitions of policy areas. In 2020, [[Brexit|the United Kingdom became]] the only member state to [[Withdrawal from the European Union|leave the EU]]; ten countries are [[Potential enlargement of the European Union|aspiring or negotiating to join it]].{{TOC limit|3}}

==History==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{main|History of the European Union}}

{{for timeline|Timeline of European Union history}}
{{further|Treaties of the European Union|European integration}}
===Background: World Wars and aftermath===
{{further|Ideas of European unity before 1948}}
[[Internationalism (politics)|Internationalism]] and [[Ideas of European unity before 1948|visions of European unity had existed]] since well before the 19th century, but gained particularly as a reaction to [[World War I]] and its aftermath. In this light the first advances for the idea of [[European integration]] were made. In 1920 [[John Maynard Keynes]] proposed a [[European customs union]] for the struggling post-war European economies,<ref name="Taussig Keynes 1920 p. 381">{{Cite journal |last1=Taussig |first1=F.W. |last2=Keynes |first2=John Maynard |title=Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1882372 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=34 |issue=2 |page=381 |year=1920 |issn=0033-5533 |jstor=1882372 |doi=10.2307/1882372|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and in 1923 the oldest organisation for European integration, the [[Paneuropean Union]] was founded, led by [[Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi]], who later would found in June 1947 the [[European Parliamentary Union]] (EPU). [[Aristide Briand]]{{Emdash}}who was [[Prime Minister of France]], a follower of the Paneuropean Union, and [[List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates|Nobel Peace Prize laureate]] for the [[Locarno Treaties]]{{Emdash}}delivered a widely recognised speech at the [[League of Nations]] in [[Geneva]] on 5 September 1929 for a [[federal Europe]] to secure Europe and settle the historic [[Franco-German enmity]].<ref name="Schulz 2010 g046">{{Cite web |last=Schulz |first=Matthias |date=3 December 2010 |title=Der Briand-Plan und der Völkerbund als Verhandlungsarena für die europäische Einigung zwischen den Kriegen |url=http://ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/europaeische-netzwerke/politische-netzwerke/europa-netzwerke-der-zwischenkriegszeit/matthias-schulz-briand-plan-und-voelkerbund-in-der-zwischenkriegszeit |access-date=16 November 2023 |publisher=IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de) |language=de |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116023336/http://ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/europaeische-netzwerke/politische-netzwerke/europa-netzwerke-der-zwischenkriegszeit/matthias-schulz-briand-plan-und-voelkerbund-in-der-zwischenkriegszeit |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Nelsson 2019 n549">{{Cite web |last=Nelsson |first=Richard |date=5 September 2019 |title=Aristide Briand's plan for a United States of Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2019/sep/05/aristide-briands-plan-for-united-states-of-europe-september-9 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=the Guardian}}</ref>

With large-scale war being waged in Europe once again in the 1930s and becoming [[World War II]], the question of what to fight against and what for had to be agreed on. A first agreement was the [[Declaration of St James's Palace]] of 1941, when [[World War II resistance|Europe's resistance]] gathered in London. This was expanded on by the 1941 [[Atlantic Charter]], establishing the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and their common goals, inciting a new wave of global international institutions like the [[United Nations]] ([[United Nations Conference on International Organization|founded 1945]]) or the [[Bretton Woods System]] (1944).<ref name="Office of the Historian 1946 r351">{{Cite web |title=Milestones: 1937–1945 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/bretton-woods |website=Office of the Historian |date=8 March 1946 |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>

In 1943 at the [[Moscow Conference (1943)|Moscow Conference]] and [[Tehran Conference]], plans to establish joint institutions for a post-war world and Europe increasingly became a part of the agenda. This led to a decision at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1944 to form a [[European Advisory Commission]], later replaced by the [[Council of Foreign Ministers]] and the [[Allied Control Council]], following the German surrender and the [[Potsdam Agreement]] in 1945.

By the end of the war, European integration became seen as an antidote to the [[extreme nationalism]] that had caused the war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The political consequences |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/die_politischen_folgen-de-bafcfa2d-7738-48f6-9b41-3201090b67bb.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=CVCE |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305111936/https://www.cvce.eu/obj/die_politischen_folgen-de-bafcfa2d-7738-48f6-9b41-3201090b67bb.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 19 September 1946, in a much recognised speech, [[Winston Churchill]], speaking at the [[University of Zürich]], reiterated his calls since 1930 for a "European Union" and "Council of Europe", coincidentally<ref name="Union of European Federalists (UEF)">{{Cite web |title=Union of European Federalists (UEF): Churchill and Hertenstein |url=https://www.federalists.eu/uef/our-achievements/churchill-and-hertenstein |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Union of European Federalists (UEF) |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605224333/https://www.federalists.eu/uef/our-achievements/churchill-and-hertenstein |url-status=dead}}</ref> parallel{{Clarify|reason=This whole clause is difficult to understand, primarily because "parallel" is especially unclear here|date=June 2024}} to the [[Hertensteiner Cross|Hertenstein Congress]] of the [[Union of European Federalists]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ein britischer Patriot für Europa: Winston Churchills Europa-Rede, Universität Zürich, 19. September 1946 |trans-title=A British Patriot for Europe: Winston Churchill's Speech on Europe University of Zurich, 19 September 1946 |work=Zeit Online |url=http://www.zeit.de/reden/die_historische_rede/200115_hr_churchill1_englisch |access-date=13 January 2010 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222143525/http://www.zeit.de/reden/die_historische_rede/200115_hr_churchill1_englisch |url-status=live }}</ref> one of the then founded and later constituent members of the [[European Movement International|European Movement]]. One month later, the [[French Union]] was installed by the new [[Fourth French Republic]] to direct the [[decolonization|decolonisation]] of [[French colonies|its colonies]] so that they would become parts of a European community.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Peo |last2=Jonsson |first2=Stefan |title=Bringing Africa as a 'Dowry to Europe' |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-59237 |journal=Interventions |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=443–463 (459) |date=2011 |s2cid=142558321 |doi=10.1080/1369801X.2011.597600}}</ref>

By 1947, a growing rift between the western Allied Powers and the [[Soviet Union]] became evident as a result of the rigged [[1947 Polish legislative election]], which constituted an open breach of the [[Yalta Agreement]]. March of that year saw two important developments. First was the signing of the [[Treaty of Dunkirk]] between [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The treaty assured mutual assistance in the event of future military aggression against either nation. Though it officially named Germany as a threat, in reality the actual concern was for the Soviet Union. A few days later came the announcement of the [[Truman Doctrine]] which pledged American support for democracies to counter the Soviets.

===Initial years and the Paris Treaty (1948{{Non breaking en dash}}1957)===
{{Main|History of European integration (1948–1957)}}

{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Schuman Declaration.ogg
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = An excerpt of the [[Schuman Declaration]], by [[Robert Schuman]] on 9 May 1950 ([[Europe Day]])
| image2 = 1951 CECA ECSC.jpg
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]] (1951), establishing the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]]
}}

Immediately following the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|February 1948 coup d'état]] by the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]], the [[London Six-Power Conference]] was held, resulting in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the [[Cold War]]. The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern [[European integration]]. In March 1948 the [[Treaty of Brussels]] was signed, establishing the [[Western Union (alliance)|Western Union]] (WU), followed by the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]]. Furthermore, the [[Organisation for European Economic Co-operation]] (OEEC), the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded in 1948 to manage the [[Marshall Plan]], which led to the Soviets creating [[Comecon]] in response. The ensuing [[Hague Congress (1948)|Hague Congress]] of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the [[European Movement International]], the [[College of Europe]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.isbnplus.com/9789080498310 |title=The College of Europe. Fifty Years of Service to Europe |publisher=[[College of Europe]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-804983-1-0 |editor-last=Mahncke |editor-first=Dieter |editor-link=Dieter Mahncke |location=Bruges |editor-last2=Bekemans |editor-first2=Léonce |editor-link2=Léonce Bekemans |editor-last3=Picht |editor-first3=Robert |editor-link3=Robert Picht |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228030332/http://www.isbnplus.com/9789080498310 |archive-date=28 December 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and most importantly to the foundation of the [[Council of Europe]] on 5 May 1949 (which is now [[Europe Day]]). The Council of Europe was one of the first institutions to bring the sovereign states of (then only Western) Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in 1950.

Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the [[Schuman Declaration]] on 9 May 1950 (the day after the fifth [[Victory in Europe Day]]) and the decision by six nations (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, and Italy) to follow Schuman and draft the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]]. This treaty was created in 1952 the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), which was built on the [[International Authority for the Ruhr]], installed by the Western Allies in 1949 to regulate the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr area in West Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Declaration of 9 May 1950 |url=http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/9-may/decl_en.htm |access-date=5 September 2007 |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120102140633/http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/9-may/decl_en.htm |archive-date=2 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Backed by the [[Marshall Plan]] with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organisation, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the [[European Commission]] and [[European Parliament|Parliament]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blocker |first=Joel |date=9 April 2008 |title=Europe: How The Marshall Plan Took Western Europe From Ruins To Union |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1084818.html |access-date=20 June 2019 |archive-date=15 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015172317/https://www.rferl.org/a/1084818.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Founding fathers of the European Union]] understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.<ref name="Europa History 45-59">{{Cite web |title=A peaceful Europe&nbsp;– the beginnings of cooperation |url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1945-1959/index_en.htm |access-date=12 December 2011 |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104214738/http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1945-1959/index_en.htm |archive-date=4 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> In parallel with Schuman, the [[Pleven Plan]] of 1951 tried but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the [[European Political Community (1952)|European Political Community]], which was to include the also proposed [[Treaty establishing the European Defence Community|European Defence Community]], an alternative to [[West Germany]] joining [[NATO]] which was established in 1949 under the [[Truman Doctrine]]. In 1954 the [[Modified Brussels Treaty]] transformed the Western Union into the [[Western European Union]] (WEU). West Germany eventually joined both the WEU and NATO in 1955, prompting the [[Soviet Union]] to form the [[Warsaw Pact]] in 1955 as an institutional framework for its military domination in the countries of [[Central and Eastern Europe]]. Assessing the progress of European integration the [[Messina Conference]] was held in 1955, ordering the [[Spaak report]], which in 1956 recommended the next significant steps of European integration.

===Treaty of Rome (1958{{Non breaking en dash}}1972)===
{{Main|History of the European Communities (1958–1972)}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45653-0001, Rom, Verträge über Zollpakt und Eurotom unterzeichnet.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Signing ceremony of the [[Treaty of Rome]] (1957), establishing the [[European Economic Community|EEC]]]]

In 1957, [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], and [[West Germany]] signed the [[Treaty of Rome]], which created the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) and established a [[European Union Customs Union|customs union]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty of Rome |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/treaty-of-rome |access-date=2025-11-23 |website=Treaty of Rome |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251117152833/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/treaty-of-rome |url-status=live }}</ref> They also signed another pact creating the [[European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear power. Both treaties came into force in 1958.<ref name="Europa History 45-59" /> Although the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by [[Walter Hallstein]] ([[Hallstein Commission]]) and Euratom was headed by [[Louis Armand]] ([[Armand Commission]]) and then [[Étienne Hirsch]] ([[Hirsch Commission]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 1997 |title=A European Atomic Energy Community |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/a_european_atomic_energy_community-en-19bc7f11-bea1-49c7-b534-18327c303f41.html |access-date=13 October 2013 |publisher=Cvce.eu |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019071817/http://www.cvce.eu/obj/a_european_atomic_energy_community-en-19bc7f11-bea1-49c7-b534-18327c303f41.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2016 |title=A European Customs Union |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/a_european_customs_union-en-a11a5f17-d744-479e-ba75-2c70b6058608.html |website=cvce.eu}}</ref>

The OEEC was in turn reformed in 1961 into the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and its membership was extended to states outside of Europe, the United States and Canada. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached, and on 1 July 1967 the [[Merger Treaty]] created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the ''[[European Communities]]''.<ref name="ENA Merge">{{Cite web |title=Merging the executives |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/merging_the_executives-en-575850b6-f472-406a-936d-8c08a9e0db32.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=CVCE&nbsp;– Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe |date=7 August 2016 |website=cvce.eu |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019043404/http://www.cvce.eu/obj/merging_the_executives-en-575850b6-f472-406a-936d-8c08a9e0db32.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jean Rey (politician)|Jean Rey]] [[President of the European Commission|presided over]] the first merged commission ([[Rey Commission]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Commissioners – Profiles, Portfolios and Homepages |url=http://ec.europa.eu/archives/commission_2004-2009/index_en.htm |access-date=1 January 2022 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=7 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707212351/http://ec.europa.eu/archives/commission_2004-2009/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===First enlargement and European co-operation (1973{{Non breaking en dash}}1993)===
{{Main|History of the European Communities (1973–1993)}}

[[File:Photograph of President Gerald R. Ford and Members of the American Delegation Taking a Break at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Helsinki, Finland - NARA - 7462031.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|[[Gerald Ford]] and the American delegation at the [[Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe|CSCE]] (1975)]]

In 1973, the communities were enlarged to include [[Denmark]] (including Greenland), Ireland, and the [[Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities|United Kingdom]].<ref name="ENA First enlargement">{{Cite web |title=The first enlargement |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_first_enlargement-en-fa871903-53b5-497e-855f-01c9842c7b94.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=CVCE |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019042053/http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_first_enlargement-en-fa871903-53b5-497e-855f-01c9842c7b94.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Norway]] had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a [[1972 Norwegian European Communities membership referendum|referendum]]. The ''[[Ostpolitik]]'' and the ensuing détente led to establishment of a first truly pan-European body, the [[Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (CSCE), predecessor of the modern [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE). In 1979, the [[1979 European Parliament election|first direct elections]] to the European Parliament were held.<ref name="ENA New Parliament">{{Cite web |title=The new European Parliament |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_new_european_parliament-en-e40aba1b-45f1-43bf-bbd1-a34bb52f15db.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=CVCE |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019052454/http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_new_european_parliament-en-e40aba1b-45f1-43bf-bbd1-a34bb52f15db.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Greece]] joined in 1981. In 1985, Greenland [[1982 Greenlandic European Communities membership referendum|left the Communities]], following a dispute over fishing rights. During the same year, the [[Schengen Agreement]] paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 April 2001 |title=Schengen agreement |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/europe/euro-glossary/1230052.stm |access-date=18 September 2009 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314095009/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/europe/euro-glossary/1230052.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1986, the [[Single European Act]] was signed. Portugal and [[Accession Treaty of Spain to the European Economic Community|Spain]] joined in 1986.<ref name="ENA Enlargement negotiations">{{Cite web |title=Negotiations for enlargement |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/negotiations_for_enlargement-en-19a4fd81-119d-4090-bfac-c7cc8ae64a20.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=CVCE |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019042129/http://www.cvce.eu/obj/negotiations_for_enlargement-en-19a4fd81-119d-4090-bfac-c7cc8ae64a20.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1990, after [[revolutions of 1989|the fall of the Eastern Bloc]], the former [[East Germany]] became part of the communities as part of a [[German reunification|reunified Germany]].<ref name="Europa History 80-89">{{Cite web |title=1980–1989 The changing face of Europe – the fall of the Berlin Wall |url=http://europa.eu/abc/history/1980-1989/index_en.htm |access-date=25 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202034509/http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1980-1989/index_en.htm |archive-date=2 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice (1993{{Non breaking en dash}}2004) ===
{{Main|History of the European Union (1993–2004)}}

[[File:GER — BY — Regensburg - Donaumarkt 1 (Museum der Bayerischen Geschichte; Vertrag von Maastricht) (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|upright=1|[[Maastricht Treaty]] (1992), establishing the EU]]

The European Union was formally established when the [[Maastricht Treaty]]—whose main architects were [[Horst Köhler]],<ref>{{Cite news |first1=Michael M. |last1=Phillips |first2=Cecilie |last2=Rohwedder |first3=Erik |last3=Portanger |date=15 March 2000 |title=IMF Candidate Koehler Brings Solid Experience |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB953070920392677459 |access-date=21 December 2022 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214065619/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB953070920392677459 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Helmut Kohl]] and [[François Mitterrand]]—came into force on 1 November 1993.{{sfn|Craig |De Burca|2011|page=15}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty of Maastricht on European Union |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/treaties_maastricht_en.htm |access-date=20 October 2007 |website=Activities of the European Union |date=January 1990 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011055405/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/treaties_maastricht_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The treaty also gave the name ''[[European Community]]'' to the EEC, even if it was referred to as such before the treaty. With further enlargement planned to include the former [[communist state]]s of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as [[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]], the [[Copenhagen criteria]] for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael H. |title=The World Transformed, 1945 to the Present |publisher=Oxford University press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937103-7 |location=New York |pages=516–517}}</ref>

In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden [[1995 enlargement of the European Union|joined]] the EU. In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the [[eurozone]] has increased to encompass 21 countries. The euro currency became the second-largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw [[2004 enlargement of the European Union|its biggest enlargement to date]] when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, [[Estonia]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Slovenia]] joined the union.<ref name="Europa History 00">{{Cite web |title=A decade of further expansion |url=http://europa.eu/abc/history/2000_today/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211143505/http://europa.eu/abc/history/2000_today/index_en.htm |archive-date=11 February 2007 |access-date=25 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

===Treaty of Lisbon and Brexit (2004{{Non breaking en dash}}present)===
{{Main|History of the European Union (2004–present)}}

[[File:Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (04).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|Signing ceremony of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] (2007)]]

In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. Later that year, Slovenia adopted the euro,<ref name="Europa History 00" /> followed by Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014, Lithuania in 2015, and Croatia in 2023. On 1 December 2009, the [[Treaty of Lisbon|Lisbon Treaty]] entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the EU, merging the [[Three pillars of the European Union|EU three pillars]] system into a single legal entity provisioned with a [[legal personality]], created a permanent [[president of the European Council]], the first of which was [[Herman Van Rompuy]], and strengthened the position of the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy]].{{sfn|Piris|2010|page=448}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Parliament announces new President and Foreign Affairs Minister |url=http://government.zdnet.com/?p=6266 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515055515/http://government.zdnet.com/?p=6266 |archive-date=15 May 2016 |access-date=1 December 2009}}</ref>

In 2012, the EU [[2012 Nobel Peace Prize|received the Nobel Peace Prize]] for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe".<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2012 |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2012 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/ |access-date=12 October 2012 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |archive-date=10 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010232902/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=12 October 2012 |title=Nobel Committee Awards Peace Prize to E.U |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/13/world/nobel-peace-prize.html |url-status=live |journal=New York Times |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/13/world/nobel-peace-prize.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=12 October 2012}}</ref> In 2013, [[Croatia]] became the 28th EU member.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 April 2013 |title=Croatia: From isolation to EU membership |work=BBC News |agency=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22218640 |access-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including the [[Euro area crisis]], [[2015 European migrant crisis]], and [[Brexit]].<ref name="BBCUKREFRESLT">{{Cite web |title=EU Referendum Result |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/results |access-date=26 June 2016 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624000307/http://www.bbc.com/news/politics/eu_referendum/results |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union]] was held in 2016, with 51.9 per cent of participants voting to leave.<ref name="NYTEUBrexit">{{Cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |date=23 June 2016 |title=Britain Votes to Leave E.U., Stunning the World |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017, initiating the [[Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union|formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU]]; following extensions to the process, the [[United Kingdom|UK]] left the European Union on 31 January 2020, although most areas of EU law continued to apply to the UK for a transition period which lasted until 31 December 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Landler |first1=Mark |last2=Castle |first2=Stephen-US |last3=Mueller |first3=Benjamin |date=31 January 2020 |title=At the Stroke of Brexit, Britain Steps, Guardedly, Into a New Dawn |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/world/europe/brexit-britain-leaves-EU.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131231006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/world/europe/brexit-britain-leaves-EU.html |archive-date=31 January 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The early 2020s saw Denmark [[2022 Danish European Union opt-out referendum|abolishing one of its three opt-outs]] and Croatia [[Croatia and the euro|adopting the euro]]. After the [[COVID-19 recession|economic crisis]] caused by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the EU leaders agreed for the first time to create common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called [[Next Generation EU]] (NGEU).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recovery plan for Europe |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/recovery-plan-europe_en |access-date=2 May 2021 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826170655/https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/health/coronavirus-response/recovery-plan-europe_en |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 February 2022, after massing on the borders of Ukraine, the [[Russian Armed Forces]] undertook an attempt for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 March 2022 |title=Russia-Ukraine war: humanitarian corridor opened from Sumy; Moscow threatens to cut gas supplies to Europe |publisher=theguardian.com |agency=theguardian.com |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/08/ukraine-news-russia-war-vladimir-putin-volodymyr-zelenskiy-kyiv-russian-invasion-live-latest-updates |access-date=8 March 2022 |archive-date=9 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309180021/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2022/mar/08/ukraine-news-russia-war-vladimir-putin-volodymyr-zelenskiy-kyiv-russian-invasion-live-latest-updates |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 March 2022 |title=In pictures: Russia invades Ukraine |publisher=cnn.com |agency=cnn.com |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/14/world/gallery/ukraine-russia-crisis/index.html |access-date=8 March 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307233218/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/14/world/gallery/ukraine-russia-crisis/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union imposed [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War#EU sanctions|heavy sanctions on Russia]] and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the [[European Peace Facility]] off-budget instrument.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Deutsch |first1=Jillian |last2=Pronina |first2=Lyubov |date=27 February 2022 |title=EU Approves 450 Million Euros of Arms Supplies for Ukraine |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-27/eu-approves-450-million-euros-in-lethal-military-aid-for-ukraine |website=[[Bloomberg.com]] |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307060510/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-02-27/eu-approves-450-million-euros-in-lethal-military-aid-for-ukraine |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:The ancient Roman Agora is illuminated during the Next Gen EU event, in Athens, Greece, on June 16, 2021.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The ancient [[Roman Agora]] in Athens illuminated with a Next Generation EU sign]]
NGEU is a European Commission [[economic recovery]] package to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, in particular those that have been particularly hard hit. It is sometimes styled NextGenerationEU and Next Gen EU, and also called the European Union Recovery Instrument.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2020/2094/oj|title=Council Regulation (EU) 2020/2094 of 14 December 2020 establishing a European Union Recovery Instrument to support the recovery in the aftermath of the COVID-19 crisis|website=EUR-Lex|access-date=18 September 2024|archive-date=20 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240920151409/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2020/2094/oj|url-status=live}}</ref> Agreed in principle by the [[European Council]] on 21 July 2020 and adopted on 14 December 2020, the instrument is worth {{Euro|750&nbsp;billion|link=yes}}. NGEU will operate from 2021 to 2026,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recovery plan for Europe |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/recovery-plan-europe_en |access-date=5 July 2023 |website=European Commission |language=en |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209125316/https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/recovery-plan-europe_en |url-status=live }}</ref> and will be tied to the regular [[Multiannual Financial Framework#2021–2027 Financial Framework and recovery package|2021–2027 budget of the EU's Multiannual Financial Framework]] (MFF). The comprehensive NGEU and MFF packages are projected to reach €1824.3&nbsp;billion.<ref>[https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/european-council/2020/07/17-21/ Special European Council, 17–21 July 2020 – Main results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718205218/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/european-council/2020/07/17-18/ |date=18 July 2020 }} Retrieved 15 November 2020.</ref>

Preparing the EU for a new great enlargement is one of its political priorities, with the goal of achieving 35 member states by 2030. Institutional and budgetary reforms are being discussed in order for the EU to be ready for the new members.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 October 2023 |title=Informal meeting of European Council in Grenada to discuss EU enlargement |url=https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2023/10/03/informal-meeting-of-european-council-in-grenada-to-discuss-eu-enlargement/ |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007121925/https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2023/10/03/informal-meeting-of-european-council-in-grenada-to-discuss-eu-enlargement/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 August 2023 |title=Charles Michel: EU and accession candidates must be ready for enlargement by 2030 |url=https://jam-news.net/michel-eu-enlargement-by-2030/ |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002175748/https://jam-news.net/michel-eu-enlargement-by-2030/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EU should be ready to accept 10 new countries: Official – Turkiye Newspaper |date=September 2023 |url=https://www.turkiyenewspaper.com/politics/16241 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=28 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240428203758/https://www.turkiyenewspaper.com/politics/16241 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2023 |title=EU countries to start talks on how to make future enlargement work |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement-neighbourhood/news/eu-countries-to-start-talks-on-how-to-make-future-enlargement-work/ |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=6 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006083921/https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement-neighbourhood/news/eu-countries-to-start-talks-on-how-to-make-future-enlargement-work/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ahead of the elections in June 2024, the [[Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)|Russo-Ukrainian war]] led to inflation, lowering life level and created a possibility of strong changes in the elections.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Teng |first1=Tina |title=EU elections: What happens if the far-right parties gain more power? |url=https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/05/22/eu-elections-what-happens-if-the-far-right-parties-gain-more-power |access-date=3 June 2024 |agency=Euronews |date=22 May 2024 |archive-date=3 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603082906/https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/05/22/eu-elections-what-happens-if-the-far-right-parties-gain-more-power |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Naschert |first1=Camilla |title=Climate debate intertwined with cost-of-living concerns as EU elections loom |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/052824-climate-debate-intertwined-with-cost-of-living-concerns-as-eu-elections-loom |website=S&P Global |access-date=3 June 2024}}</ref>

In December 2025, it was leaked that the [[United States government]] would attempt to persuade "Austria, Hungary, Italy, and Poland" to depart the EU in a Brexit-type manner.<ref name="DO Trump interfere 2025-12-09">{{Cite web|date=2025-12-09|title='Make Europe Great Again' and more from a longer version of the National Security Strategy|last1=Myers|first1=Meghann|url=https://www.defenseone.com/policy/2025/12/make-europe-great-again-and-more-longer-version-national-security-strategy/410038/|url-status=live|website=[[Defense One]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251210121245/https://www.defenseone.com/policy/2025/12/make-europe-great-again-and-more-longer-version-national-security-strategy/410038/|archive-date=2025-12-10}}</ref>

===Timeline===
{{EU evolution timeline}}

{{Clear}}

==Politics {{anchor|competence}}==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Politics of the European Union}}

The European Union operates through a hybrid system of [[Supranational union|supranational]] and [[intergovernmentalism|intergovernmental]] decision-making,<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=European Union |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/196399/European-Union |access-date=3 July 2013 |quote=international organisation comprising 28 European countries and governing common economic, social, and security policies&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=European Union |access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref> and according to the [[principle of conferral]] (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the [[Treaties of the European Union|treaties]]) and of [[Subsidiarity (European Union)|subsidiarity]] (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). [[European Union law|Laws made by the EU institutions]] are passed in a variety of forms.<ref>According to P.C. Schmitter, Comparative Politics: Its Past, Present and Future (2016), 1 Chinese Political Science Review, 397, at 410, "European Union is the most complex polity in the world".</ref> Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).<ref group="lower-alpha">These legislative instruments are dealt with in more detail [[#Acts|below]].</ref> EU policy is in general promulgated by [[Directive (European Union)|EU directives]], which are then implemented in the [[Sovereignty|domestic legislation]] of its [[Member state of the European Union|member states]], and [[Regulation (European Union)|EU regulations]], which are immediately enforceable in all member states. [[Lobbying#European Union|Lobbying]] at the EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Library Briefing:Lobbying the EU institutions |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130558/LDM_BRI(2013)130558_REV1_EN.pdf |access-date=3 March 2018 |website=Europarl |archive-date=4 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180404045241/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130558/LDM_BRI(2013)130558_REV1_EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Member states ===<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Member state of the European Union}}

<imagemap>File:Member States of the European Union (polar stereographic projection) EN.svg|thumb|right|upright=2|Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable)
poly 230 284 229 287 233 291 237 284 241 287 242 293 248 302 250 305 252 306 263 312 263 311 258 307 259 305 249 295 245 290 246 285 251 288 257 286 263 287 270 287 273 289 274 285 276 284 272 281 271 277 268 279 262 279 258 275 254 272 252 271 247 274 246 278 244 279 244 283 239 284 237 281 236 283 232 282 230 284 [[Croatia]]
poly 261 28 273 39 279 59 284 61 286 66 271 97 275 105 275 116 284 122 308 111 320 83 308 75 310 71 302 60 305 54 297 46 298 36 290 32 291 16 282 16 277 22 280 28 275 33 270 32 264 26 [[Finland]]
poly 260 29 259 38 252 37 252 42 248 41 244 54 238 64 238 72 235 77 237 83 226 83 223 100 227 106 230 111 227 115 229 121 223 127 220 141 229 160 227 163 231 173 238 171 238 168 242 164 250 164 254 135 261 130 262 117 252 115 257 93 270 83 271 66 279 59 273 39 [[Sweden]]
poly 312 142 307 131 311 123 294 123 279 132 280 142 290 137 295 138 304 141 [[Estonia]]
poly 310 164 319 155 318 148 313 142 295 140 298 153 288 149 282 142 277 161 295 158 [[Latvia]]
poly 288 180 295 184 301 184 309 178 307 170 312 168 308 162 294 157 279 161 279 174 289 174 [[Lithuania]]
poly 300 198 294 182 290 180 270 183 265 184 264 179 250 182 248 186 238 190 238 197 234 199 239 203 241 223 249 225 251 229 255 226 261 230 265 232 268 235 270 237 273 235 276 240 281 237 283 237 289 236 296 242 297 239 297 234 301 223 305 222 304 217 301 214 296 201 [[Poland]]
poly 254 250 257 245 261 244 269 236 272 235 276 240 279 238 289 235 297 243 274 250 269 253 269 257 259 254 [[Slovakia]]
poly 299 251 291 245 270 252 269 257 258 252 249 268 254 271 260 279 268 278 275 274 290 272 294 258 [[Hungary]]
poly 355 291 354 280 361 274 355 269 349 272 346 270 343 259 332 248 330 243 328 242 324 247 314 250 312 248 301 250 294 255 292 265 288 271 282 274 288 281 293 284 293 288 296 290 302 287 301 291 308 294 308 297 317 297 322 297 329 295 339 287 347 288 [[Romania]]
poly 309 327 312 322 309 318 305 316 305 310 308 305 302 298 304 294 309 295 310 298 328 297 340 287 354 291 350 297 352 301 348 304 355 309 348 314 347 311 340 316 339 317 339 321 329 324 323 321 316 325 [[Bulgaria]]
poly 308 383 305 376 306 374 293 368 294 359 289 351 289 344 294 339 295 333 301 332 304 328 310 326 317 326 322 322 329 325 340 321 340 316 342 319 340 328 328 329 320 331 325 335 339 340 336 342 348 344 350 348 347 358 344 353 348 352 349 348 343 347 345 344 334 341 335 338 328 335 317 341 313 337 311 342 320 350 332 359 339 365 358 359 340 377 331 380 335 376 337 378 342 373 340 370 345 372 353 362 337 366 328 363 327 367 320 367 326 372 319 374 320 382 334 393 355 393 372 372 372 378 368 383 368 377 364 384 365 390 361 387 355 396 340 400 339 395 329 397 329 393 332 392 320 380 314 384 311 378 [[Greece]]
poly 419 384 415 381 421 378 421 373 428 371 435 365 430 374 434 376 424 383 [[Cyprus]]
poly 236 248 224 238 221 231 225 227 236 221 240 220 249 225 254 226 260 231 266 230 267 236 261 243 249 245 244 243 [[Czech Republic]]
poly 198 263 201 257 204 260 207 258 213 260 224 255 233 248 238 248 241 244 245 244 248 246 255 246 253 250 256 254 250 265 249 268 238 272 229 271 220 268 218 263 210 264 208 266 [[Austria]]
poly 249 267 253 273 242 279 244 284 236 282 230 281 227 277 229 271 238 272 [[Slovenia]]
poly 179 298 180 293 174 292 176 287 173 283 178 282 178 278 176 275 181 274 185 273 189 269 189 273 195 273 197 269 199 272 204 269 207 267 210 265 218 263 220 269 230 271 226 281 219 283 222 289 219 290 220 297 231 304 236 319 247 323 253 325 250 327 274 341 273 349 269 341 260 341 257 348 262 355 261 358 257 360 257 364 251 371 248 369 244 377 244 378 244 386 237 386 237 383 230 381 222 375 219 376 219 370 226 368 238 370 245 367 250 365 253 358 248 346 246 347 241 342 241 341 237 340 234 336 230 332 224 331 184 357 181 355 183 343 182 333 185 333 190 329 193 330 196 339 194 340 193 352 224 331 211 317 209 317 203 309 204 308 202 298 190 292 184 297 [[Italy]]
rect 224 394 251 405 [[Malta]]
poly 14 333 21 334 24 337 27 339 29 333 36 329 33 325 40 319 39 311 43 312 49 298 57 295 54 292 55 289 43 284 42 281 39 280 36 291 36 292 19 313 24 314 20 317 23 318 19 324 19 327 [[Portugal]]
poly 41 358 38 355 35 355 37 345 32 338 28 338 29 333 37 329 33 326 39 319 39 311 42 312 49 300 56 295 55 292 54 290 43 283 39 280 42 270 39 269 45 266 50 268 51 264 58 266 69 274 71 272 80 279 89 280 95 283 99 287 102 287 114 299 119 301 120 298 124 301 124 304 127 305 135 308 140 309 140 314 145 339 140 337 133 343 126 339 116 349 113 342 120 345 128 337 132 335 136 338 143 335 139 312 136 316 131 317 128 317 114 320 116 322 104 331 100 338 106 345 98 346 92 353 92 356 85 354 76 361 73 357 71 361 66 357 53 354 53 357 46 355 [[Spain]]
poly 100 286 111 297 118 300 119 298 126 302 128 302 128 305 139 307 140 301 144 298 152 296 155 300 157 298 165 304 169 305 189 328 195 318 195 306 192 312 188 311 187 327 170 305 178 298 180 294 173 292 176 288 174 284 179 281 176 276 179 272 175 266 170 267 175 262 180 258 178 255 182 256 186 244 190 240 178 234 173 232 169 227 169 225 165 225 162 220 157 216 155 212 151 212 147 218 142 222 137 221 137 224 133 223 125 220 121 218 124 225 121 230 113 227 111 223 107 224 101 223 97 223 97 232 109 241 111 251 115 258 107 284 [[France]]
poly 202 178 209 178 211 181 218 182 216 185 218 187 231 181 235 184 231 187 238 189 238 197 235 201 238 203 240 222 236 220 234 224 223 228 221 230 224 238 232 247 224 255 217 258 211 259 207 257 203 261 199 256 189 255 183 256 185 244 190 241 181 235 178 224 181 214 180 207 185 201 190 195 192 187 197 187 199 189 202 186 [[Germany]]
poly 177 225 174 229 172 235 180 237 180 229 [[Luxembourg]]
poly 155 210 157 220 166 225 175 232 173 226 178 225 177 215 171 210 164 212 160 209 [[Belgium]]
poly 191 188 178 189 162 209 167 209 171 207 170 210 179 215 180 207 188 204 184 200 188 198 [[Netherlands]]
poly 201 177 209 177 222 181 228 176 227 159 219 170 221 177 216 175 214 163 218 158 215 143 202 157 [[Denmark]]
poly 102 181 92 179 82 181 79 179 75 173 78 168 89 162 84 159 89 151 98 154 100 153 97 150 104 146 109 147 100 156 108 166 106 174 103 177 [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
desc bottom-left
</imagemap>

Through successive [[Enlargement of the European Union|enlargements]], the EU and its predecessors have grown from the [[Inner Six|six founding states]] of the EEC to {{EUnum}} members. Countries accede to the union by becoming a party to the founding [[Treaties of the European Union|treaties]], thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Answers {{ndash}} The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/pooled-sovereignty |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120091030/http://www.answers.com/topic/pooled-sovereignty |archive-date=20 January 2016 |access-date=12 February 2016 |website=Answers.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EU institutions and other bodies |url=http://europa.eu/institutions/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601191547/http://europa.eu/institutions/index_en.htm |archive-date=1 June 2009 |access-date=4 September 2009 |publisher=Europa}}</ref> In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the union. Examples of such alliances include the [[Baltic Assembly]], the [[Benelux Union]], the [[Bucharest Nine]], the [[Craiova Group]], the [[EU Med Group]], the [[Lublin Triangle]], the [[New Hanseatic League]], the [[Three Seas Initiative]], the [[Visegrád Group]], and the [[Weimar Triangle]].

To become a member, a country must meet the [[Copenhagen criteria]], defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the [[rule of law]]; a functioning [[market economy]]; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the [[European Council]].<ref name="Accession Criteria">{{Cite web |title=Accession criteria (Copenhagen criteria) |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/accession_criteria_copenhague_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705172736/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/accession_criteria_copenhague_en.htm |archive-date=5 July 2007 |access-date=26 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

The four countries forming the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, [[Liechtenstein]] and Norway, which are a part of the [[single market]] through the [[European Economic Area]], and [[Switzerland]], which has similar ties through [[Switzerland–European Union relations|bilateral treaties]].<ref name="EEA" /><ref name="CH">{{Cite web |title=The EU's relations with Switzerland |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/switzerland/index_en.htm |access-date=3 November 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=13 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813174238/http://eeas.europa.eu/switzerland/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The relationships of the [[Microstates and the European Union|European microstates]] [[Andorra]], [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], and [[Vatican City]] include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.<ref name="euro use world">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=Use of the euro in the world |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/world/outside_euro_area/index_en.htm |access-date=27 February 2008 |website=The euro outside the euro area |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125013545/http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/world/outside_euro_area/index_en.htm |archive-date=25 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Sticky header}}{{Table alignment}}{{Sort under}}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed plainrowheaders sortable sticky-header sort-under col1left col2center col3center" {{right}} |
|+ {{Nowrap|List of member states in the European Union}}{{Anchor|Details of member states}}
! scope="col" | [[Member state of the European Union|State]]
! scope="col" | [[Enlargement of the European Union#Detail|Accession{{br}}to EU]]
! scope="col" | [[Enlargement of the European Union#Detail|Accession{{br}}to EU{{br}}predecessor]]
! scope="col" | Population{{br}}(2025)<ref name="Population.EU"/>
! scope="col" | Area
! scope="col" | Population{{br}}density
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Austria}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1995}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|9197213}}
| {{Cvt|83855|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(9197213/83855) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Belgium}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}
| {{Number table sorting|11900123}}
| {{Cvt|30528|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(11900123/30528) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Bulgaria}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 2007}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|6437360}}
| {{Cvt|110994|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(6437360/110994) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Croatia}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 July 2013}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|3874350}}
| {{Cvt|56594|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(3874350/56594) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Cyprus}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|979865}}
| {{Cvt|9251|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(979865/9251) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Czech Republic}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|10909500}}
| {{Cvt|78866|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(10909500/78866) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Denmark}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1973}}
| {{Number table sorting|5992734}}
| {{Cvt|43075|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(5992734/43075) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Estonia}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|1369995}}
| {{Cvt|45227|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(1369995/45227) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Finland}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1995}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|5635971}}
| {{Cvt|338424|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(5635971/338424) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|France}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}
| {{Number table sorting|68635943}}
| {{Cvt|640679|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(68635943/640679) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Germany}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}<ref group="lower-alpha">On {{Date table sorting|format=dmy|1990|10|3}}, the constituent states of the former [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] [[German reunification|acceded]] to the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]], automatically becoming part of the EU.</ref>
| {{Number table sorting|83577140}}
| {{Cvt|357021|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(83577140/357021) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Greece}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1981}}
| {{Number table sorting|10409547}}
| {{Cvt|131990|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(10409547/131990) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Hungary}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|9539502}}
| {{Cvt|93030|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(9539502/93030) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Ireland}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1973}}
| {{Number table sorting|5439898}}
| {{Cvt|70273|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(5439898/70273) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Italy}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}
| {{Number table sorting|58934177}}
| {{Cvt|301338|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(58934177/301338) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Latvia}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|1856932}}
| {{Cvt|64589|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(1856932/64589) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Lithuania}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|2890664}}
| {{Cvt|65200|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(2890664/65200) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Luxembourg}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}
| {{Number table sorting|681973}}
| {{Cvt|2586|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(681973/2586) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Malta}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|574250}}
| {{Cvt|316|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(574250/316) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Netherlands}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|23 July 1952}}
| {{Number table sorting|18044027}}
| {{Cvt|41543|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(18044027/41543) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Poland}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|36497495}}
| {{Cvt|312685|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(36497495/312685) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Portugal}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1986}}
| {{Number table sorting|10749635}}
| {{Cvt|92390|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(10749635/92390) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Romania}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 2007}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|19036031}}
| {{Cvt|238391|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(19036031/238391) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Slovakia}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|5419451}}
| {{Cvt|49035|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(5419451/49035) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Slovenia}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 May 2004}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|2130850}}
| {{Cvt|20273|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(2130850/20273) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Spain}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 November 1993|format=hide}} Founder (1993)
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1986}}
| {{Number table sorting|49077984}}
| {{Cvt|504030|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(49077984/504030) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{Flag|Sweden}}
| {{Date table sorting|1 January 1995}}
|
| {{Number table sorting|10587710}}
| {{Cvt|449964|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(10587710/449964) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|-
! colspan="3" | European Union
| {{right}} {{Number table sorting|450380320}}
| {{right}} {{Cvt|4233262|km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
| {{Cvt |{{formatnum: {{#expr:(450380320/4233262) round 0}}}}|/km2|disp=br()|sortable=on}}
|}

==== Subdivisions ====
{{Main|Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics}}

[[Country subdivision|Subdivisions of member-states]] are based on the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), a [[geocode]] standard for statistical purposes. The [[Standardization|standard]], adopted in 2003, is developed and regulated by the European Union, and thus only covers the [[Member State of the European Union|member states of the EU]] in detail. The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is instrumental in the European Union's [[Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund]] delivery mechanisms and for locating the area where goods and services subject to European [[Government procurement in the European Union|public procurement]] legislation are to be delivered.

{{Gallery
| title = Maps of Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) subdivisions (prior to 2018, including non-EU member states)
| align = center
| mode = nolines
| File:NUTS 1 regions.svg
| NUTS 1
| File:NUTS 2 regions.svg
| NUTS 2
| File:NUTS 3 region (2017).svg
| NUTS 3
}}

==== Candidate countries ====
{{Main|Potential enlargement of the European Union}}

There are nine countries that are recognised as [[Future enlargement of the European Union|candidates for membership]]: [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|Albania]], [[Accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the European Union|Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Accession of Georgia to the European Union|Georgia]], [[Accession of Moldova to the European Union|Moldova]], [[Accession of Montenegro to the European Union|Montenegro]], [[Accession of North Macedonia to the European Union|North Macedonia]], [[Accession of Serbia to the European Union|Serbia]], [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|Turkey]], and [[Accession of Ukraine to the European Union|Ukraine]].<ref name="Europa Enlargement">{{Cite web |title=European Commission – Enlargement – Candidate and Potential Candidate Countries |url=http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408221338/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/index_en.htm |archive-date=8 April 2012 |access-date=13 March 2012 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Luke McGee |date=23 June 2022 |title=Ukraine's EU hopes rise as bloc's leaders approve candidate status |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/23/europe/eu-approves-ukraine-candidateship-intl/index.html |access-date=23 June 2022 |website=CNN |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328194518/https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/23/europe/eu-approves-ukraine-candidateship-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 December 2022 |title=Bosnia and Herzegovina set for EU candidate status |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/bosnia-and-herzegovina-set-to-receive-eu-candidate-status/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US |archive-date=29 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829114030/https://www.politico.eu/article/bosnia-and-herzegovina-set-to-receive-eu-candidate-status/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2023 |title=EU to open membership talks with Ukraine and Moldova |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67722252 |access-date=14 December 2023 |language=en-GB |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214190733/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67722252 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayer |first=Lili |date=14 December 2023 |title=Deal reached to open EU accession talks with Ukraine and Moldova – Europe live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/dec/14/eu-summit-viktor-orban-aid-ukraine-live-latest-updates |access-date=14 December 2023 |work=the Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> [[Norway–European Union relations|Norway]], [[Switzerland–European Union relations|Switzerland]] and [[Accession of Iceland to the European Union|Iceland]] have submitted membership applications in the past, but subsequently frozen or withdrawn them.<ref name="icelandover">{{Cite news |last=Fox |first=Benjamin |date=16 June 2013 |title=Iceland's EU bid is over, commission told |url=http://euobserver.com/political/120501 |access-date=16 June 2013 |agency=Reuters |archive-date=26 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326004934/http://euobserver.com/political/120501 |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally [[Accession of Kosovo to the European Union|Kosovo]] is officially recognised as a potential candidate,<ref name="Europa Enlargement" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2014 |title=Georgia can apply for EU membership if it complies with democratic principles |url=https://en.trend.az/scaucasus/georgia/2264637.html |website=Trend.Az |access-date=10 August 2022 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116013256/https://en.trend.az/scaucasus/georgia/2264637.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and submitted a membership application.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 March 2022 |title=Georgia, Moldova Formally Apply For EU Membership Amid Russia's Invasion Of Ukraine |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-moldova-eu-applications/31734092.html |access-date=11 April 2022 |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303114621/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-moldova-eu-applications/31734092.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Former members ====
[[Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union|Article 50]] of the [[Treaty of Lisbon|Lisbon Treaty]] provides the basis for a member to [[Withdrawal from the European Union|leave the EU]]. Two territories have left the union: [[Greenland]] (an [[autonomous area|autonomous province]] of Denmark) withdrew in 1985;<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Greenland Treaty of 1985 |url=http://eu.nanoq.gl/Emner/EuGl/The%20Greenland%20Treaty.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503185125/http://eu.nanoq.gl/Emner/EuGl/The%20Greenland%20Treaty.aspx |archive-date=3 May 2011 |access-date=10 November 2010 |website=The European Union and Greenland |publisher=Greenland Home Rule Government}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]] formally invoked Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union in 2017, and became the only sovereign state to leave when it [[Brexit|withdrew]] from the EU in 2020.

===Governance===
{{Main|Bodies of the European Union and the Euratom|Institutions of the European Union|Subsidiarity (European Union)#EU competences}}

Member states retain in principle all powers except those that they have agreed collectively to delegate to the union as a whole, though the exact delimitation has on occasions become a subject of scholarly or legal disputes.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-35005-5 |title=The European Union and the Return of the Nation State |date=2020 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-35005-5 |isbn=978-3-030-35004-8 |editor-last1=Bakardjieva Engelbrekt |editor-last2=Leijon |editor-last3=Michalski |editor-last4=Oxelheim |editor-first1=Antonina |editor-first2=Karin |editor-first3=Anna |editor-first4=Lars |archive-date=8 September 2024 |access-date=8 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240908224436/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-35005-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zglinski |first=Jan |date=31 October 2023 |title=The new judicial federalism: the evolving relationship between EU and Member State courts |journal=European Law Open |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=345–371 |doi=10.1017/elo.2023.27 |issn=2752-6135|doi-access=free }}</ref> In certain fields, members have awarded [[Subsidiarity (European Union)#EU competences|exclusive competence and exclusive mandate]] to the union. These are areas in which member states have entirely renounced their own capacity to enact legislation. In other areas, the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, the member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas, the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Competences and consumers |url=http://ec.europa.eu/competition/consumers/events/2009/index.html |access-date=25 November 2010 |archive-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430213146/http://ec.europa.eu/competition/consumers/events/2009/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what [[Legislature of the European Union|legislative procedure]] is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area. The distribution of competences in various policy areas between member states and the union is divided into the following three categories:

{{EU competences}}

The European Union has seven principal decision-making bodies, its [[Institutions of the European Union|institutions]]: the [[European Parliament]], the [[European Council]], the [[Council of the European Union]], the [[European Commission]], the [[Court of Justice of the European Union]], the [[European Central Bank]] and the [[European Court of Auditors]]. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The [[monetary policy]] of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.

===Branches of power===
{{Main|Bodies of the European Union and the Euratom}}

====Executive branch====
{{Main|European Council|European Commission}}

{{Multiple image
| align         = right
| direction     = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| image1        = Antonio Costa Portrait 2024 (cropped).jpg
| width1        = 160
| alt1          = Portrait of António Costa
| caption1      = [[António Costa]],<br />[[President of the European Council]]
| image2        = Official Portrait of Ursula von der Leyen (cropped).jpg
| width2        = 150
| alt2          = Portrait of Ursula von der Leyen
| caption2      = [[Ursula von der Leyen]],<br />[[President of the European Commission]]
}}

The union's executive branch is organised as a [[directorial system]], where the executive power is jointly exercised by several people. The executive branch consists of the European Council and European Commission.

<!-- European Council -->
The European Council sets the broad political direction of the union. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the [[president of the European Council]] (presently [[António Costa]]), the [[president of the European Commission]] and one representative per [[member state of the European Union|member state]] (either its [[head of state]] or [[head of government]]). The [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy]] (presently [[Kaja Kallas]]) also takes part in its meetings. Described by some as the union's "supreme political leadership",<ref name="How work">{{Cite book |url=http://europa.eu/abc/12lessons/lesson_4/index_en.htm |title=How does the EU work |publisher=Europa (web portal) |year=2012 |isbn=9789279205125 |access-date=12 July 2007 |archive-date=4 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904074342/http://europa.eu/abc/12lessons/lesson_4/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> it is actively involved in the negotiation of [[Treaties of the European Union|treaty changes]] and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies. Its leadership role involves solving disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolving any political crises or disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts as a "collective head of state" and [[ratification|ratifies]] important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{Cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Craig |url={{GBurl|id=aMsWxEnaqrUC|p=146}} |title=With US Or Against US?: European Trends in American Perspective |last2=Jabko |first2=Nicolas |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-928395-8 |page=146 |language=en |quote=Fourth, the European Council acts a "collective head of state" for the EU.}}</ref> Tasks for the president of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU,<ref name="Council Press Release">{{Cite web |date=24 November 2009 |title=President of the European Council |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/111298.pdf |access-date=24 November 2009 |publisher=General Secretariat of the Council of the EU |archive-date=15 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215180451/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/111298.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them. The European Council should not be mistaken for the [[Council of Europe]], an international organisation independent of the EU and based in Strasbourg.

<!-- European Commission -->
The [[European Commission]] acts both as the EU's [[executive (government)|executive arm]], responsible for the day-to-day running of the EU, and also the [[Right of initiative (legislative)|legislative initiator]], with the sole power to propose laws for debate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legislative powers |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/powers-and-procedures/legislative-powers |access-date=13 February 2019 |website=European Parliament |archive-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214002911/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/powers-and-procedures/legislative-powers |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Library of European Parliament">{{Cite web |date=24 October 2013 |title=Parliament's legislative initiative |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130619/LDM_BRI(2013)130619_REV2_EN.pdf |access-date=13 February 2019 |website=Library of the European Parliament |archive-date=19 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319173632/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130619/LDM_BRI%282013%29130619_REV2_EN.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Planning and proposing law |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-making-process/planning-and-proposing-law_en |website=European Commission |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229104117/https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-making-process/planning-and-proposing-law_en |url-status=live }}</ref> The commission is 'guardian of the Treaties' and is responsible for their efficient operation and policing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guardian of the Treaties |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/education/unit-content/-/unit/d5906df5-4f83-4603-85f7-0cabc24b9fe1/28d57ad3-6f5e-4f9c-82a8-be9535febad5 |access-date=8 June 2019 |website=CVCE Education Unit |publisher=University of Luxembourg |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608114457/https://www.cvce.eu/en/education/unit-content/-/unit/d5906df5-4f83-4603-85f7-0cabc24b9fe1/28d57ad3-6f5e-4f9c-82a8-be9535febad5 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has 27 [[European Commissioner|European commissioners]] for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. The leader of the 27 is the [[president of the European Commission]] (presently [[Ursula von der Leyen]] for 2019{{ndash}}2024, reelected for the 2024–2029 term), [[President of the European Commission#Appointment|proposed by the European Council]], following and taking into account the result of the European elections, and is then elected by the European Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Elections and appointments |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/leadership/elections-and-appointments_en |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=European Union |archive-date=16 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916063925/https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/leadership/elections-and-appointments_en |url-status=live }}</ref> The President retains, as the leader responsible for the entire cabinet, the final say in accepting or rejecting a candidate submitted for a given portfolio by a member state, and oversees the commission's permanent civil service. After the President, the most prominent commissioner is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy, who is ''ex-officio'' a [[Vice-President of the European Commission|vice-president of the European Commission]] and is also chosen by the European Council.<ref>[[s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title III: Provisions on the Institutions#Article 17|Treaty on European Union: Article 17:7]]</ref> The other 25 commissioners are subsequently appointed by the [[Council of the European Union]] in agreement with the nominated president. The 27 commissioners as a single body are subject to approval (or otherwise) by a vote of the [[European Parliament]]. All commissioners are first nominated by the government of the respective member state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European commission |url=https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/government_in_ireland/european_government/eu_institutions/european_commission.html |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=Citizens Information Ireland |archive-date=10 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510070549/https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/government_in_ireland/european_government/eu_institutions/european_commission.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Legislative branch====
{{Main|Council of the European Union|European Parliament}}

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| caption1      = [[Roberta Metsola]],<br />[[President of the European Parliament]]
}}

<!-- Council of the European Union -->
The council, as it is now simply called<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003123534/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012E%2FTXT |url-status=live }}</ref> (also called the Council of the European Union<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/ |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=www.consilium.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330193107/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the "Council of Ministers", its former title),<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2010 |title=Institutional affairs: Council of the European Union |url=http://europa.eu/pol/inst/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100112155537/http://europa.eu/pol/inst/index_en.htm |archive-date=12 January 2010 |access-date=16 January 2010 |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission |quote=It is commonly called the Council of Ministers}}.</ref> forms one half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a representative from each member state's government and meets in [[Council of the European Union#Configurations|different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed]]. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body. In addition to the legislative functions, members of the council also have [[Executive (government)|executive]] responsibilities, such as the development of a [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] and the coordination of broad economic policies within the union.<ref name="Europa Institutions Council">{{Cite web |title=Institutions: The Council of the European Union |url=http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/council/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703155822/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/council/index_en.htm |archive-date=3 July 2007 |access-date=25 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Presidency of the council]] rotates between member states, with each holding it for six months. Beginning on 1 July 2025, the position is held by Denmark.<ref name="presidency-council" />

<!-- European Parliament -->
The European Parliament is one of three [[Legislature of the European Union|legislative institutions]] of the EU, which together with the [[Council of the European Union]] is tasked with amending and approving the European Commission's proposals. 705 [[Member of the European Parliament|members of the European Parliament]] (MEPs) are directly [[Elections in the European Union|elected]] by [[Citizenship of the European Union|EU citizens]] every five years on the basis of [[proportional representation]]. MEPs are elected on a national basis and they sit according to [[Political groups of the European Parliament|political groups]] rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into [[European Parliament constituency|sub-national constituencies]] where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wellfire Interactive |date=9 March 2009 |title=MEPs must be elected on the basis of proportional representation, the threshold must not exceed 5%, and the electoral area may be subdivided in constituencies if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system |url=http://www.fairvote.org/european-parliament-to-be-elected-with-proportional-representation-systems |access-date=26 November 2010 |publisher=Fairvote.org |archive-date=17 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517152531/http://www.fairvote.org/european-parliament-to-be-elected-with-proportional-representation-systems |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[ordinary legislative procedure]], the European Commission proposes legislation, which requires the joint approval of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union to pass. This process applies to nearly all areas, including the [[budget of the European Union|EU budget]]. The parliament is the final body to approve or reject the proposed membership of the commission, and can attempt motions of censure on the commission by appeal to the [[European Court of Justice|Court of Justice]]. The [[president of the European Parliament]] carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The president and [[Vice President of the European Parliament|vice-presidents]] are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.<ref name="Europa Institutions Parliament">{{Cite web |title=Institutions: The European Parliament |url=http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/parliament/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624114722/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/parliament/index_en.htm |archive-date=24 June 2007 |access-date=25 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

====Judicial branch====
{{Main|Court of Justice of the European Union}}

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| alt1          = Portrait of Koen Lenaerts
| caption1      = [[Koen Lenaerts]],<br />[[European Court of Justice#President|President of the Court of Justice]]
}}

<!-- Court of Justice -->
The [[judicial branch]] of the European Union is formally called the [[Court of Justice of the European Union]] (CJEU) and consists of two courts: the [[European Court of Justice|Court of Justice]] and the [[General Court (European Union)|General Court]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 19 of the Treaty on European Union |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF |access-date=31 October 2010 |publisher=eur-lex.europa.eu |archive-date=9 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309132946/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> The Court of Justice is the [[supreme court]] of the European Union in matters of [[European Union law]]. As a part of the CJEU, it is tasked with interpreting EU law and ensuring its uniform application across all [[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]] under Article 263 of the Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The Court was established in 1952, and is based in [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]]. It is composed of one judge per member state – currently 27 – although it normally hears cases in panels of three, five or fifteen judges. The Court has been led by president [[Koen Lenaerts]] since 2015. The CJEU is the highest court of the European Union in matters of Union law. Its case-law provides that EU law has supremacy over any national law that is inconsistent with EU law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:61964CJ0006|title=EUR-Lex - 61964CJ0006 - EN - EUR-Lex|access-date=5 November 2025|archive-date=23 November 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251123100708/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A61964CJ0006|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not possible to appeal against the decisions of national courts in the CJEU, but rather national courts refer questions of EU law to the CJEU (a preliminary reference). However, it is ultimately for the national court to apply the resulting interpretation (the preliminary ruling) to the facts of any given case. Although, only courts of final appeal are bound to refer a question of EU law when one is addressed. The treaties give the CJEU the power for consistent application of EU law across the EU as a whole. The court also acts as an administrative and constitutional court between the other EU institutions and the Member States and can annul or invalidate unlawful acts of EU institutions, bodies, offices and agencies.

<!-- General Court -->
The [[General Court (European Union)|General Court]] is a constituent court of the European Union. It hears actions taken against the [[institutions of the European Union]] by individuals and member states, although certain matters are reserved for the Court of Justice. Decisions of the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice, but only on a point of law. Prior to the coming into force of the [[Lisbon Treaty]] on 1 December 2009, it was known as the Court of First Instance. Since the amendments to the [[Statute of the Court of Justice of the European Union|Statute of the CJEU]] in October 2024, the Court of Justice shares its jurisdiction over references for a preliminary ruling with the General Court.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reform of the Statute of the Court of Justice adopted |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/03/19/reform-of-the-statute-of-the-court-of-justice-adopted/ |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Consilium |language=en |archive-date=6 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250706030801/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/03/19/reform-of-the-statute-of-the-court-of-justice-adopted/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The General Court is since then competent to handle preliminary references falling under one of the six following areas: the common system of [[European Union value added tax|value added tax]]; excise duties; the Customs Code; the tariff classification of goods under the [[Combined Nomenclature]]; compensation and assistance to passengers in the event of denied boarding or delay or cancellation of transport services; the scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Presentation - Court of Justice of the European Union |url=http://158.167.241.123:8090/jcms/jcms/Jo2_7024/en/ |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=CURIA |language=en}} {{Dead link|date=April 2026}}</ref>

====Additional branches====
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2023}}
<!-- Monetary branch -->
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| caption1      = [[Christine Lagarde]],<br />[[President of the European Central Bank]]
}}

The [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) is one of the institutions of the [[central bank|monetary branch]] of the European Union, the prime component of the [[Eurosystem]] and the European System of Central Banks. It is one of the world's [[Big Four (banking)#International use|most important central banks]]. The [[Governing Council of the European Central Bank|ECB Governing Council]] makes [[monetary policy]] for the [[eurozone]] and the European Union, administers the [[foreign exchange reserves]] of EU member states, engages in foreign exchange operations, and defines the intermediate monetary objectives and key interest rate of the EU. The [[Executive Board of the European Central Bank|ECB Executive Board]] enforces the policies and decisions of the Governing Council, and may direct the national central banks when doing so. The ECB has the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of [[euro banknotes]]. Member states can issue [[euro coins]], but the volume must be approved by the ECB beforehand. The bank also operates the [[T2 (RTGS)]] payments system. The [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB) consists of the ECB and the national central banks (NCBs) of all 27 member states of the European Union. The ESCB is not the monetary authority of the eurozone, because not all EU member states have joined the euro. The ESCB's objective is price stability throughout the European Union. Secondarily, the ESCB's goal is to improve monetary and financial cooperation between the Eurosystem and member states outside the eurozone.

<!-- Others -->
The [[European Court of Auditors]] (ECA) is the [[supreme audit institution|auditory branch]] of the European Union. It was established in 1975 in [[Luxembourg City|Luxembourg]] in order to improve EU financial management. It has 27 members (1 from each EU member-state) supported by approximately 800 civil servants. The [[European Personnel Selection Office]] (EPSO) is the EU's [[civil service commission|civil service recruitment body]] and operates its selection of candidates via generalist and specialist competitions. Each institution is then able to recruit staff from among the pool of candidates selected by EPSO. On average, EPSO receives around 60,000–70,000 applications a year with around 1,500–2,000 candidates recruited by the European Union institutions. The [[European Ombudsman]] is the [[ombudsman|ombudsman branch]] of the European Union that holds the institutions, bodies and agencies of the EU to account, and promotes good administration. The Ombudsman helps people, businesses and organisations facing problems with the EU administration by investigating complaints, as well as by proactively looking into broader systemic issues. The current Ombudsman is [[Teresa Anjinho]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chaaban |first=Florian |date=2025-08-25 |title=À quoi sert le médiateur européen ? |url=https://www.touteleurope.eu/fonctionnement-de-l-ue/a-quoi-sert-le-mediateur-europeen-et-que-peut-il-faire/ |access-date=2026-03-04 |website=Touteleurope.eu |language=fr-FR |archive-date=21 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250921212403/https://www.touteleurope.eu/fonctionnement-de-l-ue/a-quoi-sert-le-mediateur-europeen-et-que-peut-il-faire/ |url-status=live }}</ref>. The [[European Public Prosecutor's Office]] (EPPO) is the [[attorney general|prosecutory branch]] of the union with juridical personality, established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 23 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of enhanced cooperation. It is based in [[Kirchberg, Luxembourg|Kirchberg]], Luxembourg City alongside the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors

=== EU ethical governance and Ethics Body ===
The European Union’s public ethics system is highly fragmented, with various bespoke public integrity regimes coexisting under EU law, each possessing its own ethics principles and obligations.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=15}} EU ethics standards are scattered across multiple legal sources, ranging from the EU Treaties and institutional Rules of Procedure to Codes of Conduct and the EU Staff Regulations.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=16}} While public ethics instruments exist in almost all EU institutions, there is less evidence that ethics constitutes an integrated feature of day-to-day EU policymaking, a concept defined by scholars as "ethical governance".{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=49}}

Historically, the system's enforcement mechanisms have faced severe structural limitations, notably high fragmentation, limited independence, and weak sanctioning powers.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=26}} Furthermore, virtually all EU institutions have traditionally entrusted the respect of these rules to themselves through internal self-assessment mechanisms rather than independent external oversight.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=278}} The 2022 [[Qatar corruption scandal at the European Parliament|Qatargate]] influence-buying scandal served as a critical juncture that accelerated the push for systemic reform across the institutions,{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=186}} as public perception of the transparency and independence of EU institutions vis-à-vis private interests remained poor.{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=2}} In 2021, the European Parliament had initially proposed the creation of a strong, independent ethics body equipped with its own investigative and enforcement powers.{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|pages=4–5}}

Instead, the main EU institutions concluded an agreement, formally signed in May 2024, to establish a comparatively constrained Interinstitutional Body for Ethical Standards (IBES).{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=279}}{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=8}} The core task of this new entity is the development of "common minimum standards" for the conduct of the political members of the participating institutions, strictly excluding the [[European Civil Service|EU civil service staff]].{{snf|Alemanno|2025|pages=283,272}} The new body adopts these minimum standards by consensus and is assisted by five independent experts.{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=9}} [[Court of Justice of the European Union|The Court of Justice of the EU]] (ECJ) participates only as an observer to preserve its judicial impartiality.{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=8}}

The [[European Union Ethics Body|Interinstitutional EU Ethics Body]] (or Interinstitutional Body for Ethical Standards; IBES{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024}}) faces specific legal and constitutional constraints. Functioning through the "contractual" conjunction of each participating institution, the body operates primarily as a formal mechanism for coordination rather than a centralized enforcement agency.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|pages=88,94–95}} Curiously the body is not based on the Treaty legal basis for IIAs ([https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/interinstitutional-agreements.html Inter Institutional Agreements]) (Article 295 TFEU<ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 295 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/AUTO/?uri=celex:12016E295 |access-date=2026-03-04 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>), as this article only refers to the three main EU institutions. It cannot take over decision-making powers for individual disciplinary cases.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|page=98}}{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=6}}. Consequently, it does not replace existing ethical authorities but merely aims at complementing them, and its creation explicitly does not encroach upon the investigative competences of the [[European Anti-Fraud Office]] (OLAF) or the [[European Ombudsman]].{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=10}}{{snf|Martinez Navarro|2025|page=239}} The [[European Ombudsman]] continues to play a parallel role in assessing ethical breaches and conflicts of interests under the broader concept of "maladministration", which goes beyond strict illegality.{{snf|Martinez Navarro|2025|pages=94, 237}}

Academic evaluations and civil society groups generally characterize the creation of the IBES as an example of "incremental change" rather than comprehensive reform.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|pages=192–193}} Civil society organizations, such as [[Transparency International]],<ref>{{Cite web |last1=LatteCreative |last2=Engelbrecht-Bogdanov |first2=Pia |date=2023-06-08 |title=Transparency International EU: Watered-down EU ethics body lacks credibility |url=https://transparency.eu/transparency-international-eu-watered-down-eu-ethics-body-lacks-credibility/ |access-date=2026-03-04 |website=Transparency International EU |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251207191424/https://transparency.eu/transparency-international-eu-watered-down-eu-ethics-body-lacks-credibility/ |url-status=live }}</ref> have criticized the final agreement as "toothless" due to its inability to independently investigate or sanction the EU institutions.{{snf|Kotanidis|Faucheux|2024|page=11}} Similarly, legal scholars point out that the body lacks investigative powers and the capacity to apply ethical standards to concrete individual cases.{{snf|Martinez Navarro|2025|page=239}} Nevertheless, because the body requires each participating institution to conduct a public, written self-assessment of its internal rules, experts suggest that the ensuing public scrutiny and institutional peer pressure may induce institutions to align their standards more closely over time.{{snf|Alemanno|2025|pages=193,284}}

===Budget===
{{Main|Budget of the European Union}}

{{Pie chart
| caption = <div style="text-align:center;">'''EU funding programmes 2014–2020<br />(€1,087 billion)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU funding programmes 2014–2020 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/eu-budget/spending/topic/eu-funding-programmes-2014-2020_en |access-date=2 January 2020 |website=European Commission |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102004033/https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/eu-budget/spending/topic/eu-funding-programmes-2014-2020_en |url-status=live }}</ref></div>
| label1 = Sustainable Growth/Natural Resources
| value1 = 38.6
| color1 = blue
| label2 = Competitiveness for Growth and Jobs
| value2 = 13.1
| color2 = yellow
| label3 = Global Europe
| value3 = 6.1
| color3 = brown
| label4 = Economic, Territorial and Social Cohesion
| value4 = 34.1
| color4 = red
| label5 = Administration
| value5 = 6.4
| color5 = green
| label6 = Security and Citizenship
| value6 = 1.7
| color6 = lightblue
}}

The European Union had an agreed budget of {{Euro|170.6}}&nbsp;billion in 2022. The EU had a long-term budget of €1,082.5 billion for the period 2014–2020, representing 1.02% of the EU-28's GNI. In 1960, the budget of the [[European Economic Community|European Community]] was 0.03 per cent of GDP.<ref>{{Cite book |last=David Smith. |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/willeuropework0000smit |title=Will Europe work? |publisher=Profile Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-86197-102-9 |location=London}}</ref> Of this, €54bn subsidised [[Common Agricultural Policy|agriculture enterprise]], €42bn was spent on [[Transport in the European Union|transport]], building and the environment, €16bn on [[Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union|education and research]], €13bn on welfare, €20bn on foreign and defence policy, €2bn in [[European banking union|finance]], €2bn in [[Renewable energy in the European Union|energy]], €1.5bn in communications, and €13bn in administration. In November 2020, two members of the union, Hungary and Poland, blocked approval to the EU's budget at a meeting in the [[Committee of Permanent Representatives]] (Coreper), citing a [[Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation|proposal that linked funding with adherence to the rule of law]]. The budget included a [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] recovery fund of {{Euro|750}}{{nbsp}}billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 November 2020 |title=Hungary and Poland block EU coronavirus recovery package |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/hungary-and-poland-block-progress-on-e1-8-trillion-package/ |access-date=16 November 2020 |work=Politico |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116152954/https://www.politico.eu/article/hungary-and-poland-block-progress-on-e1-8-trillion-package/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 November 2020 |title=EU budget blocked by Hungary and Poland over rule of law issue |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54964858 |access-date=16 November 2020 |work=BBC News |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116153102/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54964858 |url-status=live }}</ref> The budget was finally approved by 12 December when Hungary and Poland withdrew their vetoes after further negotiations in the council and the [[European Council]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tidey |first1=Alice |last2=Chadwick |first2=Lauren |date=10 December 2020 |title=EU agrees €1.8 tr budget - but what brought Hungary & Poland onboard? |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2020/12/10/eu-s-1-8-trillion-budget-approved-after-hungary-and-poland-had-earlier-blocked-it |access-date=1 March 2025 |website=[[Euronews]] |archive-date=7 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307012110/https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2020/12/10/eu-s-1-8-trillion-budget-approved-after-hungary-and-poland-had-earlier-blocked-it |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bodies combatting fraud have also been established, including the [[European Anti-fraud Office]] and the [[European Public Prosecutor's Office]]. The latter is a decentralised independent body of the European Union (EU), established under the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] between 22 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of [[enhanced cooperation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2017 |title=20 EU nations back plan for EU prosecutor's office |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/20-eu-nations-back-plan-for-eu-prosecutors-office.amp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125093003/https://www.foxnews.com/world/20-eu-nations-back-plan-for-eu-prosecutors-office.amp |archive-date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 January 2020 |publisher=[[Fox News]]}}</ref> The European Public Prosecutor's Office investigate and prosecute fraud against the [[EU budget|budget of the European Union]] and other crimes against the EU's financial interests including fraud concerning EU funds of over €10,000 and cross-border [[value added tax|VAT]] fraud cases involving damages above €10 million.

===Law===
{{Main|European Union law}}

{{Further|European Union legislative procedure}}
{{See also|Treaties of the European Union|European Citizens' Initiative}}
[[File:Political System of the European Union.svg|thumb|right|upright=2|Organigram of the political system of the European Union]]

Constitutionally, the EU bears some resemblance to both a [[confederation]] and a [[federation]],<ref>Kiljunen, Kimmo (2004). The European Constitution in the Making. Centre for European Policy Studies. pp. 21–26. {{ISBN|978-92-9079-493-6}}.</ref><ref>Burgess, Michael (2000). Federalism and European union: The building of Europe, 1950–2000. Routledge. p. 49. {{ISBN|0-415-22647-3}}. "Our theoretical analysis suggests that the EC/EU is neither a federation nor a confederation in the classical sense. But it does claim that the European political and economic elites have shaped and moulded the EC/EU into a new form of international organization, namely, a species of "new" confederation."</ref> but has not formally defined itself as either. (It does not have a formal constitution: its status is defined by the [[Treaty of European Union]] and the [[Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]]). It is more integrated than a traditional confederation of states because the general level of government widely employs [[qualified majority voting]] in some decision-making among the member states, rather than relying exclusively on unanimity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qualified majority – Consilium |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/voting-system/qualified-majority/ |access-date=10 April 2019 |website=www.consilium.europa.eu |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319073922/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/voting-system/qualified-majority/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Practical Law UK Signon |url=https://signon.thomsonreuters.com/?comp=pluk&productid=PLCUK&viewproductid=UKPL&lr=0&culture=en-US&returnto=https%3a%2f%2fuk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com%2fCosi%2fSignOn%3fcomp%3dpluk%26redirectTo%3d%252f9-503-0498%253ftransitionType%253dDefault%2526contextData%253d(sc.Default)%2526firstPage%253dtrue%2526comp%253dpluk%2526bhcp%253d1&tracetoken=0410191706400iocfH6ix9aDAXboKMKljGSEQbVenO3hRbkBiVwSpjK1nPrIZleK0m_ZYArfREaHTp00rbJNn9JJiUMtpuREV-tBpbDUn6jga8Zl9POgeorx-_ajnZ8E3JYaIx_LR8_3ZDgttQ2Na2blkP5wVQ4ab8NCop3kx46Kc2OAzz_TmEl3CC7PuHaHnrnMSp6Iff0Ha6hnq7X8w-OJXGJwNOPAhExqg5qLTz6c5ZWem1fKcj3l-9-h9cvMeVpfodmsngI5XZ8ruL99SM4ZCzGSNyROceid4Z3KboCsVabuZY0E-uiLtwSweJKfAwbVwR05UE0UIdD0SkAXveKEjxj9NIp2XCOCilihh1It2arRlZYHQ0Fc |access-date=10 April 2019 |website=signon.thomsonreuters.com}}</ref>

The EU is less integrated than a federal state because it is not a state in its own right: sovereignty continues to flow 'from the bottom up', from the several peoples of the separate member states, rather than from a single undifferentiated whole. This is reflected in the fact that the member states remain the 'masters of the Treaties', retaining control over the allocation of competences to the union through constitutional change (thus retaining so-called ''[[Kompetenz-kompetenz]]''); in that they retain control of the use of armed force; they retain control of taxation; and in that they retain a right of unilateral withdrawal under Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. In addition, the principle of [[subsidiarity]] requires that only those matters that need to be determined collectively are so determined.

Under the principle of [[Supremacy (European Union law)|supremacy]], national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.<ref name="Supremacy" group="lower-alpha">According to the principle of [[Law of the European Union#Supremacy|supremacy]] as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, ''Falminio Costa v. ENEL'' [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: [[Factortame litigation]]: ''Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603'', ''Solange II'' (''Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft'', BVerfG decision of 22 October 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and ''Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze'' [1974] 2 CMLR 372; ''Raoul George Nicolo'' [1990] 1 CMLR 173.</ref> The [[direct effect]] and supremacy doctrines were not explicitly set out in the European Treaties but were developed by the Court of Justice itself over the 1960s, apparently under the influence of its then most influential judge, Frenchman [[Robert Lecourt]].<ref>William Phelan, ''Great Judgments of the European Court of Justice: Rethinking the Landmark Decisions of the Foundational Period'' (Cambridge, 2019).</ref> The question whether the secondary law enacted by the EU has a comparable status in relation to national legislation, has been a matter of debate among legal scholars.

====Primary law====
The European Union is based on a series of [[Treaties of the European Union|treaties]]. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sources of EU law |url=http://ec.europa.eu/ireland/general_information/legal_information_and_eu_law/sources_eu_law/index_en.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228193407/http://ec.europa.eu/ireland/general_information/legal_information_and_eu_law/sources_eu_law/index_en.htm |archive-date=28 February 2008 |access-date=5 September 2007 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation<ref name="art249">{{Cite web |date=30 March 2010 |title=Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%253AC%253A2010%253A083%253A0047%253A0200%253AEN%253APDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117094809/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%253AC%253A2010%253A083%253A0047%253A0200%253AEN%253APDF |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=EUR-Lex |language=en}}</ref> which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.<ref name="Direct Effect" group="lower-alpha">According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in {{cite court|litigants=Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen|reporter=Eur-Lex|court=European Court of Justice|year=1963|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:NOT|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214195748/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:NOT|url-status=live}} See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.</ref> The EU has [[legal personality]], with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Schoutheete |first1=Philippe |last2=Andoura |first2=Sami |year=2007 |title=The Legal Personality of the European Union |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/9083/01/Legal.Personality.EU-PDS-SA.pdf |journal=Studia Diplomatica |volume=LX |issue=1 |access-date=15 November 2010}} Its examples are the ratifications of [[United Nations Convention against Corruption]] and [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]] by EU. And Article 47 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.</ref>

====Secondary law====
The main legal acts of the European Union come in three forms: [[Regulation (European Union)|regulations]], [[Directive (European Union)|directives]], and [[Decision (European Union)|decisions]]. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,<ref group="lower-alpha">See: Case 34/73, {{Cite web |title=Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:61973CJ0034 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=EUR-Lex |language=en |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601160304/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:61973CJ0034 |url-status=live }}</ref> and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.<ref name="art249"/> Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.<ref group="lower-alpha">To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 28 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115.</ref> When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have [[direct effect]] in national law against member states. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in [[competition law]], or on rulings on [[State aid (European Union)|State Aid]], but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy<!-- What does that mean i don't know what article to link it to. -->.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How EU takes decisions |url=http://europa.eu/institutions/decision-making/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102215021/http://europa.eu/institutions/decision-making/index_en.htm |archive-date=2 January 2011 |access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of the European Union}}

{{See also|European External Action Service}}

{{Multiple image
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| caption1      = [[Kaja Kallas]],<br />[[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]]
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Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the [[EU's common commercial policy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qualified-Majority Voting: Common commercial policy |url=http://ec.europa.eu/archives/igc2000/geninfo/fact-sheets/fact-sheet6/index_en.htm |access-date=3 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=14 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314064149/http://ec.europa.eu/archives/igc2000/geninfo/fact-sheets/fact-sheet6/index_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Steps for more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of [[European Political Cooperation]] which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. In 1987 the European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the [[Single European Act]]. EPC was renamed as the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP) by the [[Maastricht Treaty]].<ref name="EPC">{{Cite web |last=The European commission |title=European political co-operation (EPC) |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/european_political_cooperation_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708111806/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/european_political_cooperation_en.htm |archive-date=8 July 2007 |access-date=3 September 2007 |website=Europa Glossary |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

The stated aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the [[international community]] as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.<ref name="art11 Union">{{Cite web |title=The requested document does not exist. |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%253AC%253A2010%253A083%253A0013%253A0046%253AEN%253APDF |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=EUR-Lex |language=en |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209145943/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the [[Iraq War|war in Iraq]].<ref name="BBC Iraq statement">{{Cite news |date=27 January 2003 |title=Divided EU agrees Iraq statement |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2697667.stm |access-date=13 March 2009 |archive-date=11 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111205043/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2697667.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy]] who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The high representative heads up the [[European External Action Service]] (EEAS), a unique EU department<ref name="23Oct">{{Cite web |date=23 October 2009 |first=Andrew |last=Rettman |title=EU states near agreement on diplomatic service |url=https://euobserver.com/world/28878 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=EUobserver |language=en |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221134908/https://euobserver.com/world/28878 |url-status=live }}</ref> that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 December 2010 |title=European External Action Service gives Europe voice on world stage |url=http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Infoservice/Presse/Meldungen/2010/101201-EAD.html |access-date=4 June 2013 |publisher=German Foreign Ministry |archive-date=3 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203233105/http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Infoservice/Presse/Meldungen/2010/101201-EAD.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The EEAS serves as a foreign ministry and [[diplomatic corps]] for the European Union.<ref name="Europa EEAS">{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=European External Action Service |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/background/index_en.htm |access-date=26 June 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103150935/http://eeas.europa.eu/background/index_en.htm |archive-date=3 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through [[Enlargement of the European Union|enlargement]]. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=John |date=August 2008 |title=Enlargement, reform and the European Commission. Weathering a perfect storm? |journal=Journal of European Public Policy |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=761–780 |doi=10.1080/13501760802133328 |s2cid=154664296}}</ref>{{rp|762}} This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "[[soft power]]", as opposed to military "hard power".<ref name="Soft Power">{{Cite web |last=Bildt |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Bildt |year=2005 |title=Europe must keep its 'soft power' |url=http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/bildt_ft_1june05.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609135542/http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/bildt_ft_1june05.html |archive-date=9 June 2007 |access-date=26 June 2007 |website=Financial Times on Centre for European Reform}}</ref>

==== Humanitarian aid ====
{{Further|Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations}}

The [[ECHO (European Commission)|European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department]], or "ECHO", provides [[humanitarian aid]] from the EU to [[developing country|developing countries]]. In 2012, its budget amounted to {{Euro|874}}{{nbsp}}million, 51 per cent of the budget went to Africa and 20 per cent to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 per cent to the Middle East and Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ECHO's finances |url=http://ec.europa.eu/echo/funding/finances_en.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718150202/http://ec.europa.eu/echo/funding/finances_en.htm |archive-date=18 July 2013 |website=ec.europa.eu |publisher=Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection, [[European Commission]]}}</ref> Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 per cent) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the [[European Development Fund]] (30 per cent).<ref name="ODI">Mikaela Gavas 2010. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5078&title=european-development-cooperation-financial-perspectives Financing European development cooperation: the Financial Perspectives 2014–2020.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316022518/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5078&title=european-development-cooperation-financial-perspectives|date=16 March 2011}} London: Overseas Development Institute</ref> The EU's external action financing is divided into geographic instruments and thematic instruments.<ref name="ODI" /> The geographic instruments provide aid through the [[Development Cooperation Instrument]] (DCI, {{Euro|16.9}}{{nbsp}}billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95 per cent of its budget on [[official development assistance]] (ODA), and from the [[European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument]] (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.<ref name="ODI" />

The European Development Fund (EDF, {{Euro|22.7}}{{nbsp}}billion for the period 2008–2013 and {{Euro|30.5}}{{nbsp}}billion for the period 2014–2020) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 per cent target and allow the [[European Parliament]] greater oversight.<ref name="ODI" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=ACP - Main funding programmes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411022531/https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/regions/african-caribbean-and-pacific-acp-region/main-programmes-eu-development-assistance-african_en |archive-date=2015-04-11|url=https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/regions/african-caribbean-and-pacific-acp-region/main-programmes-eu-development-assistance-african_en |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 per cent and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 per cent target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2017 |title=Development aid rises again in 2016 |url=http://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/ODA-2016-detailed-summary.pdf |access-date=23 December 2017 |publisher=OECD |archive-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915162918/https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data/ODA-2016-detailed-summary.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== International cooperation and development partnerships ====
{{Main|Directorate-General for International Partnerships|ACP–EU development cooperation|European Solidarity Corps|European Union Global Strategy|European Neighbourhood Policy|Global Europe|European Political Community}}

[[File:Ilham Aliyev attended EU Eastern Partnership Summit in Brussels.jpg|thumb|[[Eastern Partnership]] Summit 2017, [[Brussels]]]]

The European Union uses foreign relations instruments like the [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] which seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European territory of the EU to the union. These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a [[member state of the European Union]], or more closely integrated with the European Union. The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood, so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation. This process is normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the target country.

[[File:Membreupm.png|thumb|left|[[Union for the Mediterranean]] meeting in Barcelona]]

There is also the worldwide [[European Union Global Strategy]]. International recognition of sustainable development as a key element is growing steadily. Its role was recognised in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 [[Earth Summit|UN Conference on Environment and Development]] (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, [[South Africa]]; and the 2012 [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development|UN Conference on Sustainable Development]] (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements are the [[Paris Agreement]] and the [[Sustainable Development Goals|2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognise that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, [[planet]], prosperity, [[peace]] and [[partnership]] – in order to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of [[human]]ity.

EU development action is based on the European Consensus on Development, which was endorsed on 20 December 2005 by EU Member States, the council, the European Parliament and the commission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The European Consensus on Development |url=http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/what/development-policies/european-consensus/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811141039/http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/what/development-policies/european-consensus/index_en.htm |archive-date=11 August 2011 |access-date=27 August 2011}}</ref> It is applied from the principles of [[capability approach]] and [[rights-based approach to development]]. Funding is provided by the [[Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance]] and the [[Global Europe]] programmes. Partnership and cooperation agreements are bilateral agreements with non-member nations.<ref name="pca">{{Cite web |title=Partnership and cooperation agreement (PCA) – EU monitor |url=https://www.eumonitor.eu/9353000/1/j9vvik7m1c3gyxp/vh7gkuhng0wh |website=www.eumonitor.eu |access-date=15 June 2020 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319073923/https://www.eumonitor.eu/9353000/1/j9vvik7m1c3gyxp/vh7gkuhng0wh |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Defence===
{{Main|Common Security and Defence Policy}}

{{See also|European Union–NATO relations|Frontex|European Defence Agency|European Union Institute for Security Studies|European Union Satellite Centre}}
[[File:EU and NATO.svg|thumb|Map showing European membership of the EU and [[NATO]]
{{Leftlegend|#ffd617|EU member only}}
{{Leftlegend|#000|NATO member only}}
{{Leftlegend|#039|EU and NATO member}}
]]
[[File:Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg|thumb|upright|Coat of arms of the [[European Union Military Staff|Military Staff]]]]

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The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because [[NATO]] was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2007|page=100}} In 2025, Europe initiated the [[ReArm Europe|ReArm program]], a strategic breakthrough aimed at mobilising local industrial capabilities and bolstering European equipment production, involves a financial investment of €800 billion to support the development and procurement, simultaneously enhancing the continent's overall military readiness and self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press statement by President von der Leyen on the defence package |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/sv/statement_25_673 |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=European Commission - European Commission |archive-date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304151116/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/sv/statement_25_673 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EU's von der Leyen proposes €800 billion defense plan – DW – 03/04/2025 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eus-von-der-leyen-proposes-800-billion-defense-plan/a-71819582 |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304135320/https://www.dw.com/en/eus-von-der-leyen-proposes-800-billion-defense-plan/a-71819582 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-04 |title=EU chief unveils €800 billion plan to 'rearm' Europe |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/european-union/article/2025/03/04/eu-chief-reveals-800-billion-plan-to-rearm-europe_6738782_156.html |access-date=2025-03-04 |language=en |archive-date=6 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250306061336/https://www.lemonde.fr/en/european-union/article/2025/03/04/eu-chief-reveals-800-billion-plan-to-rearm-europe_6738782_156.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Twenty-three EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states follow policies of [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]].<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Laursen |first=Finn |date=1 June 1997 |title=The EU 'neutrals,' the CFSP and defence policy |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/2657/ |location=Seattle, WA |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |page=27 |access-date=24 July 2009 |book-title=Biennial Conference of the European Union Studies Association |archive-date=19 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719154626/http://aei.pitt.edu/2657/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Western European Union]], a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, closed in 2011<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archives.eui.eu/en/fonds/194161?item=WEU|title=Assembly of Western European Union (WEU)|website=archives.eui.eu|access-date=1 August 2023|archive-date=1 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801193955/https://archives.eui.eu/en/fonds/194161?item=WEU|url-status=live}}</ref> as its role had been transferred to the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2010 |title=Statement of the Presidency of the Permanent Council of the WEU on behalf of the High Contracting Parties to the Modified Brussels Treaty – Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom |url=http://www.weu.int/Declaration_E.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010150807/http://www.weu.int/Declaration_E.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2017 |website=weu.int |publisher=Western European Union |location=Brussels}}</ref> Following the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, the [[European Council]] agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the [[Helsinki Headline Goal]] process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the [[EU Battlegroup]]s initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500&nbsp;personnel.<ref name="Council Capabilities">{{Cite web |last=Council of the European Union |date=July 2009 |title=EU battlegroups |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/090720-Factsheet-Battlegroups_EN.pdf |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104224245/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/090720-Factsheet-Battlegroups_EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The EU Strategic Compass adopted in 2022 reaffirmed the bloc's partnership with NATO, committed to increased military mobility and formation of a 5,000-strong EU Rapid Deployment Capacity<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/strategic-compass-security-and-defence-1_en |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801195456/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/strategic-compass-security-and-defence-1_en |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!-- Nuclear and power projection -->
Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom, France is the only member officially recognised as a [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear weapon state]] and the sole holder of a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent seat]] on the [[United Nations Security Council]]. France and Italy are also the only EU countries that have [[Power projection|power projection capabilities]] outside of Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cunha |first=Alberto |date=5 July 2020 |title=Post-Brexit EU Defence Policy: Is Germany Leading towards a European Army? |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2020/07/05/post-brexit-eu-defence-policy-is-germany-leading-towards-a-european-army/ |access-date=1 January 2022 |website=E-International Relations |language=en |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106120545/https://www.e-ir.info/2020/07/05/post-brexit-eu-defence-policy-is-germany-leading-towards-a-european-army/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium participate in NATO [[nuclear sharing]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meier |first=Oliver |date=June 2020 |title=German Politicians Renew Nuclear Basing Debate |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/74d6c94a8784b0ef0346f046169ac8c7/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=37049 |journal=Arms Control Today |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=36–37 |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813101111/https://www.proquest.com/openview/74d6c94a8784b0ef0346f046169ac8c7/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=37049 |url-status=live }}</ref> Most EU member states opposed the [[Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons|Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 January 2018 |title=Treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons ─ the 'Ban Treaty' |work=European Parliament |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2018)614664 |archive-date=4 November 2021 |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104060533/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2018)614664 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[EUFOR|EU forces]] have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the [[western Balkans]] and western Asia.<ref name="Council Operations">{{Cite web |last=Council of the European Union |date=April 2003 |title=Overview of the missions and operations of the European Union |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/eeas/security-defence/eu-operations?amp;lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202213910/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/eeas/security-defence/eu-operations?amp;lang=en |archive-date=2 December 2011 |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the [[European Defence Agency]], [[European Union Satellite Centre]] and the [[European Union Military Staff]].<ref name="Council Structures">{{Cite web |last=Council of the European Union |title=CSDP structures and instruments |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/eeas/security-defence/csdp-structures-and-instruments?lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530233030/http://consilium.europa.eu/eeas/security-defence/csdp-structures-and-instruments?lang=en |archive-date=30 May 2013 |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The European Union Military Staff is the highest military institution of the European Union, established within the framework of the European Council, and follows on from the decisions of the Helsinki European Council (10–11 December 1999), which called for the establishment of permanent political-military institutions. The European Union Military Staff is under the authority of the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]] and the Political and Security Committee. It directs all military activities in the EU context, including planning and conducting military missions and operations in the framework of the [[Common Security and Defence Policy]] and the development of military capabilities, and provides the Political and Security Committee with military advice and recommendations on military issues. In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert, Danish ''Institute of International Studies'' |url=http://www.diis.dk/sw87465.asp?csref=RSS |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429211047/http://www.diis.dk/sw87465.asp?csref=RSS |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=27 April 2010 |publisher=Diis.dk}}</ref>

The European Border and Coast Guard Agency ([[Frontex]]) is an [[Agencies of the European Union|agency of the EU]] aiming to detect and stop illegal immigration, [[human trafficking]] and terrorist infiltration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Frontex |title=What is Frontex? |url=http://www.frontex.europa.eu/ |access-date=4 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=23 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823060454/http://www.frontex.europa.eu/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The EU also operates the [[European Travel Information and Authorisation System]], the [[Entry/Exit System]], the [[Schengen Information System]], the [[Visa Information System]] and the [[Common European Asylum System]] which provide common databases for police and immigration authorities. The impetus for the development of this co-operation was the advent of open borders in the Schengen Area and the associated cross-border crime.<ref name="Internal borders" />

==Geography==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Geography of the European Union}}

{{More citations needed section|date=February 2026}}[[File:European Union relief laea location map.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|Topographic map of Europe (EU highlighted)]]

The EU's member states cover an area of {{convert|4,233,262|km2|sqmi|0}},<ref name="Area.and.population.figure" group="lower-alpha">This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states that are part of the EU, and excludes the European territories of member states which are not part of the union. For more information, see [[Special member state territories and the European Union]].</ref> and therefore a large part of the [[Europe|European continent]]. The EU's highest peak is [[Mont Blanc]] in the [[Graian Alps]], {{convert|4810.45|m|ft|0}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2009 |title=Mont Blanc shrinks by {{convert|45|cm|2|abbr=on}} in two years |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/mont-blanc-shrinks-by-45cm-in-two-years-20091106-i0kk.html |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214082228/https://www.smh.com.au/environment/mont-blanc-shrinks-by-45cm-in-two-years-20091106-i0kk.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The lowest points in the EU are [[Lammefjorden]], Denmark, and [[Zuidplaspolder]], Netherlands, at {{convert|7|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} below sea level.<ref name="CIA" /> The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is {{convert|65993|km|mi|0}} long. In addition to national territories in Europe, there are 32 [[special territories of members of the European Economic Area]], not all of which are part of the EU. The largest by area is [[Greenland]], which is [[Greenland and the European Union|not part of the EU but whose citizens are EU citizens]], while the largest by population are the [[Canary Islands]] off Africa, which are part of the EU and the [[Schengen area]]. [[French Guiana]] in South America is part of the EU and the eurozone, as is [[Mayotte]], north of [[Madagascar]].

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Europe}}

{{More citations needed section|date=February 2026}}[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map Europe present.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|A [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen–Geiger climate classification]] map of Europe (including non-EU member states)]]

The climate of the European Union is of a [[temperate climate|temperate]], [[continental climate|continental]] nature, with a [[maritime climate]] prevailing on the western coasts and a [[mediterranean climate]] in the south. The climate is strongly conditioned by the [[Gulf Stream]], which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents. Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry. Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a [[wet season]] and a [[dry season]]. Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months. The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing [[westerlies]], with higher amounts also seen in the [[Alps]].

===Environment===
{{Main|Climate change in Europe}}

{{See also|European Environment Agency|Environmental policy of the European Union}}

[[File:Increase of average yearly temperature in Europe (1900-2017).png|thumb|upright=1|Increase of average yearly temperature in selected cities in Europe (1900–2017)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kayser-Bril |first=Nicolas |date=24 September 2018 |title=Europe is getting warmer, and it's not looking like it's going to cool down anytime soon |work=EDJNet |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/Europe-is-getting-warmer-and-it-s-not-looking-like-it-s-going-to-cool-down-anytime-soon |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331161045/https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/Europe-is-getting-warmer-and-it-s-not-looking-like-it-s-going-to-cool-down-anytime-soon |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

In 1957, when the European Economic Community was founded, it had no environmental policy.{{sfn|Jordan|Adelle|2012}} Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.{{sfn|Jordan|Adelle|2012}} According to the [[Institute for European Environmental Policy]], environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012">Institute for European Environmental Policy (2012) Manual of European Environmental Policy, Earthscan, London.</ref>

European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.{{sfn|Jordan|Adelle|2012}} [[Trade barrier]]s and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.<ref>Johnson, S.P. and Corcelle, G. (1989) The Environmental Policy of the European Communities, Graham & Trotman, London</ref> In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012" />

Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,<ref>{{Cite web |title=EUR-Lex – l28027 – EN |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:l28027 |publisher=EUR-Lex |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729114106/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:l28027 |url-status=live }}</ref> which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.{{sfn|Jordan|Adelle|2012}} EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012" />

Mitigating [[climate change]] is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20 per cent of the energy used across the EU must be [[renewable energy|renewable]], and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 per cent compared to 1990 levels.<ref name="EUO energy">{{Cite news |last=Aldred |first=Jessica |date=23 January 2008 |title=EU sets 20% target for carbon cuts |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jan/23/climatechange.eu1 |access-date=29 February 2008 |archive-date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901095346/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jan/23/climatechange.eu1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, the EU emitted 9.1 per cent of global [[greenhouse-gas emissions]].<ref name="Global Emissions">{{Cite web |title=Global Emissions |url=https://www.c2es.org/content/international-emissions/ |access-date=11 November 2020 |website=Center for Climate and Energy Solutions |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108180532/https://www.c2es.org/content/international-emissions/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union claims that already in 2018, its GHG emissions were 23% lower than in 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Progress made in cutting emissions |date=23 November 2016 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/progress_en |access-date=21 November 2019 |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116142744/https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/progress_en |archive-date=16 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The EU has adopted an [[Emissions trading|emissions trading system]] to incorporate [[carbon emissions]] into the economy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 2016 |title=EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) |url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets_en |website=Climate Action – European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105093434/https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets_en |archive-date=5 January 2017 |access-date=26 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[European Green Capital]] is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create [[smart city]]. In the [[2019 European Parliament election|2019 elections to the European Parliament]], the green parties increased their power, possibly because of the rise of post materialist values.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berman |first=Sheri |author-link=Sheri Berman |date=3 June 2019 |title=Populists, greens and the new map of European politics |url=https://www.socialeurope.eu/populists-greens-new-political-map |access-date=21 June 2019 |website=Social Europe |archive-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621122307/https://www.socialeurope.eu/populists-greens-new-political-map |url-status=live }}</ref> Proposals to reach a zero carbon economy in the European Union by 2050 were suggested in 2018–2019. Almost all member states supported that goal at an EU summit in June 2019. The Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, and Poland disagreed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 June 2019 |title=EU summit deadlock over top jobs and climate discord |work=euronews |url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/06/21/eu-summit-deadlock-over-top-jobs-and-climate-discord |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419165627/https://www.euronews.com/2019/06/21/eu-summit-deadlock-over-top-jobs-and-climate-discord |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2021, the European Union passed a [[European Climate Law]] with targets of 55% GHG emissions reduction by 2030 and [[carbon neutrality]] by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Van Hoof |first=Sam |date=30 July 2021 |title=European Commission launches proposals to reach 55% emissions reduction by 2030 |url=https://www.unsdsn.org/european-commission-launches-proposals-to-reach-55-emissions-reduction-by-2030 |access-date=8 October 2021 |website=Sustainable Development Solution Network |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813134918/https://www.unsdsn.org/european-commission-launches-proposals-to-reach-55-emissions-reduction-by-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref> Also in the same year, the European Union and the United States pledged to cut [[methane emissions]] by 30% by 2030. The pledge is considered as a big achievement for climate change mitigation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=17 September 2021 |title=US and EU pledge 30% cut in methane emissions to limit global heating |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/17/us-and-eu-pledge-30-cut-in-methane-emissions-to-limit-global-heating |access-date=8 October 2021 |agency=The Guardian |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117080921/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/17/us-and-eu-pledge-30-cut-in-methane-emissions-to-limit-global-heating |url-status=live }}</ref> A research report from November 2024 declared that the [[Czech Republic]] is the EU's most toxic country in Europe for car emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 November 2024 |title=New study says Czechia is EU's 'most toxic' country by car emissions |url=https://www.expats.cz/czech-news/article/new-study-says-czechia-is-eu-s-most-toxic-country-by-emissions |access-date=10 November 2024 |website=expats.cz |language=en |archive-date=10 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110151454/https://www.expats.cz/czech-news/article/new-study-says-czechia-is-eu-s-most-toxic-country-by-emissions |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2025, The European Union together with [[China]], [[Brazil]] and others, joined the [[Climate Coalition (COP30 proposal)|Global carbon market coalition]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Global carbon market coalition proposed by Brazil has gained membership in eleven countries |url=https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/global-carbon-market-coalition-proposed-by-brazil-has-gained-membership-in-eleven-countries |website=COP 30 Brazil Amazonia Belem 2025 |access-date=12 November 2025 |archive-date=24 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251124205623/https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/global-carbon-market-coalition-proposed-by-brazil-has-gained-membership-in-eleven-countries |url-status=live }}</ref> According to some calculations, a global carbon market can speed up emission reduction seven-fold.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-16 |title=Building a Climate Coalition: Aligning Carbon Pricing, Trade, and Development |url=https://salatainstitute.harvard.edu/building-a-climate-coalition-gcpp-flagship-report/ |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=The Salata Institute |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251011192455/https://salatainstitute.harvard.edu/building-a-climate-coalition-gcpp-flagship-report/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Economy==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Economy of the European Union}}

[[File:Europe-GDP-PPP-per-capita-map.png|thumb|right|[[GDP]] (PPP) per capita (including non-EU countries)]]

The [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), a measure of economic activity, of EU member states was US$16.64 trillion in 2022, around 16.6 per cent of the world GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?a=1&c=001,998,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=24 March 2023 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |archive-date=3 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703100149/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?a=1&c=001,998,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> There is a significant variation in GDP per capita between and within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (281 NUTS-2 regions of the [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics]]) ranged, in 2017, from 31 per cent (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average ({{Euro|30,000}}) to 253 per cent (Luxembourg), or from {{Euro|4,600}} to {{Euro|92,600}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regional GDP per capita ranged from 31% to 626% of the EU average in 2017 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/9618249/1-26022019-AP-EN.pdf/f765d183-c3d2-4e2f-9256-cc6665909c80 |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902020336/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/9618249/1-26022019-AP-EN.pdf/f765d183-c3d2-4e2f-9256-cc6665909c80 |url-status=live }}</ref>

EU member states own the estimated third largest after the United States ({{US$|140}}{{nbsp}}trillion) and [[China]] ({{US$|84}}{{nbsp}}trillion) [[net wealth]] in the world, equal to around one sixth ({{US$|76}}{{nbsp}}trillion) of the {{US$|454}}{{nbsp}}trillion global wealth.<ref name="databook2023">{{Cite book |last1=Shorrocks |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.ubs.com/global/en/family-office-uhnw/reports/global-wealth-report-2023.html |title=Global Wealth Databook 2023 |last2=Davies |first2=James |last3=Lluberas |first3=Rodrigo |publisher=[[UBS]] and [[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute |year=2023 |author-link=Anthony Shorrocks |archive-date=15 August 2023 |access-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815152741/https://www.ubs.com/global/en/family-office-uhnw/reports/global-wealth-report-2023.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of the top [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue]] in 2024, 90 had their headquarters in the EU.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Global 500 2010: Countries – Australia |work=Fortune |url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/Australia.html |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217044831/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/Australia.html |archive-date=17 February 2011 |url-status=dead }} Number of companies data taken from the "Pick a country" box.</ref> In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 per cent<ref name="UNEMP">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2016 |title=Euro area unemployment rate at 10.3%, EU28 at 8.9% |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7197743/3-01032016-AP-EN.pdf/d91b795a-f165-4a39-a961-1ae07d6c4b13 |access-date=1 March 2016 |publisher=Europa web portal |format=PDF |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085747/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7197743/3-01032016-AP-EN.pdf/d91b795a-f165-4a39-a961-1ae07d6c4b13 |url-status=live }}</ref> while inflation was at 2.2 per cent, and the account balance at −0.9 per cent of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around {{Euro|25,000}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Database – Eurostat|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/labour-market/earnings/database|website=ec.europa.eu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218221034/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/labour-market/earnings/database|archive-date=18 December 2014|access-date=4 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2021.

===Economic and monetary union===
{{Main|Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union}}

{{Euro accession map}}

The [[euro]] is the official currency in 21 member states of the EU. The creation of a [[European Currency Unit|European single currency]] became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the [[Maastricht Treaty]] and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the [[Euro convergence criteria|convergence criteria]] if they wanted to join the [[Currency union|monetary union]]. The states wanting to participate had first to join the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]]. To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level, as agreed in the [[European Fiscal Pact]].

====Capital Markets Union and financial institutions====
{{Main|Capital Markets Union|European System of Financial Supervision|European Stability Mechanism}}

{{See also|European Banking Authority|European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority|European Securities and Markets Authority|Single Resolution Board}}<!-- Capital Markets Union -->
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.<ref name="Europa Single Market C">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for Capital |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_42_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518000627/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_42_en.htm |archive-date=18 May 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> Until the drive towards [[economic and monetary union]] the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

<!-- European System of Financial Supervision -->
The [[European System of Financial Supervision]] is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the [[European Banking Authority]], the [[European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority]] and the [[European Securities and Markets Authority]]. To complement this framework, there is also a [[European Systemic Risk Board]] under the responsibility of the central bank. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2010 |title=Europe seals deal on financial supervision |url=http://euobserver.com/?aid=30866 |website=euobserver.com |access-date=29 March 2011 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519181619/http://euobserver.com/?aid=30866 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Eurozone and banking union====
{{Main|Euro|Eurozone|European banking union}}

{{See also|Eurosystem|Eurogroup}}
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| image1   = Euro banknotes, Europa series.png
| width1   = 195
| alt1     = 
| caption1 = [[Euro banknotes]] from the Europa series (since 2013)
| image2   = European Central Bank Frankfurt am Main IMG 0164.jpg
| width2   = 147
| alt2     = 
| caption2 = [[European Central Bank]] in [[Frankfurt]], Germany
}}

In 1999, the currency union started to materialise through introducing a common accounting (virtual) currency in [[History of the euro|eleven of the member states]]. In 2002, it was turned into a fully-fledged conventible currency, when [[euro banknotes|euro notes]] and coins were issued, while the phaseout of national currencies in the eurozone (consisting by then of 12 member states) was initiated. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 20 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kuchler |first=Teresa |date=25 October 2006 |title=Almunia says 'undesirable' to act on Sweden's euro refusal |publisher=EUobserver.com |url=http://euobserver.com/9/22733 |access-date=26 December 2006 |archive-date=11 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211132152/http://euobserver.com/9/22733 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2009 |title=ERM II |url=http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183816/http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |archive-date=3 May 2011 |access-date=26 December 2009 |publisher=Danish Finance Ministry}}</ref>

The 20 EU member states known collectively as the [[eurozone]] have fully implemented the currency union by superseding their national currencies with the [[euro]]. The currency union represents 345{{nbsp}}million EU citizens.<ref name="Europa Internal Market" /> The euro is the second largest [[reserve currency]] as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the [[United States dollar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 December 2007 |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey 2007 |url=http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfxf07t.pdf |access-date=25 July 2009 |publisher=BIS |archive-date=5 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105085940/http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfxf07t.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Aristovnik |first1=Aleksander |last2=Čeč |first2=Tanja |date=30 March 2010 |title=Compositional Analysis of Foreign Currency Reserves in the 1999–2007 Period. The Euro vs. The Dollar As Leading Reserve Currency |url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/14350/1/MPRA_paper_14350.pdf |access-date=27 December 2010 |publisher=Munich Personal RePEc Archive, Paper No. 14350 |archive-date=25 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825103906/http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/14350/1/MPRA_paper_14350.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Boesler |first=Matthew |date=11 November 2013 |title=There Are Only Two Real Threats To The US Dollar's Status As The International Reserve Currency |work=Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/dollar-as-international-reserve-currency-2013-11 |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106044540/https://www.businessinsider.com/dollar-as-international-reserve-currency-2013-11 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the ECB.<ref name="ECB org">{{Cite web |title=ECB, ESCB and the Eurosystem |url=http://www.ecb.int/ecb/orga/escb/html/index.en.html |access-date=15 September 2007 |publisher=European Central Bank |archive-date=11 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811212456/http://www.ecb.int/ecb/orga/escb/html/index.en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls [[monetary policy]] in that area with an agenda to maintain [[price stability]]. It is at the centre of the [[Eurosystem]], which comprehends all the eurozone national central banks.<ref name="ECB org" /> The ECB is also the central institution of the [[Banking Union]] established within the eurozone, as the hub of [[European Banking Supervision]]. There is also a [[Single Resolution Mechanism]] in case of a bank default.

===Trade===
As a political entity, the European Union is represented in the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a [[single market]], and a [[European Union Customs Union|customs union]] between its member states.

====Single market====
{{Main|European single market}}

{{Further|Digital Single Market}}
[[File:EU Single Market.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|[[European Single Market]]
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|[[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]]}}
 {{Leftlegend|#a050ffff|Non-EU states which participate}}
]]

<!-- European Single Market-->
The single market involves [[European Single Market|the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU]],<ref name="Europa Internal Market" /> The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60 per cent to 70 per cent of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the [[Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006]] which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.<ref name="Europa Single Market S">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for Services |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610133514/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_19_en.htm |archive-date=10 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa}}</ref> According to the treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

====Customs union====
{{Main|European Union Customs Union}}

[[File:EU Customs Union.svg|thumb|upright=1|[[European Customs Union]]
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|[[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]]}}
 {{Leftlegend|#a050ff|Non-EU states which participate}}
]]

<!-- European Customs Union -->
The customs union involves the application of a [[common external tariff]] on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or [[import quota]]s, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]] participate in the single market but not in the customs union.<ref name="EEA">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=The European Economic Area (EEA) |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/eea/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202041812/http://eeas.europa.eu/eea/ |archive-date=2 December 2010 |access-date=10 February 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.<ref name="Europa Single Market G">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=A Single Market for goods |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_18_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621214532/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_18_en.htm |archive-date=21 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

<!-- European Union Association Agreement -->
The [[European Union Association Agreement]] does something similar for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries.
The European Union represents all its members at the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), and acts on behalf of member states in any disputes. When the EU negotiates trade related agreement outside the WTO framework, the subsequent agreement must be approved by each individual EU member state government.<ref name="Se-jeong" />

==== Competition and consumer protection ====
{{Main|European Union competition law|European consumer law}}

{{See also|European Union Intellectual Property Office}}

The EU operates a [[European Union competition law|competition policy]] intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.<ref group="lower-alpha">Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome</ref> In 2001 the commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States ([[General Electric]] and [[Honeywell]]) which had already been approved by their national authority.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2001 |title=The Commission prohibits GE's acquisition of Honeywell |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/01/939 |access-date=12 November 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=29 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229135453/http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP%2F01%2F939 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another high-profile case, [[European Union Microsoft competition case|against Microsoft]], resulted in the commission fining [[Microsoft]] over {{Euro|777}}&nbsp;million following nine years of legal action.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gow |first=David |date=22 October 2007 |title=Microsoft caves in to European Commission |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/oct/22/microsoft.microsoft |access-date=12 November 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=London |archive-date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901004115/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/oct/22/microsoft.microsoft |url-status=live }}</ref>

====External trade====
{{Main|Common Commercial Policy (EU)}}

[[File:EU FTAs.svg|thumb|EU free trade agreements
{{legend|#003399ff|European Union}}
{{legend|#007300ff|Agreement in force}}
{{legend|#22b14cff|Agreement (in part) provisionally applied}}]]

The European Union has concluded [[European Union free trade agreements|free trade agreements]] (FTAs)<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 April 2016 |title=Free trade agreements |url=http://trade.ec.europa.eu/tradehelp/free-trade-agreements |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622093930/https://trade.ec.europa.eu/tradehelp/free-trade-agreements |archive-date=22 June 2019 |access-date=22 May 2018 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agreements |url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/ |access-date=17 March 2016 |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125123927/http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/ |archive-date=25 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union's services trade surplus rose from $16 billion in 2000 to more than $250 billion in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The European Union and its trade partners {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/160/the-european-union-and-its-trade-partners |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154048/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/160/the-european-union-and-its-trade-partners |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, China became the EU's largest trading partner, displacing the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Audrye |date=May 2021 |title=How Not to Win Allies and Influence Geopolitics China's Self-Defeating Economic Statecraft |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=100 |issue=3 |archive-date=3 February 2018 |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203075842/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union is the largest exporter in the world<ref>{{Cite web |title=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004073036/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//rankorder/2078rank.html |archive-date=4 October 2008 |access-date=26 April 2011 |publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> and in 2008 was the largest importer of goods and services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World trade report 2009 |url=http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report09_e.pdf |publisher=WTO information website |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401060735/https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/anrep_e/world_trade_report09_e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EU position in world trade |url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/eu-position-in-world-trade/ |access-date=24 May 2015 |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125154443/http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/eu-position-in-world-trade/ |archive-date=25 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as [[tariff]]s and [[border control]]s. In the [[eurozone]], trade is helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst most members.<ref name="Se-jeong">{{Cite news |last=Se-jeong |first=Kim |date=19 July 2009 |title=EU-Korea FTA Will Be a Long Process: Greek Ambassador |publisher=[[The Korea Times]] |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/special/2009/07/139_48696.html |access-date=15 August 2009 |archive-date=10 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510212735/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/special/2009/07/139_48696.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Externally, the EU's free-trade agreement with [[Japan]] is perhaps its most notable one. The [[Japan–European Union relations#Political relations and agreements|EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement]] was officially signed on 17 July 2018, becoming the world's largest bilateral free trade deal when it went into effect on 1 February 2019, creating an open trade zone covering nearly one-third of global GDP.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Union and Japan to sign historic trade deal|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2018/0717/979174-eu_japan/|publisher=RTE|date=17 July 2018|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002105404/https://www.rte.ie/news/2018/0717/979174-eu_japan//|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Japan-EU trade deal 'light in darkness' amid Trump's protectionism|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/17/japan-eu-trade-deal-light-in-darkness-amid-trumps-protectionism|work=The Guardian|date=17 July 2018|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002105406/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/17/japan-eu-trade-deal-light-in-darkness-amid-trumps-protectionism/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy policy of the European Union}}

{{See also|European Union Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators}}
{{Pie chart
| caption = Total energy supply (2019)<ref name="ec.europa.eu">{{Cite book|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-key-figures/w/ks-ex-23-001|title=Key figures on the EU in the world – 2023 edition|date=20 February 2023|publisher=Publications Office of the European Union|isbn=978-92-76-61987-1|via=ec.europa.eu|archive-date=23 April 2023|access-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423061332/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-key-figures/w/ks-ex-23-001|url-status=live}}</ref>
| label1 = Oil
| value1 = 31.7
| color1 = black
| label2 = Natural gas
| value2 = 24.7
| color2 = #8B8888
| label3 = Coal
| value3 = 10.9
| color3 = #8B3333
| label4 = Nuclear
| value4 = 13.2
| color4 = #ffeeaa
| label5 = Biofuels, waste, electricity, heat
| value5 = 19.4
| color5 = #668B22
}}

The total energy supply of the EU was 59 billion [[Joule (unit)|GJ]] in 2019, about 10.2 per cent of the world total. Approximately three fifths of the energy available in the EU came from imports (mostly of fossil fuels). [[Renewable energy]] contributed 18.1 per cent of the EU's total energy supply in 2019, and 11.1 per cent of the final energy consumption.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original [[European Coal and Steel Community]]. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.<ref name="Energy Q&A">{{Cite news |date=9 March 2007 |title=Q&A: EU energy plans |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4783996.stm |access-date=13 July 2007 |archive-date=24 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224000655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4783996.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Energy Community Map.svg|thumb|left|[[Energy Community]]]]

The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the [[European Single Market|internal market]], encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia<ref name="oies">{{Cite web |last=Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff |date=November 2008 |title=Kazakhstan's Gas: Export Markets and Export Routes |url=http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf |access-date=17 November 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]] |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808170553/https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NG25-KazakhstansgasExportMarketsandExportRoutes-ShamilYenikeyeff-2008.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing [[renewable energy commercialisation]]; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.<ref name="Energy Q&A" />

In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 per cent of their oil, 57 per cent of their natural gas<ref name="low carb prop">{{Cite web |date=10 January 2007 |title='Low-carbon economy' proposed for Europe |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna16560106 |access-date=24 January 2007 |publisher=NBC News |archive-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923220546/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16560106 |url-status=live }}</ref> and 97.48 per cent of their uranium<ref name="Euratom2007">{{Cite book |title=Euratom Supply Agency – Annual Report 2007 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |year=2008 |isbn=978-92-79-09437-8 |location=Luxembourg |page=22 |chapter=EU supply and demand for nuclear fuels |quote=European uranium mining supplied just below 3% of the total EU needs, coming from the Czech Republic and Romania (a total of 526 tU). |access-date=1 March 2009 |chapter-url=http://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813025854/https://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf |url-status=live }}<br />
Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas, and coal in this respect.</ref> demands. The three largest suppliers of natural gas to the European Union are Russia, Norway and [[Algeria]], that amounted for about three quarters of the imports in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Abnett |first1=Kate |last2=Nasralla |first2=Shadia |date=17 July 2020 |title=EU's greenhouse gas strategy fails to plug methane hole |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-energy-methane-insight/eus-greenhouse-gas-strategy-fails-to-plug-methane-hole-idINKCN24I0IV |publisher=[[Reuters]] |access-date=1 May 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319073925/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-energy-methane-insight/eus-greenhouse-gas-strategy-fails-to-plug-methane-hole-idINKCN24I0IV |url-status=live }}</ref> There is a strong [[Russia in the European energy sector|dependence on Russian energy]] that the EU has been attempting to reduce.<ref name="Energy Russia">{{Cite web |last=European Parliament |title=Ukraine-Russia gas dispute – call for stronger EU energy policy |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060112STO04233&secondRef=0 |access-date=27 February 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=2 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102032928/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060112STO04233&secondRef=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In May 2022, it was reported that the European Union was preparing another sanction against Russia over its invasion of Ukraine. It is expected to target Russian oil, Russian and Belarusian banks, as well as individuals and companies. According to an article by Reuters, two diplomats stated that the European Union may impose a ban on imports of Russian oil by the end of 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 May 2022 |title=EU leans towards Russian oil ban by year-end, diplomats say |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-leans-towards-russian-oil-ban-by-year-end-diplomats-say-2022-05-01/ |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref> Also in May 2022, the [[European Commission]] published the RePowerEU initiative, a €300 billion plan outlining the path towards the end of EU dependence on Russian fossil fuels by 2030 and the acceleration on the clean energy transition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2022 |title=EU unveils €300 billion plan to reduce its energy dependency on Russia |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-unveils-300-billion-plan-to-reduce-its-energy-dependency-on-russia/a-61838801 |website=[[dw.com]]}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in the European Union}}

{{Further|Trans-European Transport Network}}
{{See also|European Union Aviation Safety Agency|European Maritime Safety Agency|European Union Agency for Railways}}
[[File:Trans-European Transport Network (2024).png|thumb|right|upright=1|Map of the [[Trans-European Transport Network]]]]

<!-- Road -->
The European Union manages cross-border road, railway, airport and water infrastructure through the [[Trans-European Transport Network]] (TEN-T), created in 1990,<ref name="Axes page 7">{{Cite web |title=timeline of TEN-T priority axes and projects as of 2005 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/transport/infrastructure/maps/doc/ten-t_pp_axes_projects_2005.pdf |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=transport.ec.europa.eu |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118010338/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/infrastructure/maps/doc/ten-t_pp_axes_projects_2005.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2011 |page=7}}</ref> and the [[Trans-European Combined Transport network]]. TEN-T comprises two network layers: the Core Network, which is to be completed by 2030; and the Comprehensive Network, which is to be completed by 2050. The network is currently made up of 9 core corridors: the [[Baltic–Adriatic Corridor]], the [[North Sea–Baltic Corridor]], the [[Mediterranean Corridor]], the [[Orient/East–Med Corridor]], the [[Scandinavian–Mediterranean Corridor]], the [[Rhine–Alpine Corridor]], the Atlantic Corridor, the [[North Sea–Mediterranean Corridor]], and the [[Rhine–Danube Corridor]]. Road transportation was organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European road network]]. [[Bundesautobahn 7]] is the longest national [[motorway]] in the EU at 963&nbsp;km (598&nbsp;mi).

<!-- Maritime -->
[[File:Port of Rotterdam Landsat 8 Photo 8 May 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Satellite photo of the [[Port of Rotterdam]]]]

Maritime transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Inland Waterway network]], and the [[Trans-European Seaport network]]. European [[seaport]]s are categorised as international, community, or regional. The [[Port of Rotterdam]] is the busiest in the EU, and the world's largest seaport outside of [[East Asia]], located in and near the city of [[Rotterdam]], in the province of [[South Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=File:Top 20 ports handling containers, 2008–2018 (thousand TEUs).png |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Top_20_ports_handling_containers,_2008-2018_(thousand_TEUs).png |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505171325/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Top_20_ports_handling_containers,_2008-2018_(thousand_TEUs).png |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[European Maritime Safety Agency]] (EMSA), founded in 2002 in [[Lisbon]], Portugal, is charged with reducing the risk of [[Shipwreck|maritime accidents]], [[marine pollution]] from ships and the [[Search and rescue|loss of human lives at sea]] by helping to enforce the pertinent EU legislation.

<!-- Air -->
Air transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Airport network]]. European [[airport]]s are categorised as international, community, or regional. The [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of [[Paris]], in France.<ref name=":FR2021">{{Cite web |title=Résultats d'activité desaéroports français 2021 |url=https://www.aeroport.fr/uploads/documents/resultats-activite-aeroports-francais-2021.pdf.pdf |language=fr |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023233243/https://www.aeroport.fr/uploads/documents/resultats-activite-aeroports-francais-2021.pdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[European Common Aviation Area]] (ECAA) is a [[single market]] in [[aviation]]. ECAA agreements were signed on 5 May 2006 in [[Salzburg]], Austria between the EU and some third countries. The ECAA liberalises the air transport industry by allowing any company from any ECAA member state to fly between any ECAA member states airports, thereby allowing a "foreign" airline to provide domestic flights. The [[Single European Sky]] (SES) is an initiative that seeks to reform the European [[air traffic management]] system through a series of actions carried out in four different levels (institutional, operational, technological and control and supervision) with the aim of satisfying the needs of the European airspace in terms of capacity, safety, efficiency and environmental impact. Civil [[aviation safety]] is under the responsibility of the [[European Union Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA). It carries out [[Type certificate|certification]], regulation and standardisation and also performs investigation and monitoring. The idea of a European-level aviation safety authority goes back to 1996, but the agency was only legally established in 2002, and began operating in 2003.

<!-- Rail -->
Rail transportation is organised under the TEN-T by the [[Trans-European Rail network]], made up of the [[Trans-European high-speed rail network|high-speed rail network]] and the [[Trans-European conventional rail network|conventional rail network]]. The [[Gare du Nord]] railway station is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of [[Paris]], in France.<ref name="SNCF">{{Cite web |title=SNCF Open Data — Fréquentation en gares |url=https://ressources.data.sncf.com/explore/dataset/frequentation-gares/table/?disjunctive.nom_gare&disjunctive.code_postal&sort=total_voyageurs_2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921142142/https://ressources.data.sncf.com/explore/dataset/frequentation-gares/table/?disjunctive.nom_gare&disjunctive.code_postal&sort=total_voyageurs_2019 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |access-date=21 September 2021 |publisher=[[SNCF]] |via=ressources.data.sncf.com – SNCF OPEN DATA |location=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name="RATP">{{Cite web |title=Trafic annuel entrant par station du réseau ferré 2019 |url=https://data.ratp.fr/explore/dataset/trafic-annuel-entrant-par-station-du-reseau-ferre-2019/table/?sort=trafic |access-date=21 September 2021 |publisher=[[RATP Group|RATP]] |via=Open Data RATP |location=Paris, France |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921142142/https://data.ratp.fr/explore/dataset/trafic-annuel-entrant-par-station-du-reseau-ferre-2019/table/?sort=trafic |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Rail transport in Europe]] is being synchronised with the [[European Rail Traffic Management System]] (ERTMS) with the goal of greatly enhancing safety, increase efficiency of train transports and enhance cross-border interoperability. This is done by replacing former national [[Railway signal|signalling]] equipment and operational procedures with a single new Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems. This system is conducted by the [[European Union Agency for Railways]] (ERA).

{{Gallery
| title = Transport documents used in the European Union
| height = 140
| align = center
| File:Croatian driving licence.jpg
| [[European driving licence]]<br />(Croatian version pictured)
<!--| File:Kentekencard voorzijde 1 december 2013.jpg
| [[European vehicle registration certificate]]<br />(Dutch version pictured)-->
| File:Slovak car registration plate 2023.jpg
| [[European vehicle registration plate]]<br />(Slovak version pictured)
| File:Scheckkartenzulassungsschein Vorderseite.jpg
| European [[vehicle registration certificate]]<br />(Austrian version pictured)
| File:2016 Karta parkingowa.jpg
| European [[disabled parking permit]]<br />(Polish version pictured)
<!--| File:Licencja maszynisty.jpg
| European [[train driver]]'s licence<br />(Polish version)
| File:Kompetenznachweis zum Führen von Drohnen in der EU (Kategorien A1 und A3) — LBA 2021.jpg
| European [[Pilot licensing and certification|drone licence]]<br />(German version)-->
}}

==== Schengen Area ====
{{Main|Schengen Area}}

[[File:Map of the Schengen Area.svg|thumb|Map of the Schengen Area
 {{Leftlegend|#003399|Schengen Area}}
 {{Leftlegend|#46a43b|Countries ''de facto'' participating}}
 {{Leftlegend|#ffd617|Members of the EU committed by treaty to join the Schengen Area in the future}}
]]

The Schengen Area is an area comprising 29 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of [[border control]] at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider [[area of freedom, security and justice]] policy of the EU, it mostly functions as a single jurisdiction under [[Visa policies in the European Union|a common visa policy]] for international travel purposes. The area is named after the 1985 [[Schengen Agreement]] and the 1990 [[Schengen Convention]], both signed in [[Schengen, Luxembourg]]. Of the 27 EU member states, 25 participate in the Schengen Area. Of the EU members that are not part of the Schengen Area, one—[[Cyprus and the European Union|Cyprus]]—is legally obligated to join the area in the future; [[Ireland and the European Union|Ireland]] maintains an [[Opt-outs in the European Union|opt-out]], and instead operates [[Visa policy of Ireland|its own visa policy]]. The four [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) member states, [[Iceland–European Union relations|Iceland]], [[Liechtenstein-European Union relations|Liechtenstein]], [[Norway-European Union relations|Norway]], and [[Switzerland-European Union relations|Switzerland]], are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Also, three [[European microstates]]—[[Monaco]], [[San Marino]] and the [[Vatican City]]—maintain open borders for passenger traffic with their neighbours, and are therefore considered de facto members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country.

===Electronic communications and space===
{{Main|Telecommunications in the European Union|European Union Space Programme}}

{{Further|European Union roaming regulations}}
{{See also|Agency for Support for BEREC|European Union Agency for the Space Programme|European Space Agency}}

Mobile communication [[European Union roaming regulations|roaming charges]] are abolished throughout the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.

[[File:Galileo Control Centre at the DLR Oberpfaffenhofen site.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] control centre in [[Oberpfaffenhofen]], Germany]]

<!-- European Union Agency for the Space Programme -->
The [[European Union Agency for the Space Programme]] (EUSPA), headquartered in [[Prague]], Czech Republic, was established in 2021 to manage the [[European Union Space Programme]] in order to implement the pre-existing ''European Space Policy'', established on 22 May 2007 between the EU and the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA), known collectively as the ''European Space Council''. This was the first common political framework for space activities established by the EU. Each member state has pursued to some extent their own national space policy, though often co-ordinating through the ESA. [[Günter Verheugen]], the [[European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry]], has stated that even though the EU is "a world leader in the technology", it was "being put on the defensive by the United States and Russia and that it only has about a 10-year technological advantage on China and India, which are racing to catch up".

<!-- Infrastructure -->
[[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] is a [[Satellite navigation|global navigation satellite system]] (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the EU through the ESA, operated by the EUSPA, with two ground operations centres in [[Fucine Lake|Fucino]], Italy, and [[Oberpfaffenhofen]], Germany. The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer [[Galileo Galilei]]. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the US [[Global Positioning System|GPS]], or the Russian [[GLONASS]] systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time. The [[European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service]] (EGNOS) is a [[satellite-based augmentation system]] (SBAS) developed by the ESA and [[EUROCONTROL]]. Currently, it supplements the GPS by reporting on the reliability and accuracy of their positioning data and sending out corrections. The system will supplement Galileo in a future version. The [[Copernicus Programme]] is the EU's Earth observation programme coordinated and managed by EUSPA in partnership with ESA. It aims at achieving a global, continuous, autonomous, high quality, wide range Earth observation capacity, providing accurate, timely and easily accessible information to, among other things, improve the management of the environment, understand and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate the effects of climate change]], and ensure civil security.

===Agriculture and fisheries===
{{Main|Common Agricultural Policy|Common Fisheries Policy}}

{{See also|European Fisheries Control Agency|European Food Safety Authority}}

[[File:European Union Exclusive Economic Zones.PNG|thumb|upright=1|The EU's [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ). At 25&nbsp;million square kilometres, it is the largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Glossary |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost_regions_en.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909000258/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/outermost_regions_en.htm |archive-date=9 September 2010 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>]]

<!-- Common Agricultural Policy -->
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the [[agricultural policy]] of the European Union. It implements a system of [[agricultural subsidies]] and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985 to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims. It has, however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost and its environmental and humanitarian effects.

<!-- Common Fisheries Policy -->
Likewise, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the [[fisheries]] policy of the European Union. It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch each type of fish, as well as encouraging the [[fishing industry]] by various market interventions and [[fishing subsidies]]. It was introduced in 2009 with the Treaty of Lisbon, which formally enshrined fisheries conservation policy as one of the handful of "exclusive competences" reserved for the European Union.

===Labour===
{{See also|European Agency for Safety and Health at Work|European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training|European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions|European Labour Authority|European Training Foundation|EURES}}

The free movement of persons means that [[Citizenship of the European Union|EU citizens]] can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.<ref name="Europa Single Market P">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=Living and working in the Single Market |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_15_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613212310/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/top_layer/index_15_en.htm |archive-date=13 June 2007 |access-date=27 June 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The EU seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 6.7 per cent in September 2018.<ref name="unemployment">{{Cite web|title=Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1|website=ec.europa.eu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211100210/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1|archive-date=11 February 2015|access-date=2 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The euro area unemployment rate was 8.1 per cent.<ref name="unemployment" /> Among the member states, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in the Czech Republic (2.3 per cent), Germany and Poland (both 3.4 per cent), and the highest in Spain (10.61 per cent in 2024)<ref>{{cite web|title=Economically Active Population Survey. Fourth Quarter 2024.|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595|website=INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística|access-date=31 January 2025|archive-date=22 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250122233832/https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&idp=1254735976595&menu=ultiDatos|url-status=live}}</ref> and Greece (9.6 per cent in November 2024).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-euro-indicators/w/3-07012025-bp|title=Euro area unemployment at 6.3%|date=7 January 2025|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=29 January 2025|archive-date=12 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250112061255/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-euro-indicators/w/3-07012025-BP|url-status=live}}</ref> The European Union has long sought to mitigate the effects of free markets by protecting workers' rights and preventing [[Social dumping|social]] and [[environmental dumping]].{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} To this end, it has adopted laws establishing minimum employment and environmental standards. These included the [[Working Time Directive]] and the [[Environmental Impact Assessment Directive 2011|Environmental Impact Assessment Directive]]. The European Directive about Minimum Wage, which looks to lift minimum wages and strengthen collective bargaining was approved by the European Parliament in September 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=EU Parliament approves Minimum Wage Directive |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/news/eu-parliament-approves-minimum-wage-directive/ |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922154515/https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/news/eu-parliament-approves-minimum-wage-directive/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Regional development===
{{Main|Regional policy of the European Union}}

{{See also|European Committee of the Regions|European Investment Bank}}

[[File:European regional policy 2021.svg|thumb|right|upright=1|Classification of regions from 2021 to 2027
 {{Leftlegend|#FF0000|Less developed regions}}
 {{Leftlegend|#FFFF00|Transition regions}}
 {{Leftlegend|#0000FF|More developed regions}}
]]

The five [[European Structural and Investment Funds]] are supporting the development of the EU regions, primarily the underdeveloped ones, located mostly in the states of [[Central Europe|central]] and southern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Select Committee on European Union |year=2008 |title=Chapter 2: The European Union Structural and Cohesion Funds |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeucom/141/14105.htm |access-date=28 February 2012 |website=Nineteenth Report |archive-date=7 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307041037/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeucom/141/14105.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Business2000 Funds">{{Cite web |title=EU Structural and Cohesion funds |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/structural_cohesion_fund_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529083348/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/structural_cohesion_fund_en.htm |archive-date=29 May 2010 |access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref> Another fund (the [[Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance]]) provides support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard. Demographic transition to a society of ageing population, low fertility-rates and depopulation of non-metropolitan regions is tackled within this policies.

==Demographics==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Demographics of the European Union}}

{{See also|European Union citizenship}}

=== Population ===
{{see|List of European Union member states by population}}
[[File:Population density by NUTS 3 region (2017).svg|thumb|right|upright=1|Map showing the population density by [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS3 region]], 2017, including non-EU countries]]

The population of the EU in 2024 was about 450&nbsp;million people, corresponding to 5.8 per cent of the world population.<ref name="Population.EU"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Share of world population, 1960, 2015 and 2060 (%) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/File:Share_of_world_population,_1960,_2015_and_2060_(%25)_2.png |access-date=28 June 2017 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=3 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903115636/http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/File:Share_of_world_population,_1960,_2015_and_2060_(%25)_2.png |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[population density]] across the EU was 106 inhabitants per square kilometre, which is more than the world average.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> It is highest in areas in central and western Europe, sometimes referred to as the "[[blue banana]]", while [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]] in the north are much more sparsely populated. The total population of the EU has been slightly decreasing for several years, contracting by 0.04 per cent in 2021.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> This is due to a low birth rate of about 1.5 children per woman, less than the world average of 2.3.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> In total, 4.1 million babies were born in the EU in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/DDN-20230309-1|title=How many children were born in the EU in 2021?|date=9 March 2023|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=23 April 2023|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423072038/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/DDN-20230309-1|url-status=live}}</ref>

Of the people residing in the EU, 5.3 per cent are not [[European Union citizenship|EU citizens]].<ref name="ec.europa.eu" /> There were 31 non-EU citizenships that each accounted for at least 1 per cent of non-EU citizens living in the EU, of which the largest were [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[Turkey|Turkish]], [[Syria]]n and [[China|Chinese]].<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> Around 1.9 million people [[Immigration to Europe|immigrated to one of the EU member states]] from a non-EU country during 2020, and a total of 956,000 people emigrated from a member state to go to a non-EU country during the same year.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/>

==== Urbanisation ====
{{See also|List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits|List of urban areas in the European Union}}
[[File:La Tour Eiffel vue de la Tour Saint-Jacques, Paris août 2014 (2).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Paris metropolitan area]] is the most populous urban area in the EU.]]

More than two thirds (68.2%) of EU inhabitants lived in [[urban area]]s in 2020, which is slightly less than the world average.<ref name="ec.europa.eu" /> Cities are largely spread out across the EU with a large grouping in and around the [[Benelux]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006 |title=Urban sprawl in Europe: The ignored challenge, European Environmental Agency |url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2006_10/eea_report_10_2006.pdf |access-date=13 October 2013 |archive-date=1 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301072908/http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2006_10/eea_report_10_2006.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over 1{{nbsp}}million. With a population of over 13 million,<ref name="paris_AAV20_pop">{{Cite web |title=Comparateur de territoire: Aire d'attraction des villes 2020 de Paris (001) |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=AAV2020-001 |access-date=10 February 2021 |publisher=INSEE |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120182725/https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=AAV2020-001 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Paris]] is the largest metropolitan area and the only [[megacity]] in the EU.<ref name="eurostat">{{Cite web |title=Eurostat – Data Explorer |url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=met_pjanaggr3&lang=en |access-date=22 November 2018 |publisher=Eurostat |archive-date=1 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101073405/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=met_pjanaggr3&lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

Paris is followed by [[Madrid]], [[Barcelona]], [[Berlin]], the [[Ruhr]], [[Milan]], and [[Rome]], all with a metropolitan population of over 4{{nbsp}}million. The EU also has numerous [[Conurbation|polycentric]] urbanised regions like [[Rhine-Ruhr]] ([[Cologne]], [[Dortmund]], [[Düsseldorf]] et al.), [[Randstad]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Utrecht]] et al.), [[Frankfurt Rhine-Main]] ([[Frankfurt]], [[Wiesbaden]], [[Mainz]] et al.), the [[Flemish Diamond]] ([[Antwerp]], [[Brussels]], [[Leuven]], [[Ghent]] et al.) and [[Upper Silesian-Moravian metropolitan area|Upper Silesian-Moravian area]] ([[Katowice]], [[Ostrava]] et al.).<ref name="eurostat" />

{{Largest population centres
| country = the European Union
| stat_ref = metropolitan regions, [[Eurostat]] 2023<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population on 1 January by broad age group, sex and metropolitan regions – Eurostat |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-datasets/-/met_pjanaggr3 |access-date=29 February 2024 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421192843/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-datasets/-/met_pjanaggr3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| list_by_pop = Larger urban zone#List of larger urban zones
| div_link = Member state of the European Union{{!}}State
| city_1 = Paris | div_1 = France | pop_1 = 12,388,388
| city_2 = Madrid | div_2 = Spain | pop_2 = 6,871,903
| city_3 = Barcelona | div_3 = Spain | pop_3 = 5,797,356
| city_4 = Berlin | div_4 = Germany | pop_4 = 5,481,613
| city_5 = Ruhr | div_5 = Germany | pop_5 = 5,147,820
| city_6 = Milan | div_6 = Italy | pop_6 = 4,329,748
| city_7 = Rome | div_7 = Italy | pop_7 = 4,227,059
| city_8 = Athens | div_8 = Greece | pop_8 = 3,626,216
| city_9 = Hamburg | div_9 = Germany | pop_9 = 3,423,121
| city_10 = Amsterdam | div_10 = Netherlands | pop_10 = 3,397,323
| city_11 = Brussels | div_11 = Belgium | pop_11 = 3,395,581
| city_12 = Warsaw | div_12 = Poland | pop_12 = 3,269,510
| city_13 = Marseille | div_13 = France | pop_13 = 3,183,476
| city_14 = Budapest | div_14 = Hungary | pop_14 = 3,031,887
| city_15 = Munich | div_15 = Germany | pop_16 = 2,981,735
| city_16 = Naples | div_16 = Italy | pop_15 = 2,980,338
| city_17 = Vienna | div_17 = Austria | pop_17 = 2,971,753
| city_18 = Lisbon | div_18 = Portugal | pop_18 = 2,899,670
| city_19 = Stuttgart | div_19 = Germany | pop_19 = 2,816,924
| city_20 = Prague | div_20 = Czech Republic| pop_20 = 2,796,717
}}

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of the European Union}}

{{See also|Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union}}

{| class="wikitable floatright mw-collapsible plainrowheaders sortable" style="border: 0.5em; font-size: 90%; line-height: 0.9em; max-width: 20em; text-align: center;"
|+ Official languages by percentage of speakers, 2023<ref name="EU-Lang">{{Cite book |last=European Commission, Directorate-General for Communication |title=Special Eurobarometer survey "Europeans and their languages" |date=2024 |publisher=Publications Office |url=https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 |access-date=19 October 2025 |doi=10.2766/28257 |isbn=978-92-68-12045-3 |archive-date=21 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521102446/https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2979 |url-status=live }}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width: 60%;" | Language
! scope="col" style="width: 20%;" | [[First language|Native speakers]]{{Efn|Native language}}
! scope="col" style="width: 20%;" | Total{{Efn|EU citizens able to hold a conversation in this language}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[German language|German]]
|19%
|29%
|-
! scope="row" | [[French language|French]]
|15%
|25%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Italian language|Italian]]
|13%
|16%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Polish language|Polish]]
|9%
|9%
|-
! scope="row" | Spanish
|9%
|17%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|5%
|6%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
|4%
|5%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Greek language|Greek]]
|3%
|3%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|3%
|3%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|2%
|3%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Czech language|Czech]]
|2%
|3%
|-
! scope="row" | English
|2%
|50%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
|2%
|2%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|2%
|3%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Danish language|Danish]]
|1%
|2%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
|1%
|1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Croatian language|Croatian]]{{Efn|Considered separate from [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian/Bosnian/Montenegrin]]}}
|1%
|1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
|1%
|1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
|1%
|2%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
|1%
|1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
|<1%
|<1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
|<1%
|<1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
|<1%
|<1%
|-
! scope="row" | [[Irish language|Irish]]
|<1%
|<1%
|}

The EU has 24 official languages: [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the [[European Parliament]] provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.<ref name="Official Languages">{{Cite web |last=EUR-Lex |date=12 December 2006 |title=Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT |access-date=2 February 2007 |website=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=6 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206002050/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |archive-date=2 February 2009 |access-date=12 October 2009 |publisher=EUROPA web portal}}</ref> Most EU institutions use only a handful of working languages: the European Commission conducts its internal business in three ''procedural languages'': English, French, and German;<ref name="procedural">{{Cite web |title=European Commission – Frequently asked questions on languages in Europe |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-825_en.htm |website=europa.eu |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=23 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723001935/http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-825_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Court of Justice of the European Union|Court of Justice]] uses French as the working language,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharpston |first=Eleanor V.E. |date=29 March 2011 |title=Appendix 5: Written Evidence of Advocate General Sharpston |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeucom/128/12816.htm |access-date=27 August 2013 |website=The Workload of the Court of Justice of the European Union |publisher=House of Lords European Union Committee |archive-date=16 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116191637/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201011/ldselect/ldeucom/128/12816.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[European Central Bank]] conducts its business primarily in English.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Buell |first=Todd |date=29 October 2014 |title=Translation Adds Complexity to European Central Bank's Supervisory Role: ECB Wants Communication in English, But EU Rules Allow Use of Any Official Language |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/translation-adds-complexity-to-european-central-banks-supervisory-role-1414580925 |access-date=11 October 2015 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425130842/http://www.wsj.com/articles/translation-adds-complexity-to-european-central-banks-supervisory-role-1414580925 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Athanassiou |first=Phoebus |date=February 2006 |title=The Application of multilingualism in the European Union Context |url=http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scplps/ecblwp2.pdf |access-date=11 October 2015 |publisher=ECB |page=26 |archive-date=10 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010085954/http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scplps/ecblwp2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though [[language policy]] is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.<ref name="art249"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=European Parliament |year=2004 |title=European Parliament Fact Sheets: 4.16.3. Language policy |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/4_16_3_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219033654/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/4_16_3_en.htm |archive-date=19 February 2007 |access-date=3 February 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

The most widely spoken language in the EU is [[English language|English]]; the language is spoken by 50 per cent of the population<ref name="EU-Lang" /> and studied by 95 per cent of school students,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Euobserver |date=27 September 2011 |title=News in Brief / English studied by 95% of EU students |url=http://euobserver.com/1016/113742 |website=EUobserver |access-date=23 April 2023 |archive-date=1 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201010028/https://euobserver.com/1016/113742 |url-status=live }}</ref> although following the [[Brexit|withdrawal of the United Kingdom]] only 2% of the population speak it natively.<ref name="EU-Lang" /> [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]] are spoken by 29 per cent and 25 per cent of the population. More than half (59 per cent) of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue, and more than a tenth (11%) are quadrilingual.<ref name="EU-Lang" />

[[Luxembourgish]] (in Luxembourg) and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (in Cyprus) are the only two national languages that are not official languages of the EU. [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Basque language|Basque]] are not recognised official languages of the EU but have official status in Spain. Therefore, official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klimczak-Pawlak |first=Agata |url={{GBurl|id=BWK4BAAAQBAJ|p=1}} |title=Towards the Pragmatic Core of English for European Communication: The Speech Act of Apologising in Selected Euro-Englishes |publisher=Springer Science & Business |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-319-03557-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2010 |title=MEPs push for EU recognition of Catalan, Welsh languages |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/languages-culture/news/meps-push-for-eu-recognition-of-catalan-welsh-languages/ |access-date=28 June 2017 |website=Euractiv |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170903120902/https://www.euractiv.com/section/languages-culture/news/meps-push-for-eu-recognition-of-catalan-welsh-languages/ |archive-date=3 September 2017 }}</ref> There are about 150 [[regional language|regional]] and [[minority language]]s in the EU, spoken by up to 50&nbsp;million people.<ref name="Many tongues, one family">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |year=2004 |title=Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union |url=http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/move/45/en.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329125431/http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/move/45/en.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2007 |access-date=3 February 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> The [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The [[European Day of Languages]] is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2001 |title=Committee of Ministers – European Year of Languages Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1539 |url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=776/7.1&Sector=secCM&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original&BackColorInternet=9999CC&BackColorIntranet=FFBB55&BackColorLogged=FFAC75%20 |access-date=26 September 2012 |publisher=Wcd.coe.int |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509105725/https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectID=09000016804ed0cf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in the European Union}}

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible plainrowheaders floatright" style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ Religious affiliation in the EU (2015)<ref name="EB2015">{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=Discrimiation in the EU in 2015 |url=http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/index.jsp?headers=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V355&V355slice=1&previousmode=table&stubs=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V10&weights=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V42&analysismode=table&study=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfStudy%2FZA6595&tabcontenttype=row&gs=362&V10slice=1&mode=table&top=yess |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314105932/https://zacat.gesis.org/webview/index.jsp?headers=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V355&V355slice=1&previousmode=table&stubs=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V10&weights=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V42&analysismode=table&study=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfStudy%2FZA6595&tabcontenttype=row&gs=362&V10slice=1&mode=table&top=yess |archive-date=14 March 2020 |access-date=15 October 2017 |website=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |series=437 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |via=[[GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences|GESIS]] |location=European Union}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Affiliation
! colspan="2" scope="colgroup" | Per cent of EU population
|-
! scope="row" | [[Christianity|Christian]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable|71.6||2||background:darkblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | [[Catholic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable|45.3||2||background:lightblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | [[Protestant]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable|11.1||2||background:lightblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | [[Eastern Orthodox]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable|9.6||2||background:lightblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | Other Christian
| align=right |{{Bartable| 5.6||2||background:lightblue}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Muslim]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable| 1.8||2||background:green}}
|-
! scope="row" | Other faiths
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable| 2.6||2||background:purple}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Irreligion|Irreligious]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable| 24.0||2||background:grey}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | Non-believer/[[Agnosticism|Agnostic]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable| 13.6||2||background:lightgrey}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent: 15px;" | [[Atheism|Atheist]]
| style="text-align: right;" | {{Bartable| 10.4||2||background:lightgrey}}
|-
|}

The EU has no formal connection to any religion. Article 17 of the [[Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union/Part_One:_Principles#Article_17 |via=Wikisource |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-date=22 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322120638/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union/Part_One:_Principles#Article_17 |url-status=live }}</ref> recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations".<ref name="Consolidated Treaties" /> The preamble to the [[Maastricht Treaty|Treaty on European Union]] mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".<ref name="Consolidated Treaties">{{Cite web |title=Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.C_.2010.083.01.0001.01.ENG&toc=OJ%3AC%3A2010%3A083%3ATOC |access-date=1 January 2022 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101220354/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.C_.2010.083.01.0001.01.ENG&toc=OJ:C:2010:083:TOC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lähdesmäki |first=Tuuli |date=2022 |title=The role of Christianity in the European Union's heritage and history initiatives |journal=[[Journal of European Studies]] |volume=52 |issue=3–4 |pages=170–186 |doi=10.1177/00472441221115571 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] included proposals to mention [[Christianity]] or a [[god]], or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.<ref name="EUO Merkel God">{{Cite news |last=Castle |first=Stephen |date=21 March 2007 |title=EU celebrates 50th birthday-with a row about religion |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/eu-celebrates-its-50th-birthday--with-a-row-about-religion-440976.html |url-status=dead |access-date=4 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405065450/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/eu-celebrates-its-50th-birthday--with-a-row-about-religion-440976.html |archive-date=5 April 2008}}</ref>

Christians in the EU include [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] of both [[Latin Church|Latin]] and [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Rite]], numerous [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations with [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Anglicans]], and [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] forming the majority of Protestant affiliations, and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In 2009, the EU had an estimated [[List of countries by Muslim population|Muslim population]] of 13&nbsp;million,<ref name="mgmpPRC">, about 3 per cent of the population, {{Cite web |title=Muslims in the European Union – Discrimination and Islamophobia |url=http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/Manifestations_EN.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722185047/http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/Manifestations_EN.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2012 |access-date=1 November 2010 |publisher=Europa |website=EUMC }}</ref> and an estimated [[Jewish population]] of over a million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/demjpop.html |title=World Jewish Population (2002) |access-date=3 May 2007 |author=Sergio DellaPergola |work=American Jewish Year Book |publisher=The Jewish Agency for Israel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222130930/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/demjpop.html |archive-date=22 December 2004 }}</ref> The other world religions of [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Sikhism]] are also represented in the EU population. [[Eurostat]]'s [[Eurobarometer]] opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 per cent of EU citizens believed in a god, 27 per cent in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18 per cent had no form of belief.<ref name="Eurostat Religion">{{Cite journal |last=Eurostat |author-link=Eurostat |date= June 2005 |title=Social values, Science and Technology |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Special Eurobarometer 225 |publisher=Europa |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 |access-date=11 June 2009}}</ref>

Into the 21st century, many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership.<ref name="About SecE">{{Cite news |last=Ford |first=Peter |date=22 February 2005 |title=What place for God in Europe |work=USA Today |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm |agency=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=24 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831045337/https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-21-god-europe_x.htm |archive-date= 31 August 2010 }}</ref> The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 per cent) and the Czech Republic (19 per cent).<ref name="Eurostat Religion" /> The most religious countries were Malta (95 per cent, predominantly Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90 per cent of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale".<ref name="Eurostat Religion" />

===Education and research===
{{Main|Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union|Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development}}

{{See also|European Institute of Innovation and Technology}}

[[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[Erasmus|Erasmus of Rotterdam]], the [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanist]] after whom the [[Erasmus Programme]] is named]]

Basic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the [[Erasmus Programme]], a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20&nbsp;years, it supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5&nbsp;million university and college students and became a symbol of European student life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=The Erasmus programme celebrates its 20th anniversary |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/erasmus20_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703000422/http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/erasmus20_en.html |archive-date=3 July 2007 |access-date=21 July 2007 |publisher=Europa – Education and Training |postscript=;}} {{cite web|url=http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/19702/erasmus-turns-20-time-to-grow-up.html|title=Erasmus turns 20 – time to grow up?|last=Jean-Sébastien|first=Lefebvre|date=22 January 2007|publisher=Café Babel|access-date=10 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912002728/http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/19702/erasmus-turns-20-time-to-grow-up.html|archive-date=12 September 2010|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in [[vocational education|vocational education and training]], and for adult learners in the [[Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013]]. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency of the European Commission |url=http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429185547/http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index.htm |archive-date=29 April 2015 |access-date=21 July 2007 |publisher=Europa |date= 24 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=Lifelong Learning Programme |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/national_en.html |access-date=21 July 2007 |publisher=Europa – Education and Training |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815214706/http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/national_en.html |archive-date= 15 August 2007 }}</ref> Through its support of the [[Bologna Process]], the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe. Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's [[Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development|Framework Programmes]], the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent [[European Research Council]] allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.<ref>{{Cite web |last=European Research Council |title=Mission – What is the ERC? |url=http://erc.europa.eu/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.display&topicID=12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813041547/http://erc.europa.eu/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.display&topicID=12 |archive-date=13 August 2011 |access-date=21 July 2007 |publisher=Europa |date=15 April 2008 }}</ref> EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of [[renewable energy]] to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.<ref>{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=Cooperation: Energy – FP7 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/index_en.cfm?pg=energy |access-date=12 November 2007 |publisher=Europa |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080302114200/http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/index_en.cfm?pg=energy |archive-date= 2 March 2008 }}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Healthcare in Europe}}

{{See also|European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control|European Chemicals Agency|European Medicines Agency|European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction}}

Article 35 of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The [[European Commission]]'s [[Directorate-General for Health and Consumers (European Commission)|Directorate-General for Health and Consumers]] seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our vision |url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/about_us/our_vision_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112200650/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/about_us/our_vision_en.htm |archive-date=12 November 2010 |access-date=26 November 2010 |website=Directorate General for Health & Consumers |publisher=Europa }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Directorate General for Health & Consumers |url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111154145/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/index_en.htm |archive-date=11 November 2010 |access-date=26 November 2010 |website=Europa }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2010 |title=Health-EU Portal |url=http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/index_en.htm |access-date=26 November 2010 |website=Europa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130120219/http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/index_en.htm |archive-date= 30 November 2010 }}</ref>

All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free [[European Health Insurance Card]] which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2010 |title=info about health care and EHIC |url=http://www.nhs.uk/nhsengland/Healthcareabroad/pages/Healthcareabroad.aspx |access-date=26 November 2010 |publisher=Nhs.uk |archive-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125191700/http://www.nhs.uk/nhsengland/Healthcareabroad/pages/Healthcareabroad.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consilium.europa.eu |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/lsa/119514.pdf |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-date=12 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512041808/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/lsa/119514.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eur-lex.europa.eu |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:088:0045:0065:EN:PDF |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-date=25 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425062151/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:088:0045:0065:EN:PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 May 2011 |title=NHSconfed.org |url=http://www.nhsconfed.org/Publications/Factsheets/Pages/Cross-border-healthcare-commissioners.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728184655/http://www.nhsconfed.org/Publications/Factsheets/Pages/Cross-border-healthcare-commissioners.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2013 |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=NHSconfed.org}}</ref>

The life expectancy in the EU was 80.1 year at birth in 2021, among the highest in the world and around nine years higher than the world average.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/> In general, life expectancy is lower in [[Eastern Europe]] than in [[Western Europe]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=In Europe, life expectancy is lower in the east |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/09/24/in-europe-life-expectancy-is-lower-in-the-east |archive-date=19 April 2021 |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419201251/https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/09/24/in-europe-life-expectancy-is-lower-in-the-east |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, the EU region with the highest life expectancy was [[Comunidad de Madrid|Madrid]], Spain at 85.2 years, followed by the Spanish regions of [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]] and [[Castilla y León]] both at 84.3 years, [[Trentino]] in Italy at 84.3 years and [[Île-de-France]] in France at 84.2 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Life expectancy: Are you in one of the top 5 regions? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/DDN-20181026-1 |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024175420/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/DDN-20181026-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Social rights and equality ===
{{Main|European social model|European Social Fund Plus|Welfare State|European Social Charter|European Voluntary Service|European labour law|List of countries by guaranteed minimum income|European Pillar of Social Rights|List of European Union member states by minimum wage}}

The EU has also sought to coordinate the social security and health systems of member states to facilitate individuals exercising free movement rights and to ensure they maintain their ability to access social security and health services in other member states. Since 2019 there has been a European commissioner for equality and the [[European Institute for Gender Equality]] has existed since 2007. A Directive on countering gender-based violence has been proposed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 September 2022 |title=EU-wide effort on gender-based violence taking shape, but gaps remain |work=euronews |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/09/21/an-eu-wide-approach-to-gender-based-violence-is-taking-shape-but-gaps-remain |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922211901/https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/09/21/an-eu-wide-approach-to-gender-based-violence-is-taking-shape-but-gaps-remain |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=A first insight into the EU proposal for a Directive on countering violence against women and domestic violence |url=https://www.ejiltalk.org/a-first-insight-into-the-eu-proposal-for-a-directive-on-countering-violence-against-women-and-domestic-violence/ |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922211903/https://www.ejiltalk.org/a-first-insight-into-the-eu-proposal-for-a-directive-on-countering-violence-against-women-and-domestic-violence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2022, a European Care strategy was approved in order to provide "quality, affordable and accessible care services".<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2022 |title=Questions and Answers: European Care Strategy |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_22_5168 |access-date=23 September 2022 |website=European Commission |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006152629/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_22_5168 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[European Social Charter]] is the main body that recognises the social rights of European citizens. In 2020, the first ever European Union Strategy on LGBTIQ equality was approved under [[Helena Dalli]] mandate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 November 2020 |title=Union of Equality: The Commission presents its first-ever strategy on LGBTIQ equality in the EU |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2068 |website=[[European Commission]] |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613190726/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2068 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2021, the commission announced the intention of codifying a union-wide law against LGBT hate crimes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2021 |title=La Comisión Europea propone ampliar la lista de delitos de la Unión Europea para incluir los delitos de odio |trans-title=The European Commission proposes to extend the list of crimes of the European Union to include hate crimes |url=https://kifkif.info/la-comision-europea-propone-ampliar-la-lista-de-delitos-de-la-union-europea-para-incluir-los-delitos-de-odio/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220174010/https://kifkif.info/la-comision-europea-propone-ampliar-la-lista-de-delitos-de-la-union-europea-para-incluir-los-delitos-de-odio/ |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=kifkif.info |language=es}}</ref>

===Freedom, security and justice===
{{Main|Area of freedom, security and justice}}

{{Further|Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union}}
{{See also|eu-LISA|Eurojust|European Institute for Gender Equality|European Union Agency for Asylum|European Union Agency for Cybersecurity|European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training|Europol|Frontex|Fundamental Rights Agency}}

[[File:04CFREU-Article2-Crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] contains a wide range of political, social, and economic rights for EU citizens.]]

Since the creation of the European Union in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs; initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. Accordingly, the union has legislated in areas such as [[European Arrest Warrant|extradition]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=European arrest warrant replaces extradition between EU Member States |url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/extradition/fsj_criminal_extradition_en.htm |access-date=4 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620092959/http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/extradition/fsj_criminal_extradition_en.htm |archive-date=20 June 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> family law,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and in matters of parental responsibility (Brussels II) |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/judicial_cooperation_in_civil_matters/l33194_en.htm |access-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=20 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220222749/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/judicial_cooperation_in_civil_matters/l33194_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> asylum law,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minimum standards on the reception of applicants for asylum in Member States |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/free_movement_of_persons_asylum_immigration/l33150_en.htm |access-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=22 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100222012343/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/free_movement_of_persons_asylum_immigration/l33150_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and criminal justice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Specific Programme: 'Criminal Justice' |url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/judicial_cooperation_in_criminal_matters/l10110_en.htm |access-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-date=23 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723184043/http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/judicial_cooperation_in_criminal_matters/l10110_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The EU has also established agencies to co-ordinate police, prosecution and civil litigations across the member states: [[Europol]] for police co-operation, [[CEPOL]] for training of police forces<ref>{{Cite web |title=European police office now in full swing |url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/police/europol/fsj_police_europol_en.htm |access-date=4 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620025652/http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/police/europol/fsj_police_europol_en.htm |archive-date=20 June 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Eurojust]] for co-operation between prosecutors and courts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eurojust coordinating cross-border prosecutions at EU level |url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/eurojust/fsj_criminal_eurojust_en.htm |access-date=4 September 2007 |publisher=Europa web portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060717205555/http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/criminal/eurojust/fsj_criminal_eurojust_en.htm |archive-date=17 July 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> It also operates the [[EUCARIS]] database of vehicles and drivers, the [[Eurodac]], the [[European Criminal Records Information System]], the [[European Cybercrime Centre]], [[FADO]], [[Public Register of Travel and Identity Documents Online|PRADO]] and others.

Prohibitions against discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.<ref name="art2(7) Amsterdam" group="lower-alpha">See Article 2 (7) of the [[Amsterdam Treaty]] on [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/htm/11997D.html#0001010001 eur-lex.europa.eu]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217024604/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/htm/11997D.html#0001010001|date=17 February 2008}}.</ref> The treaties declare that the European Union itself is "founded on the values of respect for [[human dignity]], [[liberty|freedom]], democracy, [[equality before the law|equality]], the [[rule of law]] and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to [[minority group|minorities]]&nbsp;... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."<ref>[[wikisource:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title I: Common Provisions#Article_2|Article 2, Treaty on European Union (consolidated 1 December 2009)]]</ref> By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on [[sexism]] in the work-place, [[ageism|age discrimination]], and [[racism|racial discrimination]].<ref group="lower-alpha">Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19 July 2000, pp. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2 December 2000, pp. 16–22).</ref>

In 2009, the [[Lisbon Treaty]] gave legal effect to the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]]. The charter is a codified catalogue of [[fundamental right]]s against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states".<ref>Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel; Article 6(2) of the Maastricht Treaty (as amended).</ref> The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.<ref name="europarl-rights">{{Cite web |title=Respect for fundamental rights in the EU – general development |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/2_1_1_en.htm |access-date=6 September 2008 |website=European Parliament Fact Sheets |publisher=The [[European Parliament]] |archive-date=5 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205003552/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/2_1_1_en.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Signing the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership.<ref group="lower-alpha">And is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria. [http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1610.htm Assembly.coe.int.] This is a political and not a legal requirement for membership. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626175941/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta08%2FERES1610.htm|date=26 June 2008}}.</ref> Previously, the EU itself could not accede to the convention as it is neither a state<ref group="lower-alpha">The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the [[Council of Europe]] ([http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm Article 59.1 of the Convention] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925202931/http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm |date=25 September 2015 }}), and even now only states may become member of the Council of Europe ([http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/001.htm Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107082603/https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/001 |date=7 January 2019 }}).</ref> nor had the competence to accede.<ref group="lower-alpha">Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61994V0002:FR:NOT 1996 E.C.R. I-1759] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427104214/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61994V0002:FR:NOT |date=27 April 2011 }} (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.</ref> The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the convention while the latter formally permits it.

The EU is independent from the Council of Europe, although they share purpose and ideas, especially on the rule of law, human rights and democracy. Furthermore, the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] and [[European Social Charter]], as well as the [[source of law]] for the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union|Charter of Fundamental Rights]] are created by the Council of Europe. The EU has also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Policy on Death Penalty |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/human_rights/adp/index_en.htm |access-date=4 June 2013 |website=Europa |publisher=European Union External Action Service |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218014124/http://eeas.europa.eu/human_rights/adp/index_en.htm |archive-date=18 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 19 October 2020, the European Union revealed new plans to create a legal structure to act against [[human rights violations]] worldwide. The new plan was expected to provide the European Union with greater flexibility to target and sanction those responsible for serious human rights violations and abuses around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Europe Unveils New Sanctions Plan for Human Rights Violations |url=https://news.bloombergtax.com/international-trade/europe-unveils-new-sanctions-plan-for-human-rights-violations |access-date=19 October 2020 |website=Bloomberg Tax |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027170456/https://news.bloombergtax.com/international-trade/europe-unveils-new-sanctions-plan-for-human-rights-violations |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Gallery
| title = Examples of identity, travel and health documents used in the EU
| align = center
| File:Personalausweis Vorderseite (2024).png
| [[European Union national identity cards|EU national identity card]]<br />(German version pictured (2024))
| File:Schengen uniform visa format Germany 2018.png
| [[Visa policy of the Schengen Area|Schengen visa]]<br />(German version)
| File:Eirepas.JPG
| A [[Passports of the European Union|passport]], displaying the name of the member state, the national [[coat of arms]] and the words "European Union" given in their official language(s)<br />(Irish version pictured)
| File:EHIC Slovenia.jpg
| [[European Health Insurance Card]]<br />(Slovenian version pictured)
}}

{{Clear}}

==Culture==
<!--Section named and ordered by WikiProject Countries-->
{{Main|Cultural policies of the European Union}}

Cultural co-operation between member states has been an interest of the European Union since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.<ref name="Bozoki">{{Cite web |last=Bozoki |first=Andras |title=Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union |url=http://www.ecoc-doc-athens.eu/attachments/1249_Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union_speech_Bozoki_Andras.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222205051/http://www.ecoc-doc-athens.eu/attachments/1249_Cultural%20Policy%20and%20Politics%20in%20the%20European%20Union_speech_Bozoki_Andras.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2013 |access-date=4 June 2013 |publisher=Cultural Policy and Politics in the European Union.pdf}}</ref> Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the [[Culture 2000]] seven-year programme,<ref name="Bozoki" /> the [[European Cultural Month]] event,<ref name="Culture Month">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=European Culture Month |url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/ecocs/present_cap/retrospective_en.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202062436/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/ecocs/present_cap/retrospective_en.html |archive-date=2 February 2008 |access-date=27 February 2008 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref> and orchestras such as the [[European Union Youth Orchestra]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=An Overture to the European Union Youth Orchestra |url=http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611140551/http://www.euyo.org.uk/about/history.htm |archive-date=11 June 2007 |access-date=12 August 2007 |publisher=The European Youth Orchestra}}</ref> The [[European Capital of Culture]] programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the [[Sociocultural evolution|cultural development]] of that city.<ref name="Capital Culture">{{Cite web |last=European Commission |title=European Capitals of Culture |url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803205745/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/doc413_en.htm |archive-date=3 August 2010 |publisher=Europa web portal}}</ref>

===Sport===
{{Main|Sport policies of the European Union}}

Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. There are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the [[Bosman ruling]] that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU member state citizenship.<ref name="BBC Boseman">{{Cite news |last=Fordyce |first=Tom |date=11 July 2007 |title=10&nbsp;years since Bosman |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/4528732.stm |access-date=13 July 2007 |archive-date=9 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309161200/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/4528732.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Treaty of Lisbon]] requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity.<ref>Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08, Opinion of Advocate General Kokott, para 207</ref> This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the [[International Olympic Committee]] and [[FIFA]], due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.<ref name="IHT RT">{{Cite news |date=19 October 2007 |title=IOC, FIFA presidents welcomes new EU treaty, call it breakthrough to give sports more power |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/19/sports/EU-SPT-OLY-EU-Treaty.php |url-status=dead |access-date=21 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201201945/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/10/19/sports/EU-SPT-OLY-EU-Treaty.php |archive-date=1 December 2008}}</ref> The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2011 |title=Sports coaches from Israel travel to UK for training |url=http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/israel/press_corner/all_news/news/2011/20110329_01_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425235908/http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/israel/press_corner/all_news/news/2011/20110329_01_en.htm |archive-date=25 April 2013 |access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Eeas.europa.eu}}</ref>

===Symbols===
{{Further|European Heritage Label}}
[[File:Europa copy.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] and the Bull on a Greek vase, {{Circa|480 BC}}. [[Tarquinia National Museum]], Italy.]]

The [[flag of Europe]] consists of a [[Circle of stars|circle of]] 12 golden stars on a blue background. Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the [[European Communities]], the predecessors of the present European Union, in 1986. The Council of Europe gave the flag a symbolic description in the following terms,<ref name="36th">{{Cite web |date=9 December 1955 |title=Thirty-sixth meeting of the ministers' deputies: resolution (55) 32 |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dgal/dit/ilcd/fonds/themes/flags/Res(55)32_en.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528195931/http://www.coe.int/t/dgal/dit/ilcd/Fonds/Themes/Flags/Res%2855%2932_en.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2009 |access-date=2 February 2008 |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref> although the official symbolic description adopted by the EU omits the reference to the "Western world".<ref name="1996guide">{{in lang|fr}} ''[https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/guide_graphique_relatif_a_l_embleme_europeen_1996-fr-93eedaa0-b431-4ca8-ac7b-113ca01c0395.html Guide graphique relatif à l'emblème européen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609114155/https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/guide_graphique_relatif_a_l_embleme_europeen_1996-fr-93eedaa0-b431-4ca8-ac7b-113ca01c0395.html |date=9 June 2021 }}'' (1996), p. 3: ''Description symbolique: Sur le fond bleu du ciel, les étoiles figurant les peuples d'Europe forment un cercle en signe d'union. Elles sont au nombre invariable de douze, symbole de la perfection et de la plénitude''...''Description héraldique: Sur fond azur, un cercle composé de douze étoiles d'or à cinq rais, dont les pointes ne se touchent pas''. cf. {{Cite web |title=Graphical specifications for the European Emblem |url=http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/graphics1_en.htm#symbol |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060622134708/http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/graphics1_en.htm#symbol |archive-date=22 June 2006 |access-date=4 August 2004 |publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|European Commission]] }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Against the blue sky of the Western world, the stars symbolise the peoples of Europe in a form of a circle, the sign of union. The number of stars is invariably [[12 (number)#Religion|twelve]], the figure twelve being the symbol of perfection and entirety.|Council of Europe. Paris, 7–9 December 1955.|source=}}

''[[Motto of the European Union|United in Diversity]]'' was adopted as the motto of the union in 2000, having been selected from [[A motto for Europe|proposals]] submitted by school pupils.{{sfn|Simons|2002|page=110}} Since 1985, the [[flag day]] of the union has been [[Europe Day]], on 9 May (the date of the 1950 [[Schuman declaration]]). The [[Anthem of Europe|anthem of the EU]] is an instrumental version of the prelude to the ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', the 4th movement of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|ninth symphony]]. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Council of Europe |url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/home |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091219175535/http://www.coe.int/T/E/Com/About_Coe/emblems/emblemes.asp |archive-date=19 December 2009 |website=www.coe.int}}</ref>
Besides naming the continent, the [[Greek mythology|Greek mythological]] figure of [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] has frequently been employed as a [[National personification|personification]] of Europe. Known from the myth in which [[Zeus]] seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the EU's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of [[euro banknotes]]. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.{{sfn|Demey|2007|page=387}}

[[Charlemagne|Charles the Great]], also known as Charlemagne ({{langx|la|Carolus Magnus}}) and later recognised as ''Pater Europae'' ("Father of Europe"),<ref name="ReferenceB">Riché, Preface xviii, Pierre Riché reflects: "[H]e enjoyed an exceptional destiny, and by the length of his reign, by his conquests, legislation and legendary stature, he also profoundly marked the history of Western Europe."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Der Karlspreisträger Seine Heiligkeit Papst Johannes Paul II. außerordentlicher Karlspreis 2004 |url=http://www.karlspreis.de/preistraeger/seine_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii/ansprache_von_seiner_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117151907/http://www.karlspreis.de/preistraeger/seine_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii/ansprache_von_seiner_heiligkeit_papst_johannes_paul_ii.html |archive-date=17 January 2012 |access-date=1 January 2012 |publisher=Karlspreis.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chamberlin |first=Russell |title=The Emperor Charlemagne |publisher=[[The History Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7509-3482-4 |location=[[Stroud]], [[Gloucestershire]]}}</ref> has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The commission has named [[Charlemagne building|one of its central buildings]] in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of [[Aachen]] has since 1949 awarded the [[Charlemagne Prize]] to champions of European unification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Laureates |url=http://www.karlspreis.de/en/laureates |access-date=12 February 2016 |website=karlspreis.de}}</ref> Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the [[European Charlemagne Youth Prize|Charlemagne Youth Prize]] in recognition of similar efforts led by young people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Winners 2015 |url=http://www.charlemagneyouthprize.eu/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212170932/http://www.charlemagneyouthprize.eu/ |archive-date=12 December 2015 |access-date=12 February 2016 |website=charlemagneyouthprize.eu}}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{Main|Media freedom in the European Union|European Broadcasting Union|Censorship in the European Union}}

[[File:Siège d'Euronews.jpg|thumb|left|[[Euronews]] headquarters in [[Lyon]], France]]

[[Media freedom]] is a [[Fundamental rights|fundamental right]] that applies to all [[Member state of the European Union|member states]] of the European Union and its [[EU citizens|citizens]], as defined in the [[EU Charter of Fundamental Rights]] as well as the [[European Convention on Human Rights]].<ref name="eprs">Maria Poptcheva, [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-554214-Press-freedom-in-the-EU-FINAL.pdf Press freedom in the EU Legal framework and challenges], EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service, Briefing April 2015</ref>{{rp|1}} Within the [[EU enlargement]] process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Neighbourhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations |url=http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/policy/policy-highlights/media-freedom/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124161814/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/policy/policy-highlights/media-freedom/index_en.htm |archive-date=24 January 2016 |access-date=8 February 2016 |publisher=European Commission }}</ref>

The majority of media in the European Union are national-orientated, although some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as [[Euronews]], [[Eurosport]], [[EUobserver]], [[EURACTIV]] or [[Politico Europe]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mollin |first=Sandra |title=Euro-English : assessing variety status |publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-8233-6250-0 |location=Tübingen |pages=56 |oclc=804963256}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=2018 EU Media Survey |url=http://www.comresglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Final_Presentation_BM.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203103312/http://comresglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Final_Presentation_BM.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2021 |access-date=21 July 2020 |publisher=[[ComRes]]/[[Burson-Marsteller]]}}</ref> [[Arte]] is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80 per cent of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the [[European Economic Interest Grouping]] ''ARTE GEIE'' and the channel's European partners.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How is ARTE funded? |url=http://www.arte.tv/sites/en/corporate/qui-sommes-nous-cluster/publications/?lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428061038/http://www.arte.tv/sites/en/corporate/qui-sommes-nous-cluster/publications/?lang=en |archive-date=28 April 2016 |access-date=26 June 2016 |publisher=ARTE Entreprise}}</ref> The [[MEDIA Programme]] of the European Union has supported the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media Programme |url=http://ec.europa.eu/culture/media/about/index_en.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621054048/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/media/about/index_en.htm |archive-date=21 June 2013 |access-date=13 June 2013 |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission}}</ref>

===Influence===
[[File:Eiffel Tower wearing Europe colors - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Flag of Europe|European emblem]] emblazoned on the [[Eiffel Tower]]]]

The European Union has had a significant positive economic effect on most member states.<ref name="JoME" /> According to a 2019 study of the member states who joined from 1973 to 2004, "without European integration, per capita incomes would have been, on average, approximately 10% lower in the first ten years after joining the EU".<ref name="JoME">{{Cite journal |last1=Campos |first1=Nauro F. |last2=Coricelli |first2=Fabrizio |last3=Moretti |first3=Luigi |date=1 May 2019 |title=Institutional integration and economic growth in Europe |journal=Journal of Monetary Economics |volume=103 |pages=88–104 |doi=10.1016/j.jmoneco.2018.08.001 |issn=0304-3932 |doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/342557 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Greece was the exception reported by the study, which analysed up to 2008, "to avoid confounding effects from the global financial crisis".<ref name="JoME" /> A 2021 study in the ''Journal of Political Economy'' found that the 2004 enlargement had aggregate beneficial economic effects on all groups in both the old and new member states. The largest winners were the new member states, in particular unskilled labour in the new member states.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caliendo |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Parro |first2=Fernando |last3=Opromolla |first3=Luca David |last4=Sforza |first4=Alessandro |date=2021 |title=Goods and Factor Market Integration: A Quantitative Assessment of the EU Enlargement |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/716560 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=129 |issue=12 |pages=3491–3545 |doi=10.1086/716560 |issn=0022-3808 |s2cid=240811706|hdl=10419/171064 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The European Union is frequently cited as having made a major contribution to peace in Europe, in particular by pacifying border disputes,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diez |first1=Thomas |last2=Stetter |first2=Stephan |last3=Albert |first3=Mathias |date=July 2006 |title=The European Union and Border Conflicts: The Transformative Power of Integration |journal=International Organization |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=563–593 |doi=10.1017/S0020818306060218 |doi-broken-date=18 May 2026 |issn=1531-5088 |s2cid=102491575 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615073651/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/european-union-and-border-conflicts-the-transformative-power-of-integration/24E6AEDACDF4D6245125E43D1087B7D7 |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818306060218 |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 April 2026 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/european-union-and-border-conflicts/A266F908B4C67C91C17F511DD9BB9AF3 |title=The European Union and Border Conflicts: The Power of Integration and Association |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge Core |isbn=978-0-511-49133-7 |editor-last=Diez |editor-first=Thomas |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511491337 |access-date=19 December 2019 |editor-last2=Albert |editor-first2=Mathias |editor-last3=Stetter |editor-first3=Stephan}}</ref> and to the spread of democracy, especially by encouraging democratic reforms in aspiring Eastern European member states after the collapse of the USSR.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poast |first1=Paul |last2=Chinchilla |first2=Alexandra |date=2020 |title=Good for democracy? Evidence from the 2004 NATO expansion |journal=International Politics |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=471–490 |doi=10.1057/s41311-020-00236-6 |issn=1740-3898 |s2cid=219012478}}</ref><ref name="Risse-2009" /> Scholar [[Thomas Risse]] wrote in 2009, "there is a consensus in the literature on Eastern Europe that the EU membership perspective had a huge anchoring effects for the new democracies."<ref name="Risse-2009">{{Cite book |last=Risse |first=Thomas |url=https://archive.org/details/promotingdemocra00mage |title=Promoting Democracy and the Rule of Law: American and European Strategies |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-24452-8 |editor-last=Magen |editor-first=Amichai |series=Governance and Limited Statehood Series |pages=[https://archive.org/details/promotingdemocra00mage/page/n262 244]–271 |chapter=Conclusions: Towards Transatlantic Democracy Promotion? |doi=10.1057/9780230244528_9 |editor-last2=Risse |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-last3=McFaul |editor-first3=Michael A. |url-access=limited}}</ref> However, [[R. Daniel Kelemen]] argues that the EU has proved beneficial to leaders who are overseeing [[democratic backsliding]], as the EU is reluctant to intervene in domestic politics, gives authoritarian governments funds which they can use to strengthen their regimes, and because [[European single market#People|freedom of movement within the EU]] allows dissenting citizens to leave their backsliding countries. At the same time, the union might provide through [[Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union]] an external constraint that prevents [[electoral autocracy|electoral autocracies]], currently Hungary,<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2022-0217_EN.html |title=INTERIM REPORT on the proposal for a Council decision determining, pursuant to Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union, the existence of a clear risk of a serious breach by Hungary of the values on which the Union is founded |last=Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs |date=25 July 2022 |publisher=European Parliament}}</ref> from progressing into [[autocracy|closed autocracies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelemen |first=R. Daniel |date=3 March 2020 |title=The European Union's authoritarian equilibrium |journal=Journal of European Public Policy |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=481–499 |doi=10.1080/13501763.2020.1712455 |issn=1350-1763 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Opt-outs==
{{main|Opt-outs in the European Union}}

Three member states have permanent opt-outs from certain aspects of the union: 
*Denmark has an opt-out from the [[eurozone]] and the [[area of freedom, security and justice]] (AFSJ);
* Ireland has an opt-out of the [[Schengen area]], due to its [[Common Travel Area|open border with the UK]], and a partial opt-out from the AFSJ
* Poland has a partial opt-out of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights]].

==See also==
{{Portal|European Union|Europe}}
* {{anl|African Union}}
* [[Brussels and the European Union]]
* {{anl|Euroscepticism}}
* [[List of country groupings]]
* {{anl|List of multilateral free-trade agreements}}
* {{anl|Outline of the European Union}}
* {{anl|Pan-European nationalism}}
* [[Special territories of members of the European Economic Area]]
* {{anl|Wojciech Jastrzębowski}}, who in 1831, after fighting in Poland's [[November Uprising|November 1830 Uprising]] against Russia, drafted the first constitution for his proposed European union

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha|30em|refs=}}

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Citation |last=Alemanno |first=Alberto |title=The Law and Governance of the EU Public Ethics System|date=2025 |series=Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80372-7 |access-date=2026-03-04 |place=Cham |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Cham |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-80372-7 |isbn=978-3-031-80371-0|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Paul |title=EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials |last2=De Burca |first2=Grainne |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-957699-9 |edition=5th |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Demey |first=Thierry |title=Brussels, capital of Europe |publisher=Badeaux |others=S. Strange (trans.) |year=2007 |isbn=978-2-9600414-6-0 |location=Brussels}}
* {{Cite book |title=Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-84971-469-3 |editor-last=Jordan |editor-first=A.J. |edition=3rd |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]] |editor-last2=Adelle |editor-first2=Camilla}}
* {{cite web|title=New EU interinstitutional body for ethical standards |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2024/762397/EPRS_BRI(2024)762397_EN.pdf |first1=Silvia |last1=Kotanidis |first2=Titouan |last2=Faucheux |publisher=[[European Parliamentary Research Service|EPRS]] |year=2024}}
* {{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |title=The European superpower |date=2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-9845-3 |oclc=71266552 |author-link=John McCormick (Jean Monnet Chair)}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.lgdj.fr/le-mediateur-europeen-9782802775270.html |title=Le médiateur européen |trans-title=The European Ombudsman|first=Martin |last=Martinez Navarro |isbn=978-2-8027-7527-0 |language=fr-FR |date=2025-04-17}}
* {{Cite book |last=Piris |first=Jean-Claude |title=The Lisbon Treaty: A Legal and Political Analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-19792-2 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |title=EuroDiversity |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-87719-381-4 |editor-last=Simons |editor-first=George F. |location=Abingdon-on-Thames}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalrel00wilk_012 |title=International Relations: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-280157-9 |edition=1st |location=Oxford |url-access=limited}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=M. |title=Frontiers of the European Union |last2=Bort |first2=E. |date=2001 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-50797-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barnard |first=Catherine |title=The Substantive Law of the EU: The four freedoms |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-956224-4 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |author-link=Catherine Barnard}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/europeanunionhow0000unse |title=The European Union: How Does it Work? (New European Union) |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-957080-5 |editor-last=Bomberg |editor-first=Elizabeth |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Peterson |editor-first2=John |editor-last3=Corbett |editor-first3=Richard |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Ivan T. |title=The Contemporary Crisis of the European Union: Prospects for the Future |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-138-24419-1 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bretherton |first1=Charlotte |title=The European Union as a Global Actor |last2=Vogler |first2=John |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-45882-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Cini |first1=Michelle |title=European Union Politics |last2=Borragán |first2=Nieves Pérez-Solórzano |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-880653-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Corbett |first1=Richard |title=The European Parliament |last2=Jacobs |first2=Francis |last3=Shackleton |first3=Michael |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|John Harper Publishing]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-9564508-5-2 |edition=8th |location=London |author-link2=Francis Jacobs}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing Europe's Role in the World |publisher=[[Brookings Institution|Brookings Institution Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8157-2252-6 |editor-last=Federiga |editor-first=Bindi |edition=2nd |location=Washington, DC}}
* {{Cite book |title=The European Union – A Global Actor? |publisher=Barbara Budrich Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-8474-0040-0 |editor-last=Gareis |editor-first=Sven |location=Leverkusen, Germany |editor-last2=Hauser |editor-first2=Gunther |editor-last3=Kernic |editor-first3=Franz}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Grinin |first1=L. |title=Economic Cycles, Crises, and the Global Periphery |last2=Korotayev |first2=A. |last3=Tausch |first3=A. |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2016 |isbn=978-3-319-17780-9 |location=Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Erik |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Union |last2=Anand |first2=Menon |last3=Weatherill |first3=Stephen |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-954628-2 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaiser |first=Wolfram |title=Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-511-49705-6 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kaiser |first1=Wolfram |title=European Union History: Themes and Debates |last2=Varsori |first2=A. |publisher=Springer |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-230-28150-9}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Le Gales |first1=Patrick |title=Reconfiguring European States in Crisis |last2=King |first2=Desmond |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-879337-3 |location=Corby}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mather |first=J. |title=Legitimating the European Union: Aspirations, Inputs and Performance |publisher=Springer |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-230-62562-4}}
* {{Cite news |last=McAuley |first=James |date=15 August 2019 |title=A More Perfect Union? |work=New York Review of Books |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/08/15/europe-more-perfect-union |issn=0028-7504}}
* {{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |title=Understanding the European Union: A Concise Introduction |date=2014 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-36234-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/europeanunionpol0000mcco_d3k0 |title=The European Union: Politics and Policies |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8133-4202-3 |edition=5th |location=Boulder, CO |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=McLaren |first=L. |title=Identity, Interests and Attitudes to European Integration |date=2005 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-50424-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Fiona |title=The European Union and Member State Territories: A New Legal Framework Under the EU Treaties |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-6704-825-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nugent |first=Neill |title=The Government and Politics of the European Union |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-3870-3}}
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* {{Cite book |last1=Pagden |first1=Anthony |title=The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union |last2=Hamilton |first2=Lee H. |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79552-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pinder |first1=John |title=The European Union: A Very Short Introduction |last2=Usherwood |first2=Simon |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-968169-3 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite news |last=Mount |first=Ferdinand |date=6 June 2019 |title=Why we go to war |volume=41 |work=London Review of Books |issue=11 |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v41/n11/ferdinand-mount/why-we-go-to-war |access-date=11 October 2020 |issn=0260-9592}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rifkin |first=Jeremy |url=https://archive.org/details/europeandreamhow00rifk_0 |title=The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream |publisher=[[Penguin Group#Imprints|TarcherPerigee]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58542-435-1 |location=[[City of Westminster]], London}}
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{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no |c=yes |n=no |q=yes |s=no |b=no |v=no |voy=yes}}
* {{Official website}}
* [http://www.eui.eu/Research/HistoricalArchivesOfEU/Index.aspx Historical Archives of the European Union]
* {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=European Union}}
* [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21372.pdf The European Union: Questions and Answers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309092959/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21372.pdf |date=9 March 2020 }}. [[Congressional Research Service]].
* {{Gutenberg author | id=353| name=European Union}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=European Union}}
* {{Nobelprize}}

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