View source for Greeks

{{other uses|Greeks (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Grecian}}
{{protection padlock|reason=Persistent [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]]; requested at [[WP:RfPP]]|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox ethnic group
| group= Greeks<br/>Hellenes
| flag= 
| flag_caption= 
| native_name= {{lang|el|Έλληνες}}
| native_name_lang= ell
| image= 
| population= '''{{Circa|14}}–17 million'''<ref>{{harvnb|Maratou-Alipranti|2013|p=196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Clogg|2013|p=228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."}}</ref>
[[File:Map of the Greek Diaspora in the World.svg|center|frameless|260x260px]]
| region1= Greece
| pop1= 9,903,268 (2011 census)
| ref1= <ref name=HSA>{{cite web|title=2011 Population and Housing Census|work=Hellenic Statistical Authority|date=12 September 2014|quote=The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%)&nbsp;... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]|url=http://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/1215267/A1602_SAM01_DT_DC_00_2011_03_F_EN.pdf/cb10bb9f-6413-4129-b847-f1def334e05e|access-date=18 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716160416/http://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/1215267/A1602_SAM01_DT_DC_00_2011_03_F_EN.pdf/cb10bb9f-6413-4129-b847-f1def334e05e|archive-date=16 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards|work=Archive of European Integration (AEI)|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|date=15 November 2004|access-date=18 May 2016|url=http://aei.pitt.edu/2870/1/IMEPO_Final_Report_English.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aei.pitt.edu/2870/1/IMEPO_Final_Report_English.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|quote=[p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.}}</ref>
| region2= United States
| pop2= 1,279,000–3,000,000{{sup|a}} (2016 estimate)
| ref2= <ref>{{cite web|title=Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates|work=American FactFinder|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau|year=2013|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_3YR_B04003&prodType=table|access-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200214060723/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_3YR_B04003&prodType=table|archive-date=14 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Relations with Greece|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|date=10 March 2016|access-date=18 May 2016|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3395.htm|quote=Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece.|archive-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121153141/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3395.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region3= Cyprus
| pop3= 659,115–721,000 (2011 census)
| ref3= <ref>{{cite web|title=Population - Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, Religion, Ethnic/Religious Group, 2011|url=http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_22main_en/populationcondition_22main_en?OpenForm&sub=2&sel=2|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612211105/http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_22main_en/populationcondition_22main_en?OpenForm&sub=2&sel=2}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Where are the Greek communities of the world?|work=themanews.com|year=2013|publisher=Protothemanews.com|url=http://en.protothema.gr/where-are-the-greek-communities-of-the-globe/|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054043/http://en.protothema.gr/where-are-the-greek-communities-of-the-globe/|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/732265957BAC953AC225798300406903?OpenDocument&sub=2&sel=1&e=|title=Statistical Service – Population and Social Conditions – Population Census – Announcements – Preliminary Results of the Census of Population, 2011|website=Cystat.gov.cy|access-date=6 August 2023|archive-date=15 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115100623/http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/732265957BAC953AC225798300406903?OpenDocument&sub=2&sel=1&e=}}</ref>
| region4= Germany
| pop4= 449,000{{sup|b}} (2021 estimate)
| ref4= <ref>{{cite web|title=Population in private households 2021 by migration background|url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/migrationshintergrund-staatsangehoerigkeit-staaten.html|access-date=2023-08-06|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420232930/https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/migrationshintergrund-staatsangehoerigkeit-staaten.html/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region5=Australia
| pop5=424,744 (2021 census)
| ref5= <ref name="abs.gov.au">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx|title=2021 Census of Population and Housing General Community Profile|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=28 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628191720/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region6= United Kingdom
| pop6= 290,000–345,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref6= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011 |url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/united-kingdom/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911225650/https://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/united-kingdom/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region7=Canada
| pop7=271,405{{sup|c}} (2016 census)
| ref7= <ref>"Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca.</ref>
| region8= Italy
| pop8= 110,000–200,000{{sup|d}} (2013 estimate)
| ref8= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/italy/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the [[Griko dialect]], which is still spoken in the [[Magna Graecia]] region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514000227/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/italy/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Grecia-Salentina">{{cite web|title=Grecia Salentina|language=it|publisher=Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina|year=2016|url=http://www.greciasalentina.gov.it/|quote="La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278)."|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-date=19 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819193309/http://www.greciasalentina.gov.it/}}</ref><ref name=Bellinello>{{harvnb|Bellinello|1998|p=53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa {{cvt|233|km}}q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità."}}</ref>
| region9= South Africa
| pop9= 138,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref9= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=South Africa: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619165420/http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm|archive-date=19 June 2006 }}</ref>
| region10= Egypt
| pop10= 110,000
| ref10= <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/en/egypt-en/bilateral-relations/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|title=English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports ''a few thousand'' and Greek version 3.800|publisher=MFA.gr|access-date=21 August 2019|archive-date=4 January 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150104235227/http://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/en/egypt-en/bilateral-relations/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77. {{ISBN|978-0415456531}}.</ref>
| region11=Chile
| pop11=100,000
| ref11=<ref name="Parvex, 2014">{{cite journal | last1 = Parvex | first1 = R | year = 2014 | title = Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires | url = https://journals.openedition.org/hommesmigrations/2720 | journal = Hommes & Migrations | volume =  | issue = 1305| pages =  71–76| doi = 10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720 }}</ref>
| region12=Ukraine
| pop12= 91,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref12= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/ukraine/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol.|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021094858/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/ukraine/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region13= Russia
| pop13= 85,640 (2010 census)
| ref13= <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html|title=Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей|access-date=4 February 2016|archive-date=13 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513001819/https://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region14= Brazil
| pop14= 50,000{{sup|e}}
| ref14= <ref>{{cite web|title=The Greek Community |url=http://www.memorialdoimigrante.sp.gov.br/historico/e4.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004819/http://www.memorialdoimigrante.sp.gov.br/historico/e4.htm |archive-date=13 June 2007  }}</ref>
| region15= France
| pop15= 35,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref15= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/france/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000.|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021094810/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/france/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region16= Belgium
| pop16= 35,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref16= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=28 January 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/belgium/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises.|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911225608/https://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/belgium/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region17= Netherlands
| pop17= 28,856 (2021)
| ref17= <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/en/dataset/37325eng/table?ts=1570590894624|title=CBS Statline|access-date=18 January 2020|archive-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528100807/https://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37230ned&D1=0,17&D2=39,66,88,121&D3=(l-4)-l&VW=T#/CBS/en/dataset/37325eng/table?ts=1570590894624|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, generatie en migratieachtergrond, 1 januari|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37325/table?ts=1584306247468|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS)|language=nl|date=22 July 2021|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528100807/https://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37230ned&D1=0,17&D2=39,66,88,121&D3=(l-4)-l&VW=T#/CBS/nl/dataset/37325/table?ts=1584306247468|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region18= Sweden
| pop18= 24,736 (2012 census)
| ref18= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=https://www.scb.se/Statistik/BE/BE0101/2011A01B/be0101_Fodelseland_och_ursprungsland.xls|quote=The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics.|access-date=5 October 2019|archive-date=5 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405004651/http://www.scb.se/Statistik/BE/BE0101/2011A01B/be0101_Fodelseland_och_ursprungsland.xls|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region19= Argentina
| pop19= 20,000–30,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref19= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/argentina/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires.|access-date=15 April 2016|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911225633/https://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/argentina/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region20= Albania
| pop20= 23,485 (2023 census)
| ref20= <ref name="Census 2023">{{cite web |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics (Albania)|Instituti i Statistikës]] (INSTAT) |title=Population and Housing Census 2023|url=https://shqiptarja.com/uploads/ckeditor/667eb96647c4bcens-2023.pdf}}</ref>
| region21= Turkey
| pop21= 4,000–49,143{{sup|f}}
| ref21= <ref>{{cite web|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Rum Orthodox Christians|publisher=Minority Rights Group (MRG)|year=2005|access-date=1 March 2014|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/4412/turkey/rum-orthodox-christians.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329054431/http://www.minorityrights.org/4412/turkey/rum-orthodox-christians.html|archive-date=29 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pontic|work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|publisher=SIL International|year=2016|access-date=13 May 2016|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnt|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606113416/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnt|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region22= Czech Republic
| pop22= 12,000
| ref22= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=9 March 2011|url=http://cizinci.cz/repository/2240/file/Rekove2.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cizinci.cz/repository/2240/file/Rekove2.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Migranti z Řecka v Česku |trans-title=Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic |language=cs |access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref>
| region23= Switzerland
| pop23= 11,000 (2015 estimate)
| ref23= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=10 December 2015|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/switzerland/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country.|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021094937/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/switzerland/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region24= New Zealand
| pop24= est. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000
| ref24= <ref>{{cite web |title=Greeks Around the Globe |url=http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm |website=AusGreekNet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619165420/http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm |archive-date=19 June 2006 }}</ref>
| region25= Romania
| pop25= 10,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref25= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=6 December 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/romania/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania.|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=8 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808114843/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/romania/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region26= Uzbekistan
| pop26= 9,500 (2000 estimate)
| ref26= <ref>{{cite web|title=Greeks in Uzbekistan|work=Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst|publisher=The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute|date=21 June 2000|url=http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/515|quote=Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent.|access-date=24 December 2008|archive-date=13 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613021421/http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node%2F515|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region27= Kazakhstan
| pop27= 8,846 (2011 estimate)
| ref27= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=3 February 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/georgia/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities.|access-date=15 April 2016|archive-date=23 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423141336/http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/georgia/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region28= Bulgaria
| pop28= 1,356 (2011 census)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusresults.nsi.bg/Census/Reports/2/2/R7.aspx|access-date=2020-10-15|title=Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група|website=censusresults.nsi.bg|archive-date=19 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519053901/https://censusresults.nsi.bg/Census/Reports/2/2/R7.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> up to 28,500 (estimate)
| ref28= <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=28 January 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/bulgaria/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote="There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families."|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=11 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911225554/https://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/bulgaria/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region29= Georgia
| pop29= 5,544 (2014 census)
| ref29= <ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Composition of Georgia|url=http://csem.ge/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Infographics-Ethnic-Composition-of-Georgia-1926-2014.pdf|publisher=CSEM|access-date=24 April 2025}}</ref>
| region30= Austria
| pop30= 5,261
| ref30= <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/index.html |title=Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=31 July 2015 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113213329/http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| region31= Hungary
| pop31= 4,454 (2016 census)
| ref31= <ref name="KSH">{{cite book|last=Vukovich|first=Gabriella|url=http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok|trans-title=2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data|language=hu|publisher=Hungarian Central Statistical Office|location=Budapest|year=2018|access-date=9 January 2019|isbn=978-963-235-542-9}}</ref>
| languages= [[Greek language|Greek]]
| religions= Mostly [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] 
| footnotes= {{sup|a}} Includes those of ancestral descent.<br/>{{sup|b}} Includes people with "cultural roots".<br/>{{sup|c}} Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is ''solely'' "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada.<br/>{{sup|d}}Approx. 60,000 [[Griko people]] and 30,000 post WW2 migrants.<br/>{{sup|e}} "Including descendants".<br/>{{sup|f}} Including [[Greek Muslims]].
}}
The '''Greeks''' or '''Hellenes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|l|iː|n|z}}; {{langx|el|Έλληνες}}, {{Transliteration|el|Éllines}} {{IPA|el|ˈelines|}}) are an [[ethnic group]] and [[nation]] native to [[Greece]], [[Greek Cypriots|Cyprus]], [[Greeks in Albania|southern Albania]], [[Greeks in Turkey#History|Turkey]], [[Greeks in Italy|southern Italy]], parts of [[Egyptian Greeks|Egypt]], and to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and [[Black Sea]]. They also form a significant [[Greek diaspora|diaspora]] ({{Transliteration|el|omogenia}}), with many Greek communities established around the world.<ref name=Roberts1>{{harvnb|Roberts|2007|pp=171–172, 222}}.</ref>

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Black Sea]], but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Ionian Sea|Ionian]] seas, where the [[Greek language]] has been spoken since the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{harvnb|Latacz|2004|pp=159, 165–166}}.</ref><ref name=Sutton>{{harvnb|Sutton|1996}}.</ref> Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the [[Greek peninsula]], the western coast of [[Asia Minor]], the Black Sea coast, [[Cappadocia]] in central Anatolia, [[Egypt]], the [[Balkans]], Cyprus, and [[Constantinople]].<ref name=Sutton/> Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the [[Byzantine Empire]] of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient [[Greek colonies|Greek colonization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beaton|1996|pp=1–25}}.</ref> The cultural centers of the Greeks have included [[Athens]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Alexandria]], [[Smyrna]], and Constantinople at various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. The [[Greek genocide]] and [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern [[Greeks in Russia|Russia]] and [[Greeks in Ukraine|Ukraine]] and in the [[Greek diaspora]] communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="CIA">[[CIA World Factbook]] on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, [[Greek Muslims|Greek Muslim]] 1.3%, other 0.7%.</ref>

Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,<ref>{{harvnb|Heath|1981|p=1}}.</ref> medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. The [[Greek language]] is the oldest recorded living language<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|2017|p=153: "Greek is the world's oldest recorded living language."}}</ref> and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, including [[English words of Greek origin|English]] as well as [[international scientific vocabulary|international scientific nomenclature]]. Greek was the most widely spoken ''[[lingua franca]]'' in the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible|Christian Bible]] was also originally written in Greek.<ref>See {{harvnb|Aland|Aland|1995|p=52}}, {{harvnb|Hunter|1972|p=9}} and {{harvnb|Bubenik|2007|pp=342–345}}.</ref>

==History==
{{further|History of Greece}}
[[File:Proto.Greek.Area.220.1900.svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Proto-Greek area of settlement (2200/2100–1900 BC) suggested by Katona (2000), Sakelariou (2016, 1980, 1975) and Phylaktopoulos (1975)]]

[[File:Gold death-mask, known as the 'mask of Agamemnon', from Mycenae, grave Circle A, 16th century BC, Athens Archaeological Museum, Greece (22669073522).jpg|thumb|[[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] [[Death mask|funeral mask]] known as "[[Mask of Agamemnon]]", 16th century BC]]

The Greeks speak the [[Greek language]], which forms its own unique branch within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages, the [[Hellenic languages|Hellenic]].<ref name=Sutton/> They are part of a group of classical ethnicities. [[Anthony D. Smith]] described them as an "archetypal diaspora people".<ref>{{harvnb|Guibernau|Hutchinson|2004|p=23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1999|p=21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples."}}</ref>

===Origins===
{{further|Proto-Greek language|List of Ancient Greek tribes|Ancient Greek religion}}
The Proto-Greeks probably arrived in the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]], sometime during the [[Bronze Age Europe|European Bronze Age]] ({{circa|[[3rd millennium BC]]}}).<ref>For a comprehensive overview, see Oliver Dickinson's "The Coming of the Greeks and All That" ({{harvnb|Dickinson|2016|pp=3–21}}), J. T. Hooker's ''Mycenaean Greece'' ({{harvnb|Hooker|1976|loc=Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean Age", pp. 11–33 and passim}}), and Bryan Feuer's annotated bibliography ({{harvnb|Feuer|2004}}); for other interpretations, see ''Bronze Age Migrations'' by R. A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973), {{harvnb|Cadogan|1986|p=125}}, {{harvnb|Drews|1994|p=21}} and {{harvnb|Bryce|2006|pp=91-92}}.</ref> The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland has to be reconstructed on the basis of the [[ancient Greek dialects]], as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the [[Ionians]] and [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]], which resulted in [[Mycenaean Greece]] by the 16th century BC,<ref name=Brit1>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = The Greeks |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=US |id=Online Edition }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1976|p=2}}</ref> and the second, the [[Dorian invasion]], around the 11th century BC, displacing the [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot dialects]], which descended from the Mycenaean period.<ref>For a critique of the Dorian invasion, see [[Dorian invasion#Criticism and replacement in archaeological scholarship]].</ref>

===Mycenaean===
{{Main|Mycenaean Greece}}
In {{circa}} 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the [[Minoan civilization]] its syllabic writing system ([[Linear A]]) and developed their own [[syllabic script]] known as [[Linear B]],<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Linear A and Linear B|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|access-date=3 March 2016|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Linear-A|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406094711/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Linear-A|url-status=live}}</ref> providing the first and oldest written evidence of [[Greek language|Greek]].<ref name=Britannica/><ref>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=228}}.</ref> The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the [[Aegean Sea]] and, by the 15th century BC, had reached [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Cyprus]] and the shores of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]].<ref name=Sutton/><ref>{{harvnb|Tartaron|2013|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Schofield|2006|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Panayotou|2007|pp=417–426}}.</ref>

Around 1200 BC, the [[Dorians]], another Greek-speaking people, followed from [[Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|2014|p=43}}.</ref> Older historical research often proposed [[Dorian invasion]] caused the collapse of the [[Mycenaean civilization]], but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "[[Sea Peoples]]" who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1976|p=176}}.</ref> The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the [[Greek Dark Ages]], but by 800 BC the landscape of [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Classical Greece]] was discernible.<ref name=Castleden2>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=2}}.</ref>

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|2004|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Podzuweit|1982|pp=65–88}}.</ref> The [[Homer|Homeric Epics]] (i.e. ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'') were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of [[Euhemerism]] that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.<ref name=Castleden2/> As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. [[Zeus]], [[Poseidon]] and [[Hades]]) became major figures of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian Pantheon]] of later antiquity.<ref>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Dietrich|1974|p=156}}.</ref>

===Classical===
{{Main|Classical Greece}}
{{multiple image
| total_width  = 285
| align        = right
| direction    = horizontal
| image1       = Σωκράτης, Ακαδημία Αθηνών 6616.jpg
| alt1         = 
| caption1     = 
| image2       = Plato Pio-Clemetino Inv305.jpg
| alt2         = 
| caption2     = 
| image3       = Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt3         = 
| caption3     = 
| footer       = The three great philosophers of the classical era: [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]
| footer_align = left
}}

The [[ethnogenesis]] of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Burckhardt|1999|loc=p. 168: "The establishment of these Panhellenic sites, which yet remained exclusively Hellenic, was a very important element in the growth and self-consciousness of Hellenic nationalism; it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes, and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostile ''poleis''."}}</ref> According to some scholars, the foundational event was the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.<ref name=Roberts1/> The works of [[Homer]] (i.e. ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'') and [[Hesiod]] (i.e. ''[[Theogony]]'') were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.<ref>{{harvnb|Zuwiyya|2011|pp=142–143}}; {{harvnb|Budin|2009|pp=66–67}}.</ref> The [[Pythia|Oracle of Apollo at Delphi]] was established in this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|1990|pp=1–25, 148–190}}.</ref>

The [[Classical antiquity|classical period]] of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the [[death of Alexander the Great]], in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ancient Greek Civilization|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=18 February 2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=17 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117213744/https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece|url-status=live}}</ref> The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

At the battles of [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]], [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]], [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], and [[Battle of Platea|Platea]], some Greek city-states formed a victorious alliance led by [[Sparta]] and [[Classical Athens|Athens]]. The [[Delian league]], under the leadership of Athens, continued the war with the [[Achaemenid Empire]] after the end of the Persian invasions.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic [[genos]],<ref>{{harvnb|Konstan|2001|pp=29–50}}.</ref> their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek [[Polis|city-states]].<ref>{{harvnb|Steinberger|2000|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Burger|2008|pp=57–58}}.</ref> The [[Peloponnesian War]], the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and [[Sparta]] and [[Delian League|their]] [[Peloponnesian League|allies]], left both greatly weakened.<ref>{{harvnb|Burger|2008|pp=57–58: "''Poleis'' continued to go to war with each other. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) made this painfully clear. The war (really two wars punctuated by a peace) was a duel between Greece's two leading cities, Athens and Sparta. Most other ''poleis'', however, got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other&nbsp;... The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis."}}</ref> A brief [[Spartan hegemony]], and then a short-lived [[Theban hegemony]], followed up until the [[Battle of Mantinea (362 BC)|Battle of Mantinea]] in 362 BC.

[[File:Alexander the Great mosaic.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander the Great]], whose conquests led to the [[Hellenistic Age]]]]

After the [[rise of Macedon]] and the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]], most of the feuding Greek city-states became members of the [[League of Corinth|Hellenic league]] under the leadership of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]], the [[Argead dynasty|Argead]] king of [[Macedon]], in order to invade the Achaemenid Empire. The  Pan-Hellenic campaign had the slogans of "freeing the Greeks" in Asia and "punishing the Persians" for their past sacrileges during their own invasion of Greece a century and a half earlier. The campaign was led successfully by his son [[Alexander the Great]], as Philip was assassinated in 336 BC.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fox|first=Robin Lane|title=Riding with Alexander|year=2004|work=Archaeology|publisher=The Archaeological Institute of America|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/online/interviews/fox.html|quote=Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance-force was already out in Asia in 336 BC. Philips campaign had the slogan of "freeing the Greeks" in Asia and "punishing the Persians" for their past sacrileges during their own invasion (a century and a half earlier) of Greece. No doubt, Philip wanted glory and plunder.|access-date=27 December 2008|archive-date=2 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102011552/http://www.archaeology.org/online/interviews/fox.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his [[Wars of Alexander the Great|victories]] at the battles of the [[Battle of the Granicus|Granicus]], [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]], and his advance as far as modern-day [[Pakistan]] and [[Tajikistan]],<ref>{{harvnb|Brice|2012|pp=281–286}}.</ref> provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = Alexander the Great |encyclopedia= Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher= Columbia University Press |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]] were to prove long lived as Greek became the ''[[lingua franca]]'', a position it retained even in [[Roman era|Roman times]].<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2008|p=xiii}}.</ref> Many Greeks settled in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] cities like [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Morris|first=Ian|title=Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC|date=December 2005|work=Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics|publisher=Princeton/Stanford University|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Hellenistic===
{{Main|Hellenistic period|Hellenistic Greece}}
[[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the [[Diadochi]]; the Μacedonian Kingdom of [[Cassander]] (green), the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] (dark blue), the [[Seleucid Empire]] (yellow), the areas controlled by [[Lysimachus]] (orange) and [[Epirus]] (red)]]
[[File:Bust of Cleopatra VII - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017 (3).jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=0.8|Bust of [[Cleopatra VII]] ([[Altes Museum]], [[Berlin]]), the last ruler of a Hellenistic kingdom (apart from the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]])]]
The [[Hellenistic civilization]] was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.<ref name=Boardman364>{{harvnb|Boardman|Griffin|Murray|1991|p=364}}</ref> This [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic age]], so called because it saw the partial [[Hellenization]] of many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India and [[Bactria]], both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arun|first=Neil|title=Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered|work=BBC News|date=7 August 2007|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6930285.stm|access-date=15 June 2009|archive-date=2 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102000605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6930285.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The end is often placed around conquest of [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]] by Rome in 30 BC,<ref name=Boardman364/> although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger [[Diadochi|Kingdoms of the Diadochi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grant|1990|loc=Introduction}}.</ref><ref name=BritHel>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellenistic age|date=27 May 2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=14 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414153342/https://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age|url-status=live}}</ref> Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.<ref name=Harris>{{harvnb|Harris|1991|pp=137–138}}.</ref> An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with ''[[barbarian]]'' (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.<ref name=Harris/> This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic ''[[paideia]]'' to the next generation.<ref name=Harris/> Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.<ref>{{harvnb|Lucore|2009|p=51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy."}}</ref>

In the [[Indo-Greeks|Indo-Greek]] and [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] kingdoms, [[Greco-Buddhism]] was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to [[China]].<ref>{{harvnb|Foltz|2010|pp=43–46}}.</ref> Further east, the Greeks of [[Alexandria Eschate]] became known to the [[Chinese people]] as the [[Dayuan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burton|1993|pp=244–245}}.</ref>

===Roman Empire===
{{further|Roman Greece|Greco-Roman world}}
Between 280 BC and 30 BC, after the [[Pyrrhic War|Pyrrhic]], [[Macedonian War|Macedonian]], and [[Mithridatic Wars]], most of the Hellenistic world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became [[Greco-Roman world|heavily influenced]] by the achievements of Greek culture, hence [[Horace]]'s famous statement: ''Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit'' ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").<ref>{{harvnb|Zoch|2000|p=136}}.</ref> In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single [[Greco-Roman]] culture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.<ref name=Roberts1/> The cults of deities like [[Isis]] and [[Mithra]] were introduced into the Greek world.<ref name=BritHel/><ref name=BritHelRel>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellenistic religion|date=13 May 2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hellenistic-religion|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=27 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627004110/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hellenistic-religion|url-status=live}}</ref> Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|2003|pp=617–618}}.</ref> and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably [[Saint Paul]]) were generally Greek-speaking,<ref>{{harvnb|Dunstan|2011|p=500}}.</ref> though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Milburn|1988|p=158}}.</ref> with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Makrides|2009|p=206}}.</ref> The region of [[Tsakonia]] remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as ''Hellenes'', in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nicholas, Nick.|title=A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian.|journal=Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography|volume=1|issue=1|year=2019|page=19|doi=10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68|doi-access=free}}</ref>

While ethnic distinctions still existed in the [[Roman Empire]], they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaldellis|2007|pp=35–40}}.</ref> From the early centuries of the [[Common Era]], the Greeks self-identified as Romans ([[Medieval Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}} ''Rhōmaîoi'').<ref>{{harvnb|Howatson|1989|p=264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans')&nbsp;..."}}</ref> By that time, the name ''Hellenes'' denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.<ref name=Cameron>{{harvnb|Cameron|2009|p=7}}.</ref>

===Middle Ages===
{{See also|Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Greece|Byzantine Greeks|Fourth Crusade|Frankokratia}}
[[File:Family marriage.jpg|thumb|right|Scenes of marriage and family life in [[Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Basilios II.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Emperor [[Basil II]] (11th century) is credited with reviving the [[Byzantine Empire]].]]
[[File:Benozzo Gozzoli, Pletone, Cappella dei Magi.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Gemistos Plethon]], one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe]]

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as ''Rhōmaîoi'' ({{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}}, "Romans", meaning [[Roman citizenship|citizens]] of the [[Roman Empire]]), a term which in the [[Greek language]] had become synonymous with Christian Greeks.<ref name="Harrison268">{{harvnb|Harrison|2002|p=268}}: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Earl|1968|p=148}}.</ref> The Latinizing term ''Graikoí'' (Γραικοί, "Greeks") was also used,<ref>[[Paul the Silentiary]]. ''Descriptio S. Sophiae et Ambonis'', 425, Line 12 ("χῶρος ὅδε Γραικοῖσι"); [[Theodore the Studite]]. ''Epistulae'', 419, Line 30 ("ἐν Γραικοῖς").</ref> though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov|2007|p=96}}; {{harvnb|Makrides|2009|loc=Chapter 2: "Christian Monotheism, Orthodox Christianity, Greek Orthodoxy", p. 74}}; {{harvnb|Magdalino|1991|loc=Chapter XIV: "Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium", p. 10}}.</ref> The [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] (today conventionally named the ''Byzantine Empire'', a name not used during its own time<ref name=BritByz>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Byzantine Empire|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=23 December 2015|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=4 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904022422/https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire|url-status=live}}</ref>) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor [[Heraclius]] ({{reign}} 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.<ref name=Haldon50>{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=50}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shahid|1972|pp=295–296, 305}}.</ref> Although the [[Catholic Church]] recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]], king of the [[Franks]], as the "[[Holy Roman Emperor|Roman Emperor]]" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the ''Empire of the Greeks'' (''Imperium Graecorum'').<ref>{{harvnb|Klein|2004|p=290 (Note #39)}}; ''[[Annales Fuldenses]]'', 389: "Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt&nbsp;...".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fouracre|Gerberding|1996|p=345}}: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."</ref> While this Latin term for the ancient ''[[ancient Greeks|Hellenes]]'' could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] heritage rendered it a derogatory [[exonym]] for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the [[Council of Florence]], to present the Western viewpoint.<ref>{{harvnb|Page|2008|pp=66, 87, 256}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kaplanis|2014|pp=86–7}}</ref> Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, the ''Rhōmaîoi'' were just called Greeks.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Jakobsson | first=Sverrir | title=The Varangian legend: testimony from the Old Norse sources | website=Academia.edu | date=2016-01-01 | url=https://www.academia.edu/26529047 | access-date=2021-12-01 | archive-date=11 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411125846/https://www.academia.edu/26529047 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Herrin |first1=Judith |last2=Saint-Guillain |first2=Guillaume |title=Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4094-1098-0 |page=111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC&pg=PA118 |language=en |access-date=1 December 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927205507/https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC&pg=PA118#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary [[Byzantine studies|Byzantine scholarship]]: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Stouraitis|2014|pp=176, 177}}.</ref> The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of [[ancient Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelberg|2012|p=20}}.</ref><ref name=Burstein>{{harvnb|Burstein|1988|pp=47–49}}.</ref>

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.<ref name=BritIdent/> In the [[Empire of Nicaea]], a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.<ref>{{harvnb|Angold|1975|p=65}}, {{harvnb|Page|2008|p=127}}.</ref> For example, in a letter to [[Pope Gregory IX]], the Nicaean emperor [[John III Doukas Vatatzes]] (r. 1221–1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic" descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people.<ref>{{cite web | title=Byzantium 1220 To 1330 - PDF - Byzantine Empire - Constantinople | website=Scribd | date=2021-08-05 | url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/30421469/Byzantium-1220-to-1330 | ref={{sfnref | Scribd | 2021}} | access-date=2021-12-01 | archive-date=11 August 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811152526/https://www.scribd.com/doc/30421469/Byzantium-1220-to-1330 | url-status=live }}</ref> After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261, ''Rhomaioi'' became again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces of ''Hellene'' (Έλληνας), such as in the writings of [[George Gemistos Plethon]],<ref>{{harvnb|Kaplanis|2014|p=92}}.</ref> who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.<ref name=BritIdent/> However, it was the combination of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.<ref name=BritIdent>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title =Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition}}</ref> In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".<ref name=Vasiliev>{{cite book |last1=Vasiliev |first1=Alexander A. |title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 |date=1964 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-80925-6 |page=582 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtM0qClcIX4C |language=en}}</ref><ref name="CareyCarey1968">{{cite book|author1=Jane Perry Clark Carey|author2=Andrew Galbraith Carey|title=The Web of Modern Greek Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltw7AAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=33|isbn=978-0-231-03170-7|quote=By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called "Emperor of the Hellenes"|access-date=11 September 2018|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927205509/https://books.google.com/books?id=ltw7AAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine intellectuals who participated]] in the [[Italian Renaissance]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|1965|p=33}}.</ref>

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on [[Greek Orthodox]] identity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the [[Russian Empire]]. These were further strengthened following the fall of the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in 1461, after which and until the second [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29]] hundreds of thousands of [[Pontic Greeks]] fled or migrated from the [[Pontic Alps]] and [[Armenian Highlands]] to southern Russia and the Russian [[South Caucasus]] (see also [[Greeks in Russia]], [[Greeks in Armenia]], [[Greeks in Georgia]], and [[Caucasian Greeks]]).<ref>See for example Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), and his 'Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia' (Variourum, 1988), and other works listed in [[Caucasian Greeks]] and [[Pontic Greeks]].</ref>

These [[Byzantine Greeks]] were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.<ref name=Burstein/><ref name=Norwich>{{harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=xxi}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1999|loc=Part II Medieval Libraries: Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries, pp. 71–88}}</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine grammarians]] were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the [[Italian Renaissance]] a major boost.<ref name=BritRen>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Renaissance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=30 March 2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=16 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616023601/https://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Robins|1993|p=8}}.</ref> The [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Aristotelianism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2016|location=United States|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aristotelianism|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021030829/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aristotelianism|url-status=live}}</ref>

To the [[Slavic people|Slavic]] world, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the latter was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monks [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] from the port city of [[Thessalonica]], capital of the [[theme of Thessalonica]], who are credited today with formalizing the [[Glagolitic alphabet|first Slavic alphabet]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cyril and Methodius, Saints|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|year=2016|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius.aspx#2|access-date=10 May 2016|archive-date=5 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605024051/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius.aspx#2|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman Greeks|Phanariotes}}
[[File:Basilius Bessarion - Imagines philologorum.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Byzantine scholar and cardinal [[Basilios Bessarion]] (1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance.]]
Following the [[Fall of Constantinople]] on 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the [[Western world|West]], particularly [[Italy]], [[Central Europe]], [[Germany]] and [[Russia]].<ref name=BritRen/> Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in the [[Ottoman Empire]], due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based on [[Western Thrace]] and [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]], both in [[Northern Greece]], and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, [[Constantinople]]. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially [[Albanians]] and [[Serbs]]) into Ottoman service through the [[devshirme]]. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied [[Yemen]] and [[Algeria]], frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet system]], religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (''milletler''), so the [[exonym]] "Greeks" (''Rumlar'' from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], regardless of their language or ethnic origin.<ref name=Mazower/> The [[Greek language|Greek]] speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves ''Romioi'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = History of Europe, The Romans |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (''genos'') to be Hellenic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mavrocordatos|first=Nicholaos|year=1800|title=Philotheou Parerga|publisher=Grēgorios Kōnstantas (Original from Harvard University Library)|quote=Γένος μεν ημίν των άγαν Ελλήνων}}</ref> There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman [[millet]] system, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, the [[Russian Empire]], or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remaining [[crypto-Christian]]. The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as [[Greek Muslims]]—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the [[devshirme]]—were to be found in [[Crete]] ([[Cretan Turks]]), [[Greek Macedonia]] (for example among the [[Vallahades]] of western [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]), and among [[Pontic Greeks]] in the [[Pontic Alps]] and [[Armenian Highlands]]. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan [[Selim I|Selim the Grim]] ({{reign}} 1517–1520), whose mother [[Gülbahar Hatun (mother of Selim I)|Gülbahar Hatun]] was a [[Pontic Greek]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Manastırlar|url=http://www.macka.gov.tr/manastirlar|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.macka.gov.tr|language=tr|archive-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609203125/http://macka.gov.tr/manastirlar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahadıroğlu |first=Yavuz |title=Resimli Osmanlı tarihi |date=2007 |publisher=Nesil yayınları |isbn=978-975-269-299-2 |edition=[10.baskı : Eylül 2007] |location=İstanbul |page=157 |oclc=235010971}}</ref>

[[File:Adamantios Korais.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Adamantios Korais]], leading figure of the [[Modern Greek Enlightenment]]]]
The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the [[Phanariotes]].<ref name=BritB>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Phanariote|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phanariote|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=23 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023110209/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phanariote|url-status=live}}</ref> It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]] in 1821.<ref name=BritMerchant/> Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in [[Chios]], [[Smyrna]] and [[Ayvalık|Aivali]], all three major centres of Greek commerce.<ref name=BritMerchant/> Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] church.

===Modern===
{{See also|Modern Greek Enlightenment|Greek War of Independence}}
The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottomans]], and the restoration of the term "Hellene". [[Adamantios Korais]], probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of ''Romiós'', that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the first [[Constitution of Greece|Greek constitution]] of 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Kingdom of Greece]], a clause removed by 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek Constitution of 1822 (Epidaurus)|year=1822|language=el|url=http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/syn06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/syn06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> A century later, when the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.{{efn|While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] ({{harvnb|Gilbar|1997|p=8}}).}}<ref>{{harvnb|Barutciski|2003|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Clark|2006|pp=xi–xv}}; {{harvnb|Hershlag|1980|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Özkırımlı|Sofos|2008|pp=116–117}}.</ref> The [[Greek genocide]], in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Asia Minor Campaign]], was part of this process of [[Turkification]] of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.<ref>{{harvnb|Üngör|2008|pp=15–39}}.</ref>

In October 1940, [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]] demanded the surrender of Greece, but it [[Ohi Day|refused]], and, in the [[Greco-Italian War]], Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania.{{sfn|Fafalios|Hadjipateras|1995|p=157}} French general [[Charles de Gaulle]] praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance, but the country fell to urgently dispatched [[Nazi Germany|German]] forces during the [[Battle of Greece]]. The Nazis proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions were given to Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941–1942, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy#Greece|collaborators]], the economy was ruined, and most [[History of the Jews in Greece|Greek Jews]] (tens of thousands) were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Greek history since World War I |date=14 June 2023 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26430/Greek-history-since-World-War-IGreece |access-date=21 June 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610021739/https://gum.criteo.com/syncframe?origin=criteoPrebidAdapter&topUrl=www.britannica.com&us_privacy=1YNY&gpp=}}</ref>{{sfn|Mazower|2001|p=155}} The [[Greek Resistance]], one of the most effective resistance movements, fought against the Nazis. The German occupiers committed [[German war crimes#Greece|numerous crimes]], such as atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages, in reprisals. Hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost one million Greeks left homeless.{{sfn|Mazower|2001|p=155}} The Germans executed around 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Die Wehrmacht eine Bilanz |date=2009 |author1=Guido Knopp |author2=Mario Sporn |isbn=978-3-442-15561-3 |edition=1st |publisher=Goldmann |location=München |oclc=423851310}}</ref>

==Identity==
===Names===
{{main|Achaeans (Homer)|Names of the Greeks}}
[[File:Ancient Regions Mainland Greece.png|thumb|right|Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands]]

The English names ''Greece'' and ''Greek'' are derived, via the Latin ''{{lang|la|Graecia}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Graecus}}'', from the name of the [[Graecians|Graeci]] ({{lang|grc|Γραικοί}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|Graikoí}}; <small>singular</small> {{lang|grc|Γραικός}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|Graikós}}), who were among the first [[List of ancient Greek tribes|ancient Greek tribes]] to settle [[southern Italy]] (the so-called "[[Magna Graecia]]"). The term is possibly derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵerh₂-|*ǵerh₂-]]'', "to grow old",<ref>{{cite book |last=Starostin |first=Sergei |year=1998 |url=http://starling.rinet.ru/main.html |title=The Tower of Babel: An Etymological Database Project}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Watkins|2000}}.</ref> more specifically from [[Graea]] (ancient city), said by [[Aristotle]] to be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for the [[Naples]] area.<ref>Aristotle, ''[[Meteorologica]]'' I.xiv</ref>
[[File:Hermes the scholar.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The cover of ''[[Hermes o Logios]]'', a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in [[Vienna]] with major contribution to the [[Modern Greek Enlightenment]]]]

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term {{em|Achaeans}} (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the [[Names of the Greeks|collective names]] for the Greeks in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'' (the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the [[Mycenaean civilization]] that dominated Greece from {{circa}} 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are {{em|Danaans}} (Δαναοί) and {{em|Argives}} (Ἀργεῖοι) while {{em|Panhellenes}} (Πανέλληνες) and {{em|Hellenes}} (Ἕλληνες) both [[hapax legomenon|appear only once]] in the ''Iliad'';<ref>See ''Iliad'', II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" and ''Iliad'' II.2.653 for "Hellenes".</ref> all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Cartledge|2011|loc=Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nagy|2014|loc=Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization&nbsp;... The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. In the Iliad, the names "Achaeans" and "Danaans" and "Argives" are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes = "all Hellenes" = "all Greeks.""}}</ref> In the historical period, Herodotus identified the [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaeans]] of the northern [[Peloponnese]] as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.<ref>[[Herodotus]]. ''Histories'', 7.94 and 8.73.</ref>

[[Homer]] refers to the "Hellenes" as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic [[Phthia]], with its warriors under the command of [[Achilleus]].<ref>Homer. ''[[Iliad]]'', 2.681–685</ref> The [[Parian Chronicle]] says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks ({{lang|grc|Γραικοί}}).<ref name="Parian-Chronicle">[http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/faqs/q004/q004008.html The Parian Marble, Entry #6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823171940/http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/faqs/q004/q004008.html |date=23 August 2017 }}: "From when Hellen [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes."</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], [[Hellen]], the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of [[Pyrrha]] and [[Deucalion]], the only survivors after the [[flood myth|Great Deluge]].<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus. ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]''.</ref> The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] names ancient [[Ancient Greece|Hellas]] as an area in [[Epirus]] between [[Dodona]] and the [[Achelous]] river, the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the [[Selloi]] and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".<ref name=Aristotle>Aristotle. ''Meteorologica'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html 1.14] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061102/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html |date=29 June 2011 }}: "The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous."</ref> In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.<ref>[[Homer]]. ''Iliad'', 16.233–16.235: "King Zeus, lord of Dodona&nbsp;... you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you."</ref>

In the [[Hesiod]]ic ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'', [[Graecus]] is presented as the son of Zeus and [[Pandora II]], sister of [[Hellen]] the patriarch of the Hellenes.<ref>Hesiod. ''Catalogue of Women'', Fragment 5.</ref> According to the [[Parian Chronicle]], when [[Deucalion]] became king of Phthia, the {{em|Graikoi}} (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.<ref name="Parian-Chronicle"/> [[Aristotle]] notes in his ''Meteorologica'' that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.<ref name=Aristotle/>

===Concepts===
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.<ref name=Broome>{{harvnb|Broome|1996|loc="Greek Identity", pp. 22–27}}</ref> [[Herodotus]] gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating 
#shared [[kinship and descent|descent]] ({{langx|grc|ὅμαιμον|hómaimon|of the same blood|label=none}})<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28%2Fmaimos ὅμαιμος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225070512/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(%2Fmaimos |date=25 February 2021 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>
#shared [[language]] ({{langx|grc|ὁμόγλωσσον|homóglōsson|speaking the same tongue|label=none}})<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Fglwssos ὁμόγλωσσος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073414/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(mo%2Fglwssos |date=25 February 2021 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>
#shared [[sanctuaries]] and [[sacrifices]] ({{langx|grc|θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι|theôn hidrúmatá te koinà kaì thusíai|common foundations, common sacrifices to gods|label=none}})<ref>{{harvnb|Polinskaya|2010|pp=43–70}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0038%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D144|title=Herodotus, The Seventh, Eighth, & Ninth Books with Introduction and Commentary|last=Macan|first=Reginald Walter|author-link=Reginald Walter Macan|date=1908|via=Perseus|publisher=Macmillan & Co. Ltd.|access-date=7 October 2023|chapter=8. 144|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913094839/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0038%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D144|archive-date=13 September 2023}}</ref>
#shared [[Mores|customs]] ({{langx|grc|ἤθεα ὁμότροπα|ḗthea homótropa|customs of like fashion|label=none}}).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Ftropos ὁμότροπος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225222702/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do(mo%2Ftropos |date=25 February 2021 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus)</ref><ref>Herodotus, 8.144.2: ''"The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."''</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leoussi|Grosby|2006|p=115}}.</ref>

By Western standards, the term ''Greeks'' has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the [[Greek language]], whether [[Mycenaean Greek language|Mycenaean]], [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine]] or [[modern Greek]].<ref name=Mazower>{{harvnb|Mazower|2000|pp=105–107}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Adrados|2005|p=xii}}.</ref> [[Byzantine Greeks]] self-identified as ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), ''Graikoi'' ("Greeks") and ''Christianoi'' ("Christians") since they were the political heirs of [[Roman Empire|imperial Rome]], the descendants of their [[Ancient Greeks|classical Greek forebears]] and followers of the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]];<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelberg|2012|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Harrison|2002|p=268}}; {{harvnb|Kazhdan|Constable|1982|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Runciman|1970|p=14}}.</ref> during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves ''Hellenes'' although for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.<ref name=Cameron/><ref>{{harvnb|Ševčenko|2002|p=284}}.</ref> On the eve of the [[Fall of Constantinople]] the [[Constantine XI|Last Emperor]] urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sphrantzes |first=George|author-link=George Sphrantzes|title=The Chronicle of the Fall|year=1477}}</ref>

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".<ref>Feraios, Rigas. ''New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia''.</ref> The [[History of Modern Greece|modern Greek state]] was created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands, [[Peloponnese]], from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2002|p=277}}.</ref> The large [[Greek diaspora]] and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western [[romantic nationalism]] and [[philhellenism]],<ref name=BritMerchant>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title =History of Greece, Ottoman Empire, The merchant middle class |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the [[Byzantine Empire]], formed the basis of the [[Diafotismos]] and the current conception of Hellenism.<ref name=BritIdent/><ref name=Mazower/><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2003|p=98: "After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, recognition by the Turks of the Greek ''millet'' under its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity, which, even if it did not ''produce'' a "precocious nationalism" among the Greeks, provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory."}}</ref>

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ''[[ethnic group|ethnos]]'', defined by possessing [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] and having a Greek [[First language|mother tongue]], not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.<ref>{{harvnb|Tonkin|Chapman|McDonald|1989}}.</ref> In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term was ''[[genos]]'', which also indicates a common ancestry.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|1998|pp=18–19}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Psellos|first=Michael|title=Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae|year=1994|location=Stuttgart/Leipzig|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|page=33|isbn=978-0-297-82057-4}}</ref>

===Continuity===
[[File:Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript Bracca (cropped).JPG|thumb|Alexander the Great in [[Byzantine Emperor]]'s clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)]]

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the [[Greek Dark Ages]] from which written records are absent (11th–8th cent. BC, though the [[Cypriot syllabary]] was in use during this period).<ref name=Adrados>{{harvnb|Adrados|2005|pp=xii, 3–5}}.</ref> Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to [[Chinese language|Chinese]] alone.<ref name=Adrados/><ref name="Browning">{{harvnb|Browning|1983|p=vii: "The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B.C. Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day. Change there has certainly been. But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages. Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo-Saxon is to the modern Englishman. The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese."}}</ref> Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.<ref name=Roberts1/><ref name=ADS>{{harvnb|Smith|1991|pp=29–32}}.</ref> Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.<ref>{{harvnb|Isaac|2004|p=504: "Autochthony, being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts, is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers, wherever Greek literature was read."}}</ref> During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as [[Ionia]] and [[Constantinople]] experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.<ref name=ADS/> This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.<ref name=ADS/> Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and [[Greek alphabet|alphabet]], certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word ''[[barbarian]]'' was used by 12th-century historian [[Anna Komnene]] to describe non-Greek speakers),<ref>Anna Comnena. ''[[Alexiad]]'', Books 1–15.</ref> a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.<ref name=ADS/> In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.<ref>{{harvnb|Papagrigorakis|Kousoulis|Synodinos|2014|p=237: "Interpreted with caution, the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Argyropoulos|Sassouni|Xeniotou|1989|p=200: "An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4,000 years."}}</ref> There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.<ref name="Gibbons2017">{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient DNA reveals |journal=Science |date=2 August 2017 |doi=10.1126/science.aan7200 }}</ref><ref name="Lazaridis2017">{{harvnb|Lazaridis|Mittnik|Patterson|Mallick|2017}}</ref>

==Demographics==
===Ancient===
{{See also|Colonies in antiquity}}
[[File:Griechischen und phönizischen Kolonien.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|Greek colonization in antiquity]]

In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in [[Southern Italy]] (the so-called "[[Magna Graecia]]"), Spain, the [[History of Marseille|south of France]] and the [[Pontian Greeks|Black sea coasts]].<ref name=Apoikiai>{{harvnb|Boardman|1984|pp=199–289}}.</ref> Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the [[Seleucid Kingdom|Middle East]], [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|India]] and in [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Egypt]].<ref name=Apoikiai/> The [[Hellenistic period]] is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in [[Dayuan|Asia]] and [[Cyrene, Libya|Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Horden|Purcell|2000|pp=111, 128}}.</ref> Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the [[lingua franca]] rather than [[Latin]].<ref name=Haldon50/> The modern-day [[Griko people|Griko community]] of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,<ref name="Grecia-Salentina"/><ref name=Bellinello/> may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

=== Modern ===
{{Main|Demographics of Greece|Demographics of Cyprus}}

Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the [[Hellenic Republic]],<ref name=Greece>{{cite web |script-title=el:Πίνακας 9. Πληθυσμός κατά υπηκοότητα και φύλο|language=el|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority|year=2001|url=http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1101_SAP_09_TB_DC_01_10_Y.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206090424/http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1101_SAP_09_TB_DC_01_10_Y.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2009|access-date=7 January 2009}}</ref> where they constitute 93% of the country's population,<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook|access-date=19 December 2008|work=Central Intelligence Agency|publisher=United States Government|year=2007|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109063832/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[Republic of Cyprus]] where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|title=Census of Population 2001|access-date=11 June 2016|publisher=Γραφείο Τύπου και Πληροφοριών, Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία|url=http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/805CB6E0CF012914C2257122003F3A84/$file/MAIN%20RESULTS-EN.xls?OpenElement|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203065940/http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/805CB6E0CF012914C2257122003F3A84/$file/MAIN%20RESULTS-EN.xls?OpenElement|archive-date=3 February 2017}}</ref> Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|1923 population exchange]] between Greece and Turkey.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Greece: Demographic trends|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|year=2016|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece/Climate|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=17 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717045510/https://www.britannica.com/place/Greece/Climate|url-status=live}}</ref> About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.<ref name=EconWorld>{{cite book|title=Pocket World in Figures (Economist)|publisher=Economist Books|location=London|year=2006|page=150|chapter=Merchant Marine, Tertiary enrollment by age group|isbn=978-1-86197-825-7}}</ref>

[[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic]]

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the [[British Empire]]. Waves of [[emigration]] followed the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cyprus: Demographic trends|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|id=Online Edition|year=2016|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=22 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622013659/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33828/Cyprus|url-status=live}}</ref> After the [[ethnic cleansing]] of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,<ref>{{harvnb|Papadakis|Peristianis|Welz|2006|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Borowiec|2000|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Rezun|2001|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Brown|2004|p=48}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos|2001|p=24: "In occupied Cyprus on the other hand, where heavy ethnic cleansing took place, only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200,000!"}}</ref> there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus"/> Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus"/>

Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.<ref name=BJp49>{{harvnb|Bideleux|Jeffries|2007|p=49: "It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid-1990s. The Albanian government claimed there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Georgiou |first=Myria |url=https://www.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/research/EMTEL/Minorities/papers/greekreport.pdf |title=Mapping Minorities and their Media: The National Context – Greece |publisher=London School of Economics |year=2004 |quote="The long and adventurous 20th century history of migration in Greece can be drawn by period: .... 1990's: The vast majority of the 200,000 ethnic Greeks from Albania". |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=14 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214211946/https://www.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/research/EMTEL/Minorities/papers/greekreport.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Greek minority of [[Greeks in Turkey|Turkey]], which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 [[Istanbul Pogrom|Constantinople Pogrom]] and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gilson|first=George|title=Destroying a minority: Turkey's attack on the Greeks|work=Athens News|date=24 June 2005|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://www.athensnews.gr/athweb/nathens.print_unique?e=C&f=13136&m=A10&aa=1&eidos=S|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617131719/http://www.athensnews.gr/athweb/nathens.print_unique?e=C&f=13136&m=A10&aa=1&eidos=S |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.<ref>{{harvnb|Vryonis|2005|pp=1–10}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Birand|first=Mehm |display-authors=etal |title=The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us|work=Hürriyet Daily News|date=7 September 2005|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-559132|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209034629/http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-559132|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the [[Greeks in Lebanon|Levant]] and the [[Greeks in Georgia|Black Sea]] states, remnants of the Old [[Greek Diaspora]] (pre-19th century).<ref name=Prevelakis>{{cite web|last=Prevelakis|first=George|year=2003|location=Oxford|publisher=Transnational Communities Programme (Working Paper Series)|access-date=16 May 2016|title=''Finis Greciae'' or the Return of the Greeks? State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation|url=http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working%20papers/prevelakis.PDF |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working%20papers/prevelakis.PDF |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Diaspora===
{{Main|Greek diaspora}}
[[File:50 largest Greek diaspora.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Greek diaspora (20th century)]]

The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the [[SAE – World Council of Hellenes Abroad]] put the figure at around seven million worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|title=Speech by Vasilis Magdalinos|access-date=19 December 2008|publisher=SAE|date=29 December 2006|url=http://www.sae.gr/?id=12566&tag=%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%20%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B7%20%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721090732/http://www.sae.gr/?id=12566&tag=%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%20%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B7%20%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> According to George Prevelakis of [[Sorbonne University]], the number is closer to just below five million.<ref name=Prevelakis/> Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Greek diaspora (''omogenia''). Important centres include [[Greek Americans|New York City]], [[Chicago]], [[Boston]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Greek Australian|Sydney]], [[Greek community of Melbourne|Melbourne]], [[Greeks in the United Kingdom|London]], [[Greek community of Toronto|Toronto]], [[Greek Canadian|Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Greek New Zealander|Auckland]], and [[Greek Brazilian|Sao Paulo]].<ref name=Prevelakis/> In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/15072008_SB1306.htm|title=Meeting on the exercise of voting rights by foreigners of Greek origin|work=Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=15 July 2008|access-date=19 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216034948/http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/15072008_SB1306.htm|archive-date=16 February 2012}}</ref> this law was repealed in early 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Non-Greeks and diaspora lose out on voting rights|publisher=Ekathimerini.com|date=8 February 2014|access-date=13 January 2015|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_08/02/2014_537214|archive-date=13 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113222826/http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_08/02/2014_537214|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Constantine Cavafy with cane and hat in hand Photograph dated 1896 Alexandria Egypt.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Poet [[Constantine P. Cavafy]], a native of [[Alexandria]], Egypt]]

During and after the [[Greek War of Independence]], Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.<ref>{{harvnb|Calotychos|2003|p=16}}.</ref> Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in [[Greeks in France|France]], Livorno in [[Greeks in Italy|Italy]], Alexandria in [[Greeks in Egypt|Egypt]]), [[Greeks in Russia|Russia]] ([[Odesa]] and [[Saint Petersburg]]), and [[British Greeks|Britain]] (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.<ref name=Diaspora>{{harvnb|McCabe|Harlaftis|2005|pp=147–149}}.</ref> Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Diaspora/>

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become [[Greek shipping|shippers]], financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the [[Ralli Brothers|Ralli]] or [[Panayis Athanase Vagliano|Vagliano Brothers]].<ref name=Kardasis>{{harvnb|Kardasis|2001|pp=xvii–xxi}}.</ref> With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the [[Greeks in Syria|Levant]], North Africa, India and the USA.<ref name=Kardasis/><ref name=Clogg>{{harvnb|Clogg|2000|loc="The Greeks in America"}}</ref>

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the [[Greek American|United States]], [[Greeks in the United Kingdom|Great Britain]], [[Greek Australian|Australia]], [[Greek Canadian|Canada]], [[Greeks in Germany|Germany]], and [[Greeks in South Africa|South Africa]], especially after the [[Second World War]] (1939–1945), the [[Greek Civil War]] (1946–1949), and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]] in 1974.<ref>{{harvnb|Laliotou|2004|pp=85–92}}.</ref>

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the [[Greek financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Seiradaki|first=Emmanouela|title=As Crisis Deepens, Astoria Finds Its Greek Essence Again|work=Greek Reporter|publisher=GreekReporter.com|date=11 April 2012|access-date=21 May 2016|url=http://usa.greekreporter.com/2012/04/11/as-crisis-deepens-astoria-finds-its-greek-essence-again/|archive-date=25 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225103121/https://usa.greekreporter.com/2012/04/11/as-crisis-deepens-astoria-finds-its-greek-essence-again/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to data published by the [[Federal Statistical Office of Germany]] in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Papachristou|first1=Harry|last2=Elgood|first2=Giles|title=Greece Already Close to Breaking Point|agency=Reuters|work=The Fiscal Times|date=20 May 2012|access-date=22 May 2012|url=http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2012/05/20/Greece-Already-Close-to-Breaking-Point.aspx#page1|archive-date=30 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730210903/http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2012/05/20/Greece-Already-Close-to-Breaking-Point.aspx#page1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hannon|first=Paul|title=OECD Says Euro-Zone Crisis Has Led to Some Emigration|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=27 June 2012|access-date=21 May 2016|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303649504577492411116780178|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231522/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303649504577492411116780178|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Greece}}
[[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.<ref name="Christianity-Hellenism">{{harvnb|van der Horst|1998|pp=9–11}}; {{harvnb|Voegelin|Moulakis|1997|pp=175–179}}</ref> [[Ottoman Greeks]] had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in [[Greek genocide|genocide]] in the 20th century.<ref name=IAGS>{{cite press release|title=Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides|publisher=[[International Association of Genocide Scholars]]|date=16 December 2007|url=http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227043831/http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bjørnlund|2008|pp=41–58}}; {{harvnb|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|pp=7–14}}; {{harvnb|Levene|1998|p=393}}; {{harvnb|Tatz|2003|pp=xiii, 178}}.</ref> The [[Diafotismos]] is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.<ref name=BritIdent/><ref name=Mazower/>

===Language===
{{Main|Greek language|Greek language question}}
[[File:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|right|Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Kostas speaking Greek.webm|thumb|A Greek speaker]]
Most Greeks speak the [[Greek language]], an [[Hellenic languages|independent branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]], with its closest relations possibly being [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (see [[Graeco-Armenian]]) or the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] (see [[Graeco-Aryan]]).<ref name=Adrados/> It has the longest documented history of any living language and [[Greek literature]] has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.<ref name=BritLit>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Greek literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=27 August 2014|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature|access-date=21 June 2022|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621194153/https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature|url-status=live}}</ref> The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the [[Linear B]] script, dated as far back as 1450 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aegeanscripts.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98:new-linear-b-tablet-found-at-iklaina&catid=80&Itemid=473|title=New Linear B tablet found at Iklaina|publisher=Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes, UNESCO|access-date=29 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015044633/http://www.aegeanscripts.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98:new-linear-b-tablet-found-at-iklaina&catid=80&Itemid=473|archive-date=15 October 2013}}</ref> Following the [[Greek Dark Ages]], from which written records are absent, the [[Greek alphabet]] appears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], and in turn became the parent alphabet of the [[Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the [[Homer|Homeric epics]], variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include [[Euclid's Elements]], Ptolemy's [[Almagest]], and others. The [[New Testament]] was originally written in [[Koine Greek]].<ref>{{harvnb|Aland|Aland|1995}}.</ref>

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other [[Languages of the Balkans|Balkan languages]], such as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Eastern Romance languages]] (see [[Balkan sprachbund]]), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] origin.<ref>{{harvnb|Winford|2003|p=71}}.</ref> Because of the movements of [[Philhellenism]] and the [[Diafotismos]] in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of [[Katharevousa]], a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the [[Hellenic Parliament]] voted to make the spoken [[Dimotiki]] the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackridge|1990|p=25}}.</ref>

[[Modern Greek]] has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide [[Varieties of Modern Greek|variety of dialects]] of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including [[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot]], [[Pontic language|Pontic]], [[Cappadocian Greek|Cappadocian]], [[Griko language|Griko]] and [[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]] (the only surviving representative of ancient [[Doric Greek]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Tomić|2006|p=703}}.</ref> [[Yevanic language|Yevanic]] is the language of the [[Romaniotes]], and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, [[Arvanitika]]/Albanian, [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]], [[Slavic dialects of Greece|Macedonian Slavic]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and Turkish.<ref name=Adrados/><ref>{{harvnb|Fasold|1984|p=160}}.</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in ancient Greece|Greek Orthodox Church|Church of Greece}}
[[File:Christ_Pantocrator_mosaic_from_Hagia_Sophia_2744_x_2900_pixels_3.1_MB.jpg|thumb|[[Christ Pantocrator]] [[mosaic]] in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]]]]
Most Greeks are [[Christians]], belonging to the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="abs">{{cite web |url = http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/religious-diversity-index-scores-by-country/ |title = Greece |date = 4 April 2014 |publisher = PewForum |access-date = 4 April 2014 |archive-date = 23 October 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181023001753/http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/religious-diversity-index-scores-by-country/ |url-status = live }}</ref> During the first centuries after [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], the [[New Testament]] was originally written in [[Koine Greek]], which remains the [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.<ref name="Christianity-Hellenism"/> There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations like [[Latin Church|Latin]] and [[Greek Byzantine Catholic Church|Greek Byzantine]] [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], [[Greek Evangelical Church|Greek Evangelicals]], [[Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost|Pentecostals]], [[Mormons]], and groups adhering to other religions including [[Romaniotes|Romaniot]] and [[Sephardic Jews]], [[Greek Muslims]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. About 2,000 Greeks are members of [[Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism]] congregations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Head|first=James|title=The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct|work=New Statesman|page=The Faith Column|date=20 March 2007|access-date=12 May 2016|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-faith-column/2007/03/ancient-greek-gods-greece|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184645/https://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-faith-column/2007/03/ancient-greek-gods-greece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=de Quetteville|first=Harry|title=Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods|work=The Telegraph|date=8 May 2004|access-date=12 May 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/1461311/Modern-Athenians-fight-for-the-right-to-worship-the-ancient-Greek-gods.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/1461311/Modern-Athenians-fight-for-the-right-to-worship-the-ancient-Greek-gods.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom of Religion in Greece|work=International Religious Freedom Report|year=2006|publisher=United States Department of State|access-date=12 May 2016|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm|archive-date=9 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209120326/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in [[Greeks in Lebanon|Lebanon]] and [[Greeks in Syria|Syria]], while in the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] region of [[Turkey]] there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey|population exchange]] because of their religious affiliation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tsokalidou|first=Roula|title=Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria|work=Actas/Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo|year=2002|publisher=Roula Tsokalidou (Primary School Education Department, University of Thessaly, Greece)|pages=1245–1255|url=http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas2002/05/08.%20Roula%20Tsokalidou.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas2002/05/08.%20Roula%20Tsokalidou.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Arts===
{{Further|Greek art|Music of Greece|Ancient Greek architecture|Ancient Greek theatre|Modern Greek theatre|Cinema of Greece|Modern Greek architecture|Modern Greek literature}}
{{See also|Greco-Buddhist art}}

[[File:Maria Callas 1958.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Renowned Greek soprano [[Maria Callas]]]]
Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.<ref name=Osborne>{{harvnb|Osborne|1998|pp=1–3}}.</ref> In the West, [[Art in ancient Greece|classical Greek art]] was influential in shaping the [[Roman art|Roman]] and later the modern [[Western art history|Western artistic heritage]]. Following the [[Renaissance]] in [[Europe]], the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.<ref name=Osborne/> Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.<ref>{{harvnb|Pollitt|1972|pp=xii–xv}}.</ref> In the East, [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, [[Central Asia]]n and [[Culture of India|Indian]] cultures, resulting in [[Indo-Greek art|Indo-Greek]] and [[Greco-Buddhist art]], whose influence reached as far as [[Japan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Puri|1987|pp=28–29}}.</ref>

[[Byzantine art|Byzantine Greek art]], which grew from the Hellenistic [[Fayum portrait|classical art]] and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.<ref name="Mango-Art">{{harvnb|Mango|1986|pp=ix–xiv, 183}}.</ref> Its influences can be traced from [[Venice]] in the West to [[Kazakhstan]] in the East.<ref name="Mango-Art"/><ref>{{cite news|title=The Byzantine empire, The lasting glory of its art|newspaper=The Economist|date=4 October 2007|access-date=10 May 2016|url=http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9900058|archive-date=21 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221223452/http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9900058|url-status=live}}</ref> In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Persian art|Persia]], etc.) during various periods of its history.<ref>{{harvnb|Stansbury-O'Donnell|2015}}; {{harvnb|Tarbell|1907}}.</ref>

Notable modern Greek artists include: 
*the painters [[Dominikos Theotokopoulos]] (El Greco), [[Nikolaos Gyzis]], [[Konstantinos Volanakis]], [[Périclès Pantazis]], and [[Constantine Andreou]]; sculptors such as [[Yannoulis Chalepas]]; 
*composers such as [[Mikis Theodorakis]], [[Spyridon Samaras]], [[Iannis Xenakis]], [[Yanni]] and [[Vangelis]]; 
*singers such as [[Maria Callas]], [[Giorgos Dalaras]], [[Nana Mouskouri]], [[Vicky Leandros]] and [[Demis Roussos]]; 
*poets such as [[Dionysios Solomos]], [[Angelos Sikelianos]], [[Andreas Embirikos]], [[Constantine P. Cavafy]] and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel laureate]]s [[Giorgos Seferis]] and [[Odysseas Elytis]]; 
*the novelists [[Alexandros Papadiamantis]], [[Emmanuel Rhoides]], [[Ion Dragoumis]], [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], [[Penelope Delta]], [[Stratis Myrivilis]], [[Vassilis Vassilikos]] and [[Petros Markaris]], 
*playwrights include the [[Cretan Renaissance]] poets [[Georgios Chortatzis]] and [[Vitsentzos Kornaros|Vincenzos Cornaros]], and also [[Gregorios Xenopoulos]] and [[Iakovos Kambanellis]].

[[File:Ελευθέριος Βενιζέλος.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Eleftherios Venizelos]] was the leading political figure of 20th century Greece.]]
Notable cinema or theatre actors include [[Marika Kotopouli]], [[Melina Mercouri]], [[Ellie Lambeti]], [[Academy Award]] winner [[Katina Paxinou]], [[Alexis Minotis]], [[Dimitris Horn]], [[Thanasis Veggos]], [[Manos Katrakis]] and [[Irene Papas]]. [[Alekos Sakellarios]], [[Karolos Koun]], [[Vasilis Georgiadis]], [[Costa-Gavras|Kostas Gavras]], [[Michael Cacoyannis]], [[Giannis Dalianidis]], [[Nikos Koundouros]] and [[Theo Angelopoulos]] are among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects are [[Stamatios Kleanthis]], [[Lysandros Kaftanzoglou]], [[Anastasios Metaxas]], [[Panagis Kalkos]], [[Anastasios Orlandos]], the naturalized Greek [[Ernst Ziller]], [[Dimitris Pikionis]] and urban planners [[Stamatis Voulgaris]] and [[George Candilis]].

===Science===
{{see also|Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek mathematics|Ancient Greek medicine|Byzantine science|Greek scholars in the Renaissance|List of Greek inventions and discoveries}}
[[File:Aristarchus working.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first known individual to propose a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric system]], in the 3rd century BC.]]
The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as [[Greek astronomy|astronomy]], [[geography]], [[historiography]], [[Greek mathematics|mathematics]], [[Greek medicine|medicine]], [[Greek philosophy|philosophy]] and [[political science]]. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in [[Constantinople]], [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]] and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.<ref>{{cite web|title=Byzantine Medicine — Vienna Dioscurides|work=Antiqua Medicina|year=2007|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=10 May 2016|url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/byzantine/|archive-date=10 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010080300/http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/byzantine}}</ref> Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in ''paideia'' (education).<ref name=Harris/> ''Paideia'' was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the [[Fall of Constantinople|city's fall]] to the Ottomans in 1453.<ref name=Bump>{{cite web|last=Bump|first=Jerome|title=The Origin of Universities (University of Magnaura in Constantinople)|access-date=19 December 2008|work=The Origin of Universities|publisher=University of Texas at Austin|archive-date=20 February 2009|url=http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164836/http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html}}</ref> The [[University of Constantinople]] was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,<ref>{{harvnb|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}}.</ref> and considering the original meaning of the word university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.<ref name=Bump/>

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.<ref name=EconWorld/> Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.<ref>{{cite news|title=University reforms in Greece face student protests|newspaper=The Economist|date=6 July 2006|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ|archive-date=7 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207061901/http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Notable Greek scientists of modern times include: physician [[Georgios Papanikolaou|Georgios Papanicolaou]] (pioneer in [[cytopathology]], inventor of the [[Pap test]]); mathematician [[Constantin Carathéodory]] (acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations); archaeologists [[Manolis Andronikos]] (unearthed the tomb of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]), [[Valerios Stais]] (recognised the [[Antikythera mechanism]]), [[Spyridon Marinatos]] (specialised in [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] sites) and [[Ioannis Svoronos]]; chemists [[Leonidas Zervas]] (of [[Bergmann-Zervas carbobenzoxy method|Bergmann-Zervas synthesis]] and [[Z-group]] discovery fame), [[K. C. Nicolaou]] (first total synthesis of [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]) and [[Panayotis Katsoyannis]] (first chemical synthesis of [[insulin]]); computer scientists [[Michael Dertouzos]] and [[Nicholas Negroponte]] (known for their early work with the [[World Wide Web]]), [[John Argyris]] (co-creator of the [[Finite element method|FEM]]), [[Joseph Sifakis]] (2007 [[Turing Award]]), [[Christos Papadimitriou]] (2002 [[Knuth Prize]]) and [[Mihalis Yannakakis]] (2005 [[Knuth Prize]]); physicist-mathematician [[Demetrios Christodoulou]] (renowned for work on [[Minkowski spacetime]]) and physicists [[Achilles Papapetrou]] (known for solutions of [[general relativity]]), [[Dimitri Nanopoulos]] (extensive work on particle physics and cosmology), and [[John Iliopoulos]] (2007 [[Dirac Medal (ICTP)|Dirac Prize]] for work on the [[charm quark]]); astronomer [[E. M. Antoniadi|Eugenios Antoniadis]]; biologist [[Fotis Kafatos]] (contributor to [[cDNA]] cloning technology); botanist [[Theodoros G. Orphanides|Theodoros Orphanides]]; economist [[Xenophon Zolotas]] (held various senior posts in international organisations such as the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]); Indologist [[Dimitrios Galanos]]; linguist [[Ioannis Psycharis|Yiannis Psycharis]] (promoter of [[Demotic Greek]]); historians [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]] (founder of modern Greek historiography) and [[Helene Ahrweiler|Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler]] (excelled in [[Byzantine studies]]); and political scientists [[Nicos Poulantzas]] (a leading [[Structural Marxism|Structural Marxist]]) and [[Cornelius Castoriadis]] (philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).

Significant engineers and automobile designers include [[Nikolas Tombazis]], [[Alec Issigonis]] and [[Andreas Zapatinas]].

===Symbols===
{{See also|Flag of Greece}}
[[File:Flag of Greece.svg|thumb|upright|The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide.]]
[[File:Flag of the Greek Orthodox Church.svg|thumb|upright|The flag of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] is based on the coat of arms of the [[Palaiologoi]], the last dynasty of the [[Byzantine Empire]].]]

The most widely used symbol is the [[flag of Greece]], which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto ''[[Eleftheria i Thanatos]]'' (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the [[Greek War of Independence]].<ref>{{harvnb|Papadakis|1995|p=55}}.</ref> The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodoxy]]. The Greek flag is widely used by the [[Greek Cypriots]], although [[Cyprus]] has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] minority (see [[flag of Cyprus]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.gr/en/shmaia.htm |title=The Flag |access-date=19 December 2008 |work=Law 851, Gov. Gazette 233, issue A, dated 21/22.12.1978 |publisher=Presidency of the Hellenic Republic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015001727/http://www.presidency.gr/en/shmaia.htm |archive-date=15 October 2008 }}</ref>

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a [[Cross|Greek cross]] (''crux immissa quadrata'') on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The [[national emblem of Greece]] features a blue [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.<ref>{{cite web|title=Older Flags: 19 December 2008|work=Flags of the Greeks|publisher=Skafidas Zacharias|url=http://users.att.sch.gr/zskafid/simea5a.htm|access-date=23 December 2008|archive-date=14 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514124602/http://users.att.sch.gr/zskafid/simea5a.htm|url-status=live}} [Note: Website contains image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag.]</ref>

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the [[Flag of Greece#Double-headed eagle|double-headed eagle]], the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in [[Asia Minor]] and, later, [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grierson|Bellinger|1999|loc="Eagles", pp. 85–86}}</ref> It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the [[Greek Army]] and the flag of the [[Church of Greece]]. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.<ref>{{cite web|title=Byzantine Flags|work=Byzantine Heraldry|publisher=François Velde|year=1997|access-date=13 May 2016|url=http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm|archive-date=6 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106100602/http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Politics===
{{See also|Politics in Greece}}

[[Classical Athens]] is considered the birthplace of [[Democracy]]. The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in [[Greek city-state]]s, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to [[aristocracy]] ({{lang|grc|ἀριστοκρατία}}, ''{{lang|la|aristokratía}}''), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to [[oligarchy]]. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2006|p=511}}.</ref> Led by [[Cleisthenes]], Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,<ref>{{harvnb|Po-chia Hsia|Hunt|Martin|Rosenwein|Smith|2007|p=44}}.</ref> which took gradually the form of a [[direct democracy]]. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the [[early modern period]].

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the [[French Revolution]] was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]] and the establishment of the modern Greek state.<ref name="Cl48">Clogg, ''A Concise History of Greece '', pp. 25–26</ref><ref name="Paroulakis32">Goldstein, ''Wars and Peace Treaties'', p. 20</ref>

Notable modern Greek politicians include [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], founder of the [[First Hellenic Republic]], reformist [[Charilaos Trikoupis]], [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats [[Georgios Papandreou]] and [[Alexandros Papanastasiou]], [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], founder of the [[Third Hellenic Republic]], and socialist [[Andreas Papandreou]].

===Surnames and personal names===
{{see also|Greek name|Ancient Greek personal names}}

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.<ref name=Wickham>{{harvnb|Wickham|2005|p=237}}.</ref><ref name="lexicon"/> Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,<ref name=Wickham/> such those ending in the suffix ''-opoulos'' or ''-ides'', while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.<ref name="lexicon"/> Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine [[proper nouns]] in the [[nominative case]]. Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in ''-ou'', indicating the [[genitive case]] of a patronymic name.<ref>{{harvnb|Fong|2004|p=39}}.</ref> Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as ''-akis'' (Crete), ''-eas'' or ''-akos'' ([[Mani Peninsula]]), ''-atos'' (island of [[Cephalonia]]), ''-ellis'' (island of [[Lesbos]]) and so forth.<ref name="lexicon"/> In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks from [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Ionian Islands]], respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Koliopoulos|1987|p=xii}}.</ref> Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.<ref name="lexicon">{{cite web|title=The Transition of Modern Greek Names|work=Lexicon of Greek Personal Names|publisher=Oxford University|url=http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/modern.html|access-date=10 May 2016|archive-date=22 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722065202/http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/modern.html}}</ref> As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.<ref>{{cite web|title=Naming practices|work=Lexicon of Greek Personal Names|publisher=Oxford University|url=http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/practices.html|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-date=16 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816211449/http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/practices.html}}</ref> Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as ''-akis'' for male names and ''-itsa'' or ''-oula'' for female names.<ref name="lexicon"/> Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to the [[Russian names|Russians]] and other [[East Slavs]] ([[otchestvo]]).

===Sea: exploring and commerce===
{{Main|Greek shipping}}
[[File:Aristotle Onassis 1967cr.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Aristotle Onassis]], the best-known Greek shipping magnate worldwide]]

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, [[Southern Italy]] (the so called "[[Magna Graecia]]"), the [[Black Sea]], the [[Ionia|Ionian coasts]] of [[Asia Minor]] and the islands of [[Cyprus]] and [[Sicily]]. In Plato's ''[[Phaedo|Phaidon]]'', Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.<ref>Plato. ''Phaidon'', 109c: "ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας."</ref><ref name=Harl>{{harvnb|Harl|1996|p=260: "Cities employed the coins of an empire that formed a community of cities encircling the Mediterranean Sea, which Romans audaciously called "Our Sea" (''mare nostrum''). "We live around a sea like frogs around a pond" was how Socrates, so Plato tells us, described to his friends the Hellenic cities of the Aegean in the late fifth century B.C."}}</ref> This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The [[sea]] and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.<ref name=Roberts1/>

Notable Greek seafarers include people such as [[Pytheas|Pytheas of Massalia]] who sailed to Great Britain, [[Euthymenes]] who sailed to Africa, [[Scylax of Caryanda]] who sailed to India, the [[navarch]] of Alexander the Great [[Nearchus]], [[Megasthenes]], explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monk [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (''Cosmas who sailed to India''), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as [[Juan de Fuca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pletcher|2013}}; {{harvnb|Casson|1991|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Winstedt|1909|pp=1–3}}; {{harvnb|Withey|1989|p=42}}.</ref> In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the [[Byzantine emperor]] on trade with the [[Caliphate]] opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2001|pp=30–32}}; {{harvnb|Postan|Miller|Postan|1987|pp=132–166}}</ref> [[Panayotis Potagos]] was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and [[Uele River]] from the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] and during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.<ref name=BritIdent/> Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly [[flags of convenience]].<ref name=EconWorld/> The most notable shipping [[magnate]] of the 20th century was [[Aristotle Onassis]], others being [[Yiannis Latsis]], [[Stavros G. Livanos]], and [[Stavros Niarchos]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Blyth |first=Myrna |title=Greek Tragedy: The life of Aristotle Onassis |work=National Review |date=12 August 2004 |access-date=19 December 2008 |url=http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDRjYzJhMWI5ZjE3ZmNmOWQ0YWEyNjBkYmI1MjhiODI= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207011737/http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDRjYzJhMWI5ZjE3ZmNmOWQ0YWEyNjBkYmI1MjhiODI%3D |archive-date=7 December 2008  }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Helena|title=Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis's life|work=The Guardian|date=6 October 2006|access-date=13 May 2016|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/arts.artsnews|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231440/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/arts.artsnews|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Genetics==
{{Further|Mycenaean Greece#Genetic and anthropometric studies}}
{{See also|Genetic history of Europe|Roopkund#Human skeletons}}
[[File:Plos.Balkans.2.png|thumb|right|Admixture analysis of [[autosomal]] [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]]s of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (orange), South Asian (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).]]
[[File:European population substructure.png|thumb|right|Factor correspondence analysis comparing different individuals from European ancestry groups]]

In their [[archaeogenetic]] study, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical; modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks, but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations. Furthermore, proposed migrations by [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] or [[Phoenicia]]n colonists was not discernible in their data, thus "rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions." The [[Fixation index|F{{sub|ST}}]] between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.<ref name="Gibbons2017" /><ref name="Lazaridis2017" /> In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came from [[Early European Farmers|Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF)]], while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to the [[Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG)]] (~20.1–22.7%) and the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic|Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN)]] culture in the Levant (~7–14%). The Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to the [[Eastern Hunter-Gatherer|Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG)]], introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]], and ~0.9–2.3% from the [[Iron Gates Mesolithic|Iron Gates Hunter-Gatherers]] in the Balkans. Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry, while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether.<ref>{{harvnb|Lazaridis|Alpaslan-Roodenberg|Acar|Açıkkol|2022|pp=1–13|loc=Supplementary Materials: {{Plain link|url=https://www.science.org/doi/suppl/10.1126/science.abm4247/suppl_file/science.abm4247_sm.pdf pp. 233–241}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927205509/https://www.science.org/action/downloadSupplement?doi=10.1126%2Fscience.abm4247&file=science.abm4247_sm.pdf |date=27 September 2023 }}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lecture by Prof. David Reich - "The Genetic History of the Southern Arc: A Bridge between West Asia & Europe" |url=https://iias.huji.ac.il/event/david-reich-lecture |access-date=2022-06-21 |website=iias.huji.ac.il |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202043403/https://iias.huji.ac.il/event/david-reich-lecture |url-status=live }}</ref>

A genetic study by Clemente et al. (2021) found that in the Early Bronze Age, the populations of the Minoan, [[Helladic civilization|Helladic]], and [[Cycladic culture|Cycladic]] civilizations in the Aegean, were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated; probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya-related population from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]]. This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece, who had a much higher proportion of steppe-related ancestry; the timing of this gene flow was estimated at ~2,300 BCE, and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto-Greek language. Present-day Greeks share ~90% of their ancestry with them, suggesting continuity between the two time periods. In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however, their steppe-related ancestry was diluted. The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2-way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece, and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population; the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization.<ref>{{harvnb|Clemente|Unterländer|Dolgova|Amorim|2021}}</ref>

Genetic studies using multiple [[Genealogical DNA test#Autosomal DNA (atDNA) testing|autosomal]], [[Genealogical DNA test#Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) testing|Y-DNA]], and [[Genealogical DNA test#Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing|mtDNA]] markers, show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans ([[Italians]] and Balkan populations such as [[Albanians]], [[Slavic Macedonians]] and [[Romanians]]). A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lao|first1=Oscar|display-authors=etal|title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe|journal=Current Biology|year=2008|volume=18|issue=16|pages=1241–1248|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049|pmid=18691889|s2cid=16945780|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008CBio...18.1241L }}</ref> and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians and [[South Slavs|southern Balkan Slavs]] such as Slavic Macedonians and [[Bulgarians]].<ref name="Novembre et al 2008">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|year=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref> A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the [[Basques]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ayub|first1=Q|s2cid=467540|title=Reconstruction of human evolutionary tree using polymorphic autosomal microsatellites|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|year=2003|volume=122|issue=3|pages=259–268|doi=10.1002/ajpa.10234|pmid=14533184|bibcode=2003AJPA..122..259A}}</ref> and F{{sub|ST}} distances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,<ref name="Cavalli-Sforza 1996">{{cite book|last1=Cavalli-Sforza|first1=Luigi Luca|last2=Menozzi|first2=Paolo|last3=Piazza|first3=Alberto|title=The History and Geography of Human Genes|date=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02905-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historygeography00luig/page/255 255–301]|url=https://archive.org/details/historygeography00luig/page/255}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bauchet|first1=M|display-authors=etal|title=Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data|journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics|Am. J. Hum. Genet.]]|year=2007|volume=80|issue=5|pages=948–956|doi=10.1086/513477|pmid=17436249|pmc=1852743}}</ref> especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Chao|display-authors=etal|title=European Population Genetic Substructure: Further Definition of Ancestry Informative Markers for Distinguishing Among Diverse European Ethnic Groups|journal=Molecular Medicine|year=2009|volume=15|issue=11–12|pages=371–383|doi=10.2119/molmed.2009.00094|pmid=19707526|pmc=2730349}}</ref> A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while [[Crete|Cretan]] Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.<ref name="King et al 2008">{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=Roy J.|s2cid=22406638|display-authors=etal|title=Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic|journal=Annals of Human Genetics|year=2008|volume=72|issue=Pt 2|pages=205–214|doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x|pmid=18269686}}</ref> Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Martin|display-authors=etal|title=In search of geographical patterns in European mitochondrial DNA|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2002|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1168–1174|doi=10.1086/342930|pmid=12355353|pmc=385092}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Martin|display-authors=etal|title=Tracing European founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2000|volume=67|issue=5|pages=1251–1276|doi=10.1016/S0002-9297(07)62954-1|pmid=11032788|pmc=1288566 |bibcode=2000AmJHG..67.1251R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Achilli|first1=Alessandro|display-authors=etal|title=Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2007|volume=80|issue=4|pages=759–768|doi=10.1086/512822|pmid=17357081|pmc=1852723}}</ref> and [[principal component analysis]] (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Chao|display-authors=etal|title=Analysis and Application of European Genetic Substructure Using 300 K SNP Information|journal=[[PLOS Genetics]]|volume=4|issue=1|article-number=e4|year=2008|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0040004|pmid=18208329|pmc=2211544 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Cavalli-Sforza]] (1993) associates with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cavalli-Sforza|first1=Luigi Luca|last2=Piazza|first2=Alberto|title=Human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of recent research and prospects for the future|journal=Eur J Hum Genet|volume=1|issue=1|pages=3–18|year=1993|pmid=7520820|doi=10.1159/000472383|s2cid=25475102}}</ref> Greeks also have a degree of Eastern-European-related ancestry which is observed in all Balkan peoples; it was acquired after 700 CE, coinciding with the arrival of Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans, but the proportion of this ancestry varies considerably between different studies and subregions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Carrión |first2=Pablo |last3=Mikić |first3=Ilija |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Lazaridis |first6=Iosif |last7=Mah |first7=Matthew |last8=Korać |first8=Miomir |last9=Golubović |first9=Snežana |last10=Petković |first10=Sofija |last11=Miladinović-Radmilović |first11=Nataša |last12=Vulović |first12=Dragana |last13=Alihodžić |first13=Timka |last14=Ash |first14=Abigail |last15=Baeta |first15=Miriam |display-authors=et al. |date=7 December 2023 |title=A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=186 |issue=25 |url=https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/1-s2.0-S0092867423011352-main.pdf |at=p. 5480; {{Plain link|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10752003/figure/F4/ Figure 4B}}; {{Plain link|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10752003/#SD6 Data S2, Table 8}} |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.018 |pmc=10752003 |pmid=38065079 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stamatoyannopoulos |first1=George |last2=Bose |first2=Aritra |last3=Teodosiadis |first3=Athanasios |last4=Tsetsos |first4=Fotis |last5=Plantinga |first5=Anna |last6=Psatha |first6=Nikoletta |last7=Zogas |first7=Nikos |last8=Yannaki |first8=Evangelia |last9=Zalloua |first9=Pierre |last10=Kidd |first10=Kenneth K. |last11=Browning |first11=Brian L. |last12=Stamatoyannopoulos |first12=John |last13=Paschou |first13=Peristera |last14=Drineas |first14=Petros |date=2017 |title=Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks |journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=637–645 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.18 |issn=1018-4813 |pmc=5437898 |pmid=28272534}}</ref> A 2019 study showed that Cretans share high [[Identity by descent|IBD]] with Western ([[Demographics of Utah#Birth data|CEU]]), Central ([[Germans|German]] and [[Polish people|Polish]]), Northern (CEU, [[Scandinavian people|Scandinavian]]) and Eastern Europeans ([[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]], [[Russians|Russian]]), similar to mainland Greeks who share high IBD with Eastern Europeans. This reflects settlement patterns in Crete, driven by Myceneans and Dorians, Goths and Slavs. Peoples like [[Andalusians]], [[Near Eastern]] [[Arabs]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] left a minimal genetic impact on Cretans. But a PCA analysis shows that Cretans overlap with [[Peloponnese]]ans, Sicilians and [[Ashkenazi Jews]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drineas |first1=Petros |last2=Tsetsos |first2=Fotis |last3=Plantinga |first3=Anna |last4=Lazaridis |first4=Iosif |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |title=Genetic history of the population of Crete |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=373–388 |doi=10.1111/ahg.12328 |pmid=31192450 |pmc=6851683 }}</ref> A 2022 study discovered high genetic affinities between present-day southeastern Peloponnesian populations and Apulians, Calabrians and southeastern Sicilians, which are "all characterised by a cluster composition different from those displayed by other Greek groups", due to low influence from inland populations such as Slavic-related people and/or genetic drift in [[Tsakonia|Tsakones]] and [[Maniots]]. Individuals from western Sicily additionally show similarities with peoples from the western part of the Peloponnese.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2022.110405 | title=Assessing temporal and geographic contacts across the Adriatic Sea through the analysis of genome-wide data from Southern Italy | date=2022 | last1=Raveane | first1=Alessandro | last2=Molinaro | first2=Ludovica | last3=Aneli | first3=Serena | last4=Capodiferro | first4=Marco Rosario | last5=De Gennaro | first5=Luciana | last6=Ongaro | first6=Linda | last7=Rambaldi Migliore | first7=Nicola | last8=Soffiati | first8=Sara | last9=Scarano | first9=Teodoro | last10=Torroni | first10=Antonio | last11=Achilli | first11=Alessandro | last12=Ventura | first12=Mario | last13=Pagani | first13=Luca | last14=Capelli | first14=Cristian | last15=Olivieri | first15=Anna | last16=Bertolini | first16=Francesco | last17=Semino | first17=Ornella | last18=Montinaro | first18=Francesco | journal=Genomics | volume=114 | issue=4 | article-number=110405 | pmid=35709925 | hdl=11586/436540 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> A 2023 study states that early Cretan farmers shared the same ancestry as other Neolithic Aegeans but received 'eastern' gene flow of Anatolian origin at the end of the Neolithic Age. From the 17th to 12th centuries BCE, genetic signatures of Central and East European ancestry gradually increased in Crete, indicative of mainland Greek influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skourtanioti |first1=Eirini |last2=Ringbauer |first2=Harald |last3=Ruscone |first3=Guido Alberto Gnecchi |last4=Bianco |first4=Raffaela Angelina |display-authors=3 |date=2023 |title=Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=290–303 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01952-3 |pmid=36646948 |pmc=9911347 |bibcode=2023NatEE...7..290S }}</ref>

==Physical appearance==
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 285
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = Detalhe do Sarcófago das Amazonas.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Produzione greca o magnogreca, sarcofago dipinto delle amazzoni, 350-325 a.C. ca, da tarquinia 02.jpg
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = 
| image3            = Produzione greca o magnogreca, sarcofago dipinto delle amazzoni, 350-325 a.C. ca, da tarquinia 05.jpg
| alt3              = 
| caption3          = 
| footer            = Greek warriors, details from painted [[sarcophagus]] found in Italy, 350–325 BC
| footer_align      = left
}}

A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 [[blond]], 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with [[blue]], 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.<ref>{{harvnb|Walsh|2013|pp=98–115}}.</ref>

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the [[University of Athens]], and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.<ref>{{harvnb|Lagouvardos|Tsamali|Papadopoulou|Polyzois|2012}}</ref>

A 2017 study found that Bronze Age Aegean populations had mostly dark hair (brown to black) and eyes. The genetic phenotype predictions matched the visual representations made by the Greeks of themselves, suggesting that art of this period reproduced phenotypes naturalistically.<ref name="Lazaridis2017" />

==Timeline==
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking population was settled in [[Asia Minor]] (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! style="width:80px" |Time
! Events
|-
| '''{{Circa|3rd millennium BC}}'''|| [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] tribes from around the Southern Balkans/Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland.
|-
| '''16th century BC'''|| Emergence of the [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]] and formation of the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]], which produced the earliest textual evidence of the Greek language.
|-
| '''15th century BC'''|| [[Knossos]] ruled by a Mycenaean elite, who formed a hybrid Mycenaean-Minoan culture on Crete.<ref name=":4">{{harvnb|McEnroe|2010|pp=117–120, 122, 126–130}}.</ref>
|-
| '''14th century BC''' || Mycenaean involvement in [[Asia Minor]] begins.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckman|Bryce|Cline|2012|pp=268–270: "The archaeological and textual evidence clearly demonstrates that there were well-established connections between the Aegean and western Anatolia during the late-fifteenth through the thirteenth centuries B.C.E."}}</ref>
|-
| '''11th century BC''' || The Mycenaean civilization ends with destructions of palaces and internal displacements. The [[Greek Dark Ages]] begin. [[Dorians]] move into peninsular Greece.
|-
| '''9th century BC''' ||Major colonization of Asia Minor and [[Cyprus]] by the Greek tribes.
|-
| '''8th century BC''' ||First major colonies established in [[Sicily]] and Southern Italy. The first Pan-Hellenic festival, the Olympic games, is held in 776 BC. The emergence of Pan-Hellenism marks the [[ethnogenesis]] of the Greek nation.
|-
| '''6th century BC''' ||Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
|-
| '''5th century BC''' ||Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in [[Ionia]], the [[Black Sea]] and Aegean perimeter culminates in [[Athenian Empire]] and the [[Classical Greece|Classical Age of Greece]]; ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the [[Peloponnesian War]]
|-
| '''4th century BC'''|| Rise of [[Thebes (Greece)|Theban]] power and defeat of the Spartans; [[Rise of Macedon]]; Campaign of [[Alexander the Great]]; Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and Asia.
|-
| '''2nd century BC''' || Conquest of Greece by the [[Roman Empire]]. Migrations of Greeks to [[Rome]].
|-
| '''4th century AD''' || [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towards [[Constantinople]].
|-
| '''7th century'''|| [[Slavs|Slavic]] conquest of several parts of Greece, Greek migrations to Southern Italy, Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to [[Cappadocia]]. The [[Bosporus]] is re-populated by [[Macedonians (Greeks)|Macedonian]] and [[Greek Cypriots|Cypriot Greeks]].
|-
| '''8th century''' || Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula.
|-
| '''9th century''' || Retro-migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions (mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly).
|-
| '''13th century'''|| Roman Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by the [[Fourth Crusade]]; becoming the capital of the [[Latin Empire]]. Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place.
|-
| '''15th century –<br />19th century''' || Conquest of Constantinople by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[Greek diaspora]] into Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece. [[Phanariot]] Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets.
|}
{{Col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! style="width:60px" |Time
! Events
|-
| '''1830s'''|| Creation of the [[History of modern Greece|modern Greek state]]. Emigration to the [[New World]] begins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place.
|-
| '''1913'''||European Ottoman lands partitioned; unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states.
|-
| '''1914–1923''' || [[Greek genocide]]; hundreds of thousands of [[Ottoman Greeks]] are estimated to have died during this period.<ref name="Rummel">{{cite web | url= http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM | title= Statistics of Democide | work= Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources | author= R. J. Rummel | access-date= 4 October 2006 | author-link= R. J. Rummel | archive-date= 25 August 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120825145112/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM | url-status= live }}</ref>
|-
| '''1919'''|| [[Treaty of Neuilly]]; Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions.
|-
| '''1922'''|| [[Great Fire of Smyrna|The Destruction of Smyrna]] (modern-day Izmir) more than 40 thousand Greeks killed; end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor.
|-
| '''1923'''|| [[Treaty of Lausanne]]; Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in [[Constantinople]], [[Imbros]], [[Tenedos]] and the Muslim minority of [[Western Thrace]]. 1.5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey.
|-
| '''1940s'''|| Hundreds of thousands of Greeks die of starvation during the [[Great Famine (Greece)|Great Famine]] caused by the [[Axis occupation of Greece|Axis occupation]].
|-
| '''1947'''|| [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Communist Romania]] begins evictions of the [[Greeks in Romania|Greek community]]; approx. 75,000 migrate.
|-
| '''1948'''|| [[Greek Civil War]]: tens of thousands of [[Communist Party of Greece|communists]] and their families flee to [[Eastern Bloc]] nations. Thousands settle in [[Tashkent]].
|-
| '''1950s'''|| Massive emigration of Greeks to [[West Germany]], the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and other countries.
|-
| '''1955'''|| [[Istanbul pogrom]] against the city's Greeks. [[Expulsion of Istanbul Greeks|Exodus of Greeks]] accelerates; fewer than 2,000 remain today.
|-
| '''1958'''|| Large [[Greeks in Egypt|Greek community]] in [[Alexandria]] flees [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s [[Arab socialism|Arab socialist]] regime in [[History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser|Egypt]].
|-
|'''1960s''' || [[Republic of Cyprus]] created as a [[sovereign state]] under Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues.
|-
| '''1974'''||[[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]]. Almost all Greeks living in northern Cyprus flee to the south or the United Kingdom.
|-
| '''1980s'''||Many civil war refugees allowed to return to Greece. Retro-migration of Greeks from Germany begins.
|-
| '''1990s'''||[[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Approximately 340,000 ethnic Greeks migrate from [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], southern Russia, and Albania to Greece.
|-
| '''early 2000s'''|| Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia.
|-
| '''2010s'''|| Over 200,000 people,<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Helena|title=Young, gifted and Greek: Generation G – the world's biggest brain drain|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/19/young-talented-greek-generation-g-worlds-biggest-brain-drain|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=19 January 2015|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=11 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311211954/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/19/young-talented-greek-generation-g-worlds-biggest-brain-drain|url-status=live}}</ref> particularly young [[brain drain|skilled individuals]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Lowen|first=Mark|title=Greece's young: Dreams on hold as fight for jobs looms|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22702003|access-date=25 July 2013|date=29 May 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|quote=The brain drain is quickening. A recent study by the University of Thessaloniki found that more than 120,000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and scientists, have left Greece since the start of the crisis in 2010.|archive-date=25 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225044924/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22702003|url-status=live}}</ref> emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment (see also [[Greek government-debt crisis]]).<ref>{{cite news|last=Melander|first=Ingrid|title=Greeks seek to escape debt crisis abroad|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-emigration-idUSTRE79R18O20111028|access-date=25 July 2013|date=28 October 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|archive-date=2 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102000606/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-emigration-idUSTRE79R18O20111028|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}
{{col-end}}

==See also==
{{portal|Ancient Greece|Greece}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Antiochian Greeks]]
*[[Arvanites]]
*[[Cappadocian Greeks]]
*[[Caucasian Greeks]]
*[[Greek Cypriots]]
*[[Greek Diaspora]]
*[[Griko people]]
*[[Karamanlides]]
*[[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
*[[Maniots]]
*[[Greek Muslims]]
*[[Cretan Muslims]]
*[[Northern Epirotes]]
*[[Pelasgians]]
*[[Pontic Greeks]]
*[[Romaniotes]]
*[[Sarakatsani]]
*[[Tsakones]]
*[[Urums]]
*Lists
**[[List of ancient Greeks]]
**[[List of Greeks]]
**[[List of Greek Americans]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last=Adrados|first=Francisco Rodriguez|title=A History of the Greek Language: From its Origins to the Present|year=2005|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-90-04-12835-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx_NjXiMZM0C|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-date=15 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715080305/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx_NjXiMZM0C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Aland|first1=Kurt|last2=Aland|first2=Barbara|title=The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism|edition=2nd|year=1995|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-4098-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Angelov|first=Dimiter|title=Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330)|year=2007|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85703-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vce6EJAcHA4C|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927205511/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vce6EJAcHA4C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|last=Angold|first=Michael|title=Byzantine 'Nationalism' and the Nicaean Empire|journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|volume=1|issue=1|year=1975|pages=49–70|doi=10.1179/030701375790158257|s2cid=161584160}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Argyropoulos |first1=Evangelos |last2=Sassouni |first2=Viken |last3=Xeniotou |first3=Anna |title=A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4,000 years |journal=The Angle Orthodontist |date=1 September 1989 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=195–204 |pmid=2672905 |url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article/59/3/195/56599/A-comparative-cephalometric-investigation-of-the |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801054919/https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article/59/3/195/56599/A-comparative-cephalometric-investigation-of-the |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|last1=Atkinson|first1=Quentin D.|last2=Gray|first2=Russel D.|editor-last1=Forster|editor-first1=Peter|editor-last2=Renfrew|editor-first2=Colin|chapter=Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?|title=Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages|pages=91–109|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research|isbn=978-1-902937-33-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Barutciski|first=Michael|chapter=3 Lausanne Revisited: Population Exchanges in International Law and Policy|editor1-last=Hirschon|editor1-first=Renée|title=Crossing the Aegean: The Consequences of the 1923 Greek-Turkish Population Exchange (Studies in Forced Migration)|year=2003|location=New York|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-562-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CtDQqKh90YwC}}
*{{cite book|last=Beaton|first=Roderick|title=The Medieval Greek Romance|edition=2nd|year=1996|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-12032-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lT0n5UtGDoIC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Beckman|first1=Gary|last2=Bryce|first2=Trevor|last3=Cline|first3=Eric|year=2012|title=The Ahhiyawa Texts|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-1-58983-268-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Bellinello|first=Pier Francesco|title=Minoranze Etniche e Linguistiche|language=it|year=1998|location=Cosenza|publisher=Editoriale Bios|isbn=978-88-7740-121-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHdJAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bideleux|first1=Robert|last2=Jeffries|first2=Ian|title=The Balkans: A Post-Communist History|year=2007|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-96911-3|oclc=85373407}}
*{{cite journal|last=Bjørnlund|first=Matthias|s2cid=72975930|date=February 2008|title=The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=10|issue=1|pages=41–58|doi=10.1080/14623520701850286}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Boardman|editor-first1=John|editor2-last=Griffin|editor2-first=Jasper|editor3-last=Murray|editor3-first=Oswyn|title=The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World|year=1991|orig-date=1986|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-285247-2|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofg00boar|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Boardman|first=John|chapter=13. The Greek World|pages=199–289|editor-last=Boardman|editor-first=John|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Plates to Volume III, the Middle East, the Greek World and the Balkans to the Sixth Century B.C.|year=1984|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24289-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJ_GlGBXxH0C}}
*{{cite book|last=Borowiec|first=Andrew|title=Cyprus: A Troubled Island|year=2000|location=London and Westport, CT|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0-275-96533-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzEDg6-d80MC}}
*{{cite book|last=Brice|first=Lee L.|title=Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great|year=2012|location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|isbn=978-1-61069-069-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYVRgtuJ7PIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Broome|first=Benjamin J.|title=Exploring the Greek Mosaic: A Guide to Intercultural Communication in Greece|year=1996|location=Yarmouth, ME|publisher=Intercultural Press|isbn=978-1-931930-39-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCT_0Q-HHewC}} 
*{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Neville|title=Global Instability and Strategic Defence|year=2004|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-30413-9}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/trojanstheirneig0000bryc|url-access=registration|title=The Trojans and Their Neighbours|last=Bryce|first=Trevor|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-34955-0|language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=Bubenik|first=V.|year=2007|chapter=The rise of Koiné|editor=A. F. Christidis|title=A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=342–345}}
*{{cite book|last=Budin|first=Stephanie Lynn|title=The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction|year=2009|orig-date=2004|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537984-6|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeksint0000budi|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Burckhardt|first=Jacob|title=The Greeks and Greek Civilization|year=1999|orig-date=1872|location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-24447-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6viARAF6uowC}}
*{{cite book|last=Burger|first=Michael|title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment|year=2008|location=Ontario|publisher=Broadview Press|isbn=978-1-55111-432-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Burstein|first=Stanley M.|chapter=The Greek Tradition from Alexander to the End of Antiquity|pages=27–50|editor1-last=Thomas|editor1-first=Carol G.|title=Paths from Ancient Greece|year=1988|location=Leiden|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-08846-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAwVAAAAIAAJ}} 
*{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Thomas|chapter=The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900|pages=1–58|editor1-last=Holmes|editor1-first=George|title=The Oxford History of Medieval Europe|year=2001|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280133-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tipj609Efw8C}}
*{{cite book|last=Browning|first=Robert|title=Medieval and Modern Greek|year=1983|orig-date=1969|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23488-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b55B1J7I99AC|access-date=7 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927205605/https://books.google.com/books?id=b55B1J7I99AC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Burton|first=Watson|title=Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, Han Dynasty II|year=1993|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08166-5|edition=Revised}}
*{{cite book|editor-last1=Cadogan|editor-first1=Gerald|title=The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean|location=Leiden|publisher=E. J. Brill|year=1986|isbn=90-04-07309-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDrKSZ6zVPUC}}
*{{cite book|last=Calotychos|first=Vangelis|title=Modern Greece: A Cultural Poetics|year=2003|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-85973-716-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_4cAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|title=The Byzantines|year=2009|location=Oxford|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210023/https://books.google.com/books?id=59c6PSa5JCAC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Cartledge|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Cartledge|title=Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction|year=2011|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C|isbn=978-0-19-960134-9|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210127/https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Castleden|first=Rodney|title=The Mycenaeans|year=2005|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36336-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kfi0dAlfJaoC|access-date=22 April 2016|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115132907/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kfi0dAlfJaoC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Casson|first=Lionel|title=The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times|year=1991|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01477-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Ls6MczXvBEC}}
*{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=John|author-link=John Chadwick|title=The Mycenaean World|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-521-29037-1|url=https://archive.org/details/mycenaeanworld00chad|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Clark|first=Bruce|title=Twice A Stranger: How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey|year=2006|location=London|publisher=Granta Books|isbn=978-1-86207-752-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DF1oAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Clemente|first1=Florian|last2=Unterländer|first2=Martina|last3=Dolgova|first3=Olga|last4=Amorim |first4=Carlos Eduardo G.|display-authors=et al.|date=2021-05-13|title=The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]|volume=184|issue=10|pages=2565–2586.e21|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.039|pmid=33930288 |pmc=8127963|issn=0092-8674}}
*{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|year=2013|orig-date=1992|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-65644-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M492AgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210026/https://books.google.com/books?id=M492AgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century|year=2000|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-60047-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2VnQgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Cole|editor-first=Jeffrey|editor-link=Jeffrey Cole|title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia|series=Ethnic Groups of the World Series|year=2011|location=Santa Barbara and Oxford|publisher=ABC-CLIO Incorporated|isbn=978-1-59884-302-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C|access-date=13 May 2016|archive-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311102543/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Dickinson|first=Oliver|year=2016|chapter=The Coming of the Greeks and All That|editor-last1=Bintliff|editor-first1=John|editor-last2=Rutter|editor-first2=N. Keith|title=The Archaeology of Greece and Rome: Studies in Honor of Anthony Snodgrass|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://www.academia.edu/31061039}}
*{{cite book|last=Dietrich|first=Bernard Clive|title=The Origins of Greek Religion|year=1974|location=Berlin|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-003982-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQO7haySEe8C|access-date=22 April 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210028/https://books.google.com/books?id=eQO7haySEe8C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Drews|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Drews|title=The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East|year=1994|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-02951-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcVIcaJxgdUC}}
*{{cite book|last=Dunstan|first=William|title=Ancient Rome|year=2011|location=Lanham and New York|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6834-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xkOhwFzz1AkC}}
*{{cite book|last=Earl|first=Donald C.|title=The Age of Augustus|location=New York|publisher=Exeter Books (Paul Elek Productions Incorporated)|year=1968|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbl-AAAAIAAJ|access-date=21 June 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210028/https://books.google.com/books?id=gbl-AAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Fafalios|first1=Maria|last2=Hadjipateras |first2=Costas|year=1995|title=Greece 1940–41: Eyewitnessed |publisher=Efstathiadis |language=el|location=Athens|isbn=978-960-226-533-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Fasold|first=Ralph W.|title=The Sociolinguistics of Society|year=1984|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-631-13462-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=psIn20r3NqYC}}
*{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|year=2003|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8028-2221-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC}}
*{{cite book|last=Feuer|first=Bryan|title=Mycenaean Civilization: An Annotated Bibliography through 2002, Revised Edition|year=2004|location=Jefferson, NC and London|publisher=McFarland & Company Inc., Publishers|isbn=9780786417483|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SQTBQAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Finkelberg|first=Margalit|chapter=Canonising and Decanonising Homer: Reception of the Homeric Poems in Antiquity and Modernity|pages=15–28|editor1-last=Niehoff|editor1-first=Maren R.|title=Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters|year=2012|location=Leiden|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-22134-5|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41HxeoKtosC|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=15 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715080807/https://books.google.com/books?id=x41HxeoKtosC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Foltz|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization|year=2010|orig-date=1999|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-62125-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EylaCwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Fong|first1=Mary|chapter=3. Ethnic and Cultural Identity: Distinguishing Features|pages=35–50|editor1-last=Fong|editor1-first=Mary|editor2-last=Chuang|editor2-first=Rueyling|title=Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity|year=2004|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-1739-4|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ue4CCUhRYa4C}}
*{{cite book|last1=Fouracre|first1=Paul|last2=Gerberding|first2=Richard A.|title=Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-7190-4791-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Georgiev|first=Vladimir Ivanov|title=Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages|year=1981|location=Sofia|publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences|isbn=978-953-51-7261-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmZiAAAAMAAJ|access-date=15 April 2016|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326113555/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmZiAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Gilbar|first=Gad G.|title=Population Dilemmas in the Middle East: Essays in Political Demography and Economy|year=1997|location=London and Portland|publisher=Frank Cass|isbn=978-0-7146-4706-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQRFQkIKsrYC}}
*{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|title=The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra|year=1990|location=London|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=978-0-297-82057-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzXNNwAACAAJ}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=Russel D.|last2=Atkinson|first2=Quentin D.|title=Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin|journal=Nature|volume=426|year=2003|pages=435–439|doi=10.1038/nature02029|pmid=14647380|issue=6965|bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G|s2cid=42340|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1|access-date=1 September 2020|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618030521/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d6aef57c-ce30-40fb-8786-f64c4a70afd1|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Green|first=Peter|title=Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age: A Short History|year=2008|location=London|publisher=Phoenix|isbn=978-0-7538-2413-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bUnHwAACAAJ|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210029/https://books.google.com/books?id=1bUnHwAACAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Grierson|first1=Philip|last2=Bellinger|first2=Alfred Raymond|title=Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection (Volume Five: Michael VIII to Constantine XI 1258–1453)|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1999|isbn=978-0-88402-261-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJmoF52BiBsC}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Guibernau|editor1-first=Montserrat|editor2-last=Hutchinson|editor2-first=John|editor2-link=John Hutchinson (academic)|title=History and National Destiny: Ethnosymbolism and its Critics|year=2004|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-2391-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg02yIlq7f4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Haldon|first=John F.|title=Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture|year=1997|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31917-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210555/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Hall|first=Jonathan M.|title=A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE|year=2014|orig-date=2007|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-22667-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGNH-oxXiAUC}} 
*{{cite book|last=Heath|first=Thomas|title=A History of Greek Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drnY3Vjix3kC&q=ancient%20Greek%20mathematicians|year=1981|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-24073-2|page=1|archive-date=16 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216154657/https://books.google.com/books?id=drnY3Vjix3kC&q=ancient%20Greek%20mathematicians|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Hansen|first=William F.|title=Handbook of Classical Mythology|year=2004|location=Santa Barbara, CA|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-226-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z-LIKN0Ap0C|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210541/https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z-LIKN0Ap0C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Harl|first=Kenneth W.|title=Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700|year=1996|location=Baltimore and London|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5291-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC|access-date=10 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210622/https://books.google.com/books?id=5yPDL0EykeAC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Harris|first=William Vernon|title=Ancient Literacy|year=1991|orig-date=1989|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-03837-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TChZ2JwTxp8C}}
*{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Michael H.|title=History of Libraries in the Western World|year=1999|orig-date=1995|edition=4th|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=The Scarecrow Press Incorporated|isbn=978-0-8108-7715-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQ3FmadbMvkC}}
*{{cite book|last=Harrison|first=Thomas|title=Greeks and Barbarians|year=2002|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-93958-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrfHQgAACAAJ|access-date=7 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210541/https://books.google.com/books?id=VrfHQgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Hershlag|first=Zvi Yehuda|title=Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East|year=1980|location=Leiden|publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=978-90-04-06061-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awoVAAAAIAAJ}} 
*{{cite book|last=Hooker|first=J. T.|title=Mycenaean Greece|year=1976|location=London|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|isbn=9780710083791|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0YbAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Horden|first1=Peregrine|last2=Purcell|first2=Nicholas|title=The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History|year=2000|location=Oxford and Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-631-21890-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8GhRYNrkzYC}}
*{{cite book|last=Howatson|first=M.C.|title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature|year=1989|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-866121-4|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00howa|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Hunter|first=Archibald Macbride|title=Introducing the New Testament|year=1972|location=London|publisher=SCM Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Isaac|first=Benjamin H.|title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity|year=2004|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12598-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfylyRawl8EC|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210557/https://books.google.com/books?id=jfylyRawl8EC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Jeffries|first=Ian|title=Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition|year=2002|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge (Taylor & Francis)|isbn=978-0-415-23671-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqCnCOgGc5AC|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211539/https://books.google.com/books?id=kqCnCOgGc5AC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaldellis|first=Anthony|title=Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition|year=2007|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87688-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWs0Lh57NvwC|access-date=28 April 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211541/https://books.google.com/books?id=iWs0Lh57NvwC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Kaplanis|first=Tassos|chapter=Antique Names and Self-Identification: Hellenes, Graikoi, and Romaioi from Late Byzantium to the Greek Nation-State|pages=81–97|editor-last=Tziovas|editor-first=Dimitris|title=Re-imagining the Past: Antiquity and Modern Greek Culture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|location=Oxford|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/8985143|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=12 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312104136/https://www.academia.edu/8985143|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Kardasis|first=Vassilis|title=Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775–1861|year=2001|location=Lanham and Oxford|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-0245-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFr-fdW9u_UC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kazhdan|first1=Alexander Petrovich|last2=Constable|first2=Giles|title=People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1982|isbn=978-0-88402-103-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bs2uV8eBVIcC|access-date=7 May 2016|archive-date=15 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715080305/https://books.google.com/books?id=bs2uV8eBVIcC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|last=Klein|first=Holgen A.|s2cid=12649697|title=Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=58|year=2004|pages=283–314|jstor=3591389|doi=10.2307/3591389|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last1=Koliopoulos|first1=John S.|last2=Veremis|first2=Thanos M.|title=Greece: The Modern Sequel: From 1831 to the Present|year=2002|location=New York, NY|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-4767-4|url=https://archive.org/details/greecemodernsequ0000koli|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Koliopoulos|first=Giannes|title=Brigands with a Cause: Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece, 1821–1912|year=1987|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon|isbn=978-0-19-822863-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0poAAAAMAAJ|access-date=12 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211542/https://books.google.com/books?id=n0poAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Konstan|first=David|chapter=To Hellenikon Ethnos: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity|editor1-last=Malkin|editor1-first=Irad|title=Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity|year=2001|pages=29–50|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University|isbn=978-0-674-00662-1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRppAAAAMAAJ|access-date=30 April 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211542/https://books.google.com/books?id=fRppAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Lagouvardos|first1=Panagiotis E.|last2=Tsamali|first2=Ioana|last3=Papadopoulou|first3=Christine|last4=Polyzois|first4=Gregory|title=Tooth, Skin, Hair and Eye Colour Interrelationships in Greek Young Adults|journal=Odontology|year=2012|doi=10.1007/s10266-012-0058-1|pmid=22349932|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221847228|volume=101|issue=1|pages=75–83|s2cid=11606304}}
*{{cite book|last=Laliotou|first=Ioanna|chapter=Greek Diaspora|editor1-last=Ember|editor1-first=Melvin|editor2-last=Ember|editor2-first=Carol R.|editor3-last=Skoggard|editor3-first=Ian|title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume II: Diaspora Communities|year=2004|location=New York, NY|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|isbn=978-0-306-48321-9|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC|access-date=14 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927203729/https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Latacz|first=Joachim|title=Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery|year=2004|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926308-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccQIyA9CW-wC|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211544/https://books.google.com/books?id=ccQIyA9CW-wC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Mittnik |first2=Alissa |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Mallick |first4=Swapan |display-authors=et al. |title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=548 |issue=7666 |date=2017 |pages=214–218 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature23310 |pmid=28783727 |pmc=5565772 |bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Alpaslan-Roodenberg |first2=Songül |last3=Acar |first3=Ayşe |last4=Açıkkol |first4=Ayşen |display-authors=et al. |date=2022-08-26 |title=The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=377 |issue=6609 |article-number=eabm4247 |doi=10.1126/science.abm4247 |pmid=36007055 |pmc=10064553 |s2cid=251843620 |issn=0036-8075 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Sci...377m4247L }}
*{{cite book|last1=Leoussi|first1=Athena S.|last2=Grosby|first2=Steven|title=Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations|year=2006|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}
*{{cite journal|last=Levene|first=Mark|title=Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|volume=12|issue=3|year=1998|pages=393–433|doi=10.1093/hgs/12.3.393}}
*{{cite book|last=Lucore|first=Sandra K.|chapter=Archimedes, the North Baths at Morgantina, and Early Developments in Vaulted Construction|pages=43–60|editor1-last=Kosso|editor1-first=Cynthia|editor2-last=Scott|editor2-first=Anne|title=The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance|year=2009|location=Leiden and Boston|publisher=BRILL|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC|isbn=978-90-04-17357-6|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927212533/https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Mackridge|first=Peter|chapter=Katharevousa (c. 1800–1974): An Obituary for an Official Language|pages=25–52|editor1-last=Sarafis|editor1-first=Marion|editor2-last=Eve|editor2-first=Marion|title=Background to Contemporary Greece (Volume 1)|year=1990|location=London|publisher=The Merlin Press|isbn=978-0-85036-393-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCSzc6em25gC}}
*{{cite book|last=Magdalino|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Magdalino|title=Tradition and Transformation in Medieval Byzantium|year=1991|location=Aldershot|publisher=Variorum|isbn=978-0-86078-295-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEloAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927212539/https://books.google.com/books?id=fEloAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Makrides|first1=Vasilios|title=Hellenic Temples and Christian Churches: A Concise History of the Religious Cultures of Greece from Antiquity to the Present|year=2009|location=New York|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-9568-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKOY5NsekfkC|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927212535/https://books.google.com/books?id=kKOY5NsekfkC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=James|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|year=1997|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=19 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219032618/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Mango|first=Cyril A.|title=The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453: Sources and Documents|year=1986|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6627-5|url=https://archive.org/details/artofbyzantine00mang|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite journal|last=Mango|first=Cyril|year=1965|title=Byzantinism and Romantic Hellenism|journal=Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes|volume=28|pages=29–43|doi=10.2307/750662|jstor=750662|s2cid=195042286}}
*{{cite book|last=Maratou-Alipranti|first=Laura|chapter=5 Greece: From Emigration to Immigration and the Problems of Inter-Ethnic Relations|pages=196–232|editor1-last=Roberts|editor1-first=Lance W.|editor2-last=Ferguson|editor2-first=Barry|editor3-last=Bös|editor3-first=Mathias|editor4-last=Von Below|editor4-first=Susanne|title=Multicultural Variations: Social Incorporation in Europe and North America|year=2013|location=Montreal & Kingston, London, Ithaca|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-8905-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qfQB7mTcArIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Mazower|first=Mark|title=The Balkans: A Short History|year=2000|location=New York|publisher=Modern Library|isbn=978-0-8129-6621-3|url=https://archive.org/details/balkansshorthist00mazo|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |last=Mazower |first=Mark |year=2001 |title=Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-08923-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KqTkwv2s3GkC}}
*{{cite book|last1=McCabe|first1=Ina Baghdiantz|last2=Harlaftis|first2=Gelina|title=Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History|year=2005|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-85973-875-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9kTAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=McEnroe|first=John C.|title=Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age|year=2010|publisher=University of Texas Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Milburn|first=Robert|title=Early Christian Art and Architecture|year=1988|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07412-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OcRTwsDq_Z4C|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927212535/https://books.google.com/books?id=OcRTwsDq_Z4C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=Catherine|title=Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC|year=1990|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37451-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJHSTMJZ_G8C}}
*{{cite web|last=Nagy|first=Gregory|title=The Heroic and the Anti-Heroic in Classical Greek Civilization|year=2014|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=President and Fellows of Harvard College|url=http://www.extension.harvard.edu/open-learning-initiative/ancient-greek-civilization|access-date=20 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520202801/https://www.extension.harvard.edu/open-learning-initiative/ancient-greek-civilization|archive-date=20 May 2016}} 
*{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=Ringwood, Vic.|publisher=Penguin|year=1998|isbn=978-0-14-025960-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9euYeUnGSEC}}
*{{cite book|last=Osborne|first=Robin|title=Archaic and Classical Greek Art|year=1998|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-284202-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMimQgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Özkırımlı|first1=Umut|last2=Sofos|first2=Spyros A.|title=Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey|year=2008|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70052-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eR-7aHdTIhIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Page|first=Gill|title=Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans, 1200–1420|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008}}
*{{cite book|last=Panayotou|first=A.|editor-last1=Christidis|editor-first1=A.-F.|editor-last2=Arapopoulou|editor-first2=Maria|editor-last3=Chritē|editor-first3=Maria|chapter=4 Arcado-Cypriot|title=A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity|year=2007|pages=786–791|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83307-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WJbd0m6YaFkC|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927212536/https://books.google.com/books?id=WJbd0m6YaFkC|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Papadakis|first=Yiannis|chapter=4. Nationalist Imaginings of War in Cyprus|pages=54–67|editor1-last=Hinde|editor1-first=Robert A.|editor2-last=Watson|editor2-first=Helen|title=War, a Cruel Necessity?: The Bases of Institutionalized Violence|year=1995|location=London and New York|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-824-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FB_4ABNmI8sC}} 
*{{cite book|last1=Papadakis|first1=Yiannis|last2=Peristianis|first2=Nicos|last3=Welz|first3=Gisela|chapter=Introduction – Modernity, History, and Conflict in Divided Cyprus: An Overview|pages=1–29|editor1-last=Papadakis|editor2-first=Yiannis|editor2-last=Peristianis|editor1-first=Nicos|editor3-last=Welz|editor3-first=Gisela|title=Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History, and an Island in Conflict|year=2006|location=Bloomington and Indianapolis|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-21851-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzPG7b_m4swC}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Papagrigorakis|first1=M.J.|last2=Kousoulis|first2=A.A.|last3=Synodinos|first3=P.N.|s2cid=45284840|title=Craniofacial Morphology in Ancient and Modern Greeks through 4,000 Years|journal=Anthropologischer Anzeiger|year=2014|volume=71|issue=3|pages=237–257|doi=10.1127/0003-5548/2014/0277|pmid=25065118}}
*{{cite book|last=Patterson|first=Cynthia|title=The Family in Greek History|year=1998|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00568-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIdqCPwXlhUC}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Pletcher|editor1-first=Kenneth|title=Explorers of Antiquity: From Alexander the Great to Marco Polo|year=2013|location=New York, NY|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-62275-027-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WadAAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Po-chia Hsia|first1=R.|last2=Hunt|first2=Lynn|last3=Martin|first3=Thomas R.|last4=Rosenwein|first4=Barbara H.|last5=Smith|first5=Bonnie G.|title=The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, A Concise History, Volume I: To 1740|year=2007|location=Boston and New York|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's}}
*{{cite book|last=Podzuweit|first=Christian|chapter=Die mykenische Welt und Troja|editor-last=Hänsel|editor-first=B.|title=Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v. Chr.|location=Berlin|year=1982|publisher=Prahistorische Archäologie in Sudosteuropa|language=de|pages=65–88}}
*{{cite book|last=Polinskaya|first=I.|chapter=Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144"|editor-last1=Rosen|editor-first1=R.|editor-last2=Sluiter|editor-first2=I.|title=Valuing Others in Classical Antiquity|year=2010|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill}}
*{{cite book|last=Pollitt|first=Jerome Jordan|title=Art and Experience in Classical Greece|location=New York, NY|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1972|isbn=978-0-521-09662-1|url=https://archive.org/details/artexperienceinc00poll|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last1=Postan|first1=Michael Moïssey|last2=Miller|first2=Edward|last3=Postan|first3=Cynthia|title=The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2)|year=1987|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08709-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDwp8n62nTwC}}
*{{cite book|last=Puri|first=Baij Nath|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|year=1987|location=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC}}
*{{cite book|last=Rezun|first=Miron|title=Europe's Nightmare: The Struggle for Kosovo|year=2001|location=London and Westport, CT|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0-275-97072-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0d5vy0e9scgC}}
*{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=J.M.|title=The New Penguin History of the World|year=2007|location=London and New York|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-103042-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YZsXxbOpZoC}}
*{{cite book|last=Robins|first=Robert Henry|title=The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History|year=1993|location=Berlin and New York|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-013574-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTZHbNmFfpsC}}
*{{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Last Byzantine Renaissance|location=London and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1970|isbn=978-0-521-07787-3|url=https://archive.org/details/lastbyzantineren0000runc|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Schaller|first1=Dominik J.|last2=Zimmerer|first2=Jürgen|title=Late Ottoman Genocides: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish Population and Extermination Policies – Introduction|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=10|issue=1|year=2008|pages=7–14|doi=10.1080/14623520801950820|s2cid=71515470}}
*{{cite book|last1=Schofield|first1=Louise|title=The Mycenaeans|year=2006|location=Los Angeles, CA|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214054/https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Ševčenko|first=Ihor|chapter=11 Palaiologan Learning|pages=284–293|editor1-last=Mango|editor1-first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-814098-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ82psJ2pLEC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=The Iranian Factor in Byzantium during the Reign of Heraclius|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=26|year=1972|pages=293–320|doi=10.2307/1291324|jstor=1291324}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Skourtanioti |first1=Eirini |last2=Ringbauer |first2=Harald |last3=Gnecchi Ruscone |first3=Guido Alberto |last4=Bianco |first4=Raffaela Angelina |display-authors=et al. |date=2023-01-16 |title=Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=290–303 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01952-3 |pmid=36646948 |pmc=9911347 |bibcode=2023NatEE...7..290S |issn=2397-334X}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|title=National Identity|year=1991|location=Reno|publisher=University of Nevada Press|isbn=978-0-87417-204-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEAJbHBlXR8C}}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|title=Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity|year=2003|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-210017-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tf1hXDmXzWsC}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Myths and Memories of the Nation|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-829534-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQC2QgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Sutton|first=Susan|title=Greeks|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Cultures|year=1996|publisher=The Gale Group|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Greeks.aspx#2|access-date=22 April 2016|archive-date=7 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407023650/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Greeks.aspx#2|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Stansbury-O'Donnell|first=Mark D.|title=A History of Greek Art|year=2015|location=Malden and Oxford|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5014-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DacXBgAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Steinberger|first=Peter J.|title=Readings in Classical Political Thought|year=2000|location=Indianapolis and Cambridge|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-87220-512-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHGPv2xhSwYC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Stouraitis|first=Ioannis|title=Roman Identity in Byzantium: A Critical Approach|journal=Byzantinische Zeitschrift|year=2014|volume=107|issue=1|pages=175–220|doi=10.1515/bz-2014-0009|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last=Tarbell|first=Frank Bigelow|title=A History of Greek Art|year=1907|orig-date=1896|location=London|publisher=MacMillan and Company|isbn=978-1-4047-8979-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4MKAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Tatakes|first1=Vasileios N.|last2=Moutafakis|first2=Nicholas J.|title=Byzantine Philosophy|year=2003|location=Indianapolis, IN|publisher=Hackett|isbn=978-0-87220-563-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPzcOwnCgVIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Tatz|first=Colin|title=With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide|year=2003|location=London and New York|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-85984-550-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khCffgX1NPIC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Tartaron|first1=Thomas F.|title=Maritime Networks in the Mycenaean World|year=2013|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-06713-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZbqAAAAQBAJ|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214055/https://books.google.com/books?id=sZbqAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Tomić|first=Olga Mišeska|title=Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features|year=2006|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-4487-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MFWOYUHULgsC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Tonkin|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Chapman|first2=Malcolm Kenneth|last3=McDonald|first3=Maryon|title=History and Ethnicity|year=1989|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-00056-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeAOAAAAQAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Tulloch|first=A.|title=Understanding English Homonyms: Their Origins and Usage|publisher=Hong Kong University Press| year=2017| isbn=978-988-8390-64-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7YjEAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite journal|last=Üngör|first=Uğur Ümit|author-link=Uğur Ümit Üngör|date=March 2008|title=On Young Turk Social Engineering in Eastern Turkey from 1913 to 1950|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=10|issue=1|pages=15–39|doi=10.1080/14623520701850278|s2cid=71551858}}
*{{cite book|last=van der Horst|first=Pieter Willem|author-link=Pieter Willem van der Horst|title=Hellenism-Judaism-Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction|year=1998|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-0578-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tv0t4pqrbZsC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Voegelin|first1=Eric|last2=Moulakis|first2=Athanasios|title=History of Political Ideas: Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity|year=1997|location=Columbia and London|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1126-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvA2eQKWwLIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Vryonis|first=Speros|title=The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul|year=2005|location=New York|publisher=Greekworks.com|isbn=978-0-9747660-3-4|url=https://archive.org/details/mechanismofcatas0000vryo|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite journal|last=Walsh|first=Susan|display-authors=etal|title=The HIrisPlex System for Simultaneous Prediction of Hair and Eye Colour from DNA|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=7|issue=1|pages=98–115|date=January 2013|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973%2812%2900181-0/fulltext|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.07.005|pmid=22917817|doi-access=free|access-date=17 May 2016|archive-date=3 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203070131/http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973%2812%2900181-0/fulltext|url-status=live}} 
*{{cite book|last=Watkins|first=Calvert|year=2000|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots|location=Boston, New York|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0-618-08250-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Wickham|first=Chris|title=Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800|year=2005|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926449-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q04qPNZasbIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=N.G.|year=2006|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-97334-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Withey|first=Lynne|title=Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific|year=1989|orig-date=1987|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06564-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiynU6HrSJUC}}
*{{cite book|last=Winford|first=Donald|title=An Introduction to Contact Linguistics|year=2003|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-631-21251-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc1DFju-FlYC}}
*{{cite book|last=Winstedt|first=Eric Otto|title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes|year=1909|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft}}
*{{cite book|last=Wood|first=Michael|title=In the Footsteps of Alexander The Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia|year=2001|orig-date=1997|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23192-4|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790520231923|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos|first=Alice|chapter=Non-governmental Organizations and Human Rights in Today's World|pages=21–38|editor1-last=Sicilianos|editor1-first=Linos-Alexandre|title=The Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights: Twenty Years of Activity|location=Athens and Komotini|publisher=Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers|year=2001|isbn=978-90-411-1672-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WGFKi7PJloC}}
*{{cite book|last=Zoch|first=Paul|title=Ancient Rome: An Introductory History|year=2000|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3287-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=95bu0O3LLlsC}}
*{{cite book|last=Zuwiyya|first=David|title=A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Leiden and Boston|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-18345-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=me0L6-MneZgC}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Asatryan |first1=G.S. |last2=Arakelova |first2=Viktoriia |title=The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia |year=2002 |location=Yerevan |publisher=Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies |isbn=978-99930-69-21-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoRpAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |last=Beaton |first=Roderick |title=The Greeks: a global history |publisher=Basic Books |publication-place=New York |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-5416-1829-9 |oclc=1237348138}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Clackson |first=James |title=The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek |year=1995 |location=Oxford |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-19197-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nnStQgAACAAJ |access-date=21 May 2016 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326113551/https://books.google.com/books?id=nnStQgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Kenyon |first=Sherrilyn |title=The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook |year=2005 |location=Cincinnati, OH |publisher=Writer's Digest Books |isbn=978-1-58297-295-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKzn9g38Y3IC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Malatras |first=Christos |chapter=The Making of an Ethnic Group: The Romaioi in 12th–13th Century |title=Ταυτότητες στον ελληνικό κόσμο (από το 1204 έως σήμερα. Δ΄ Ευρωπαϊκό Συνέδριο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Γρανάδα, 9–12 Σεπτεμβρίου 2010. Πρακτικά |volume=3 |location=Athens |publisher=European Association of Modern Greek Studies |editor=K. A. Dimadis |pages=419–430 |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1999944 |access-date=28 December 2017 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927163714/https://www.academia.edu/1999944 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Mango |first=Cyril A. |author-link=Cyril Mango |title=The Oxford History of Byzantium |year=2002 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-814098-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ82psJ2pLEC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Renfrew |first=Colin |chapter=Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area |pages=17–48 |editor-last1=Bammesberger |editor-first1=Alfred |editor-last2=Vennemann |editor-first2=Theo |title=Languages in Prehistoric Europe |year=2003 |location=Heidelberg |publisher=Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH |isbn=978-3-8253-1449-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VxiAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326113552/https://books.google.com/books?id=_VxiAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}

;'''Mycenaean Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Dickinson |first=Oliver |title=The Origins of Mycenaean Civilization |year=1977 |location=Götenberg |publisher=Paul Aströms Förlag}}
*{{cite journal |last=Dickinson |first=Oliver |title=Invasion, Migration and the Shaft Graves |journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies |volume=43 |issue=1 |date=December 1999 |pages=97–107 |doi=10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00480.x}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Dickinson |first=Oliver |title=The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC |year=2006 |location=New York, NY |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-96836-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l56BHO9_r5UC |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214055/https://books.google.com/books?id=l56BHO9_r5UC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Forsén |first=Jeannette |title=The Twilight of the Early Helladics |location=Partille, Sweden |year=1992 |publisher=Paul Aströms Förlag |isbn=978-91-7081-031-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlMtAAAAIAAJ |access-date=16 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214056/https://books.google.com/books?id=TlMtAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Mylonas |first=George Emmanuel |title=Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age |year=1966 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-03523-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/mycenaemycenaean0000mylo |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Tandy |first=David W. |year=2001 |title=Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy |location=Montréal, Québec, Canada |publisher=Black Rose Books |isbn=978-1-55164-188-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiqTCaFkvdYC |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214056/https://books.google.com/books?id=BiqTCaFkvdYC |url-status=live}}

;'''Classical Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Burkert |first=Walter |title=Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical |year=1987 |orig-date=1985 |location=Oxford and Malden |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1-118-72499-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSaRAAAAQBAJ |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927214057/https://books.google.com/books?id=NSaRAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Cartledge |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Cartledge |title=Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction |year=2011 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-960134-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927210127/https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Cartledge |first=Paul |title=The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others |year=2002 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280388-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Freeman |first1=Charles |title=Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean |year=2014 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-965192-4 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtMVAwAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2017 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927215112/https://books.google.com/books?id=UtMVAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Finkelberg |first=Margalit |title=Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition |year=2006 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44836-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-q2UQZ5XzAC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Hall |first=Jonathan M. |title=Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture |year=2002 |location=Chicago and London |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31329-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJBh7BjUlAMC |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927215112/https://books.google.com/books?id=jJBh7BjUlAMC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Hall |first=Jonathan M. |title=Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-78999-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicidentityin00jona |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=MacKendrick |first=Paul Lachlan |title=The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands |location=New York and London |publisher=W.W. Norton and Company |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-393-30111-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/greekstonesspeak00paul |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Malkin |first=Irad |title=The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-21185-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8eORbgLB6a4C |access-date=16 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927215113/https://books.google.com/books?id=8eORbgLB6a4C |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Walbank |first=Frank W. |title=Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography |year=1985 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-30752-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5z_vUPABapoC}}

;'''Hellenistic Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Chamoux |first=François |year=2002 |title=Hellenistic Civilization |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-631-22241-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC |access-date=16 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220154/https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |editor1-last=Bilde |editor1-first=P. |editor2-last=Engberg-Pedersen |editor2-first=T. |editor3-last=Hannestad |editor3-first=L. |editor4-last=Zahle |editor4-first=J. |title=Conventional Values of the Hellenistic Greeks (Studies in Hellenistic Civilization 8) |year=1997 |location=Aarhus |publisher=Aarhus University Press |isbn=978-87-7288-555-1}}

{{col-break|width=50%}}

;'''Byzantine Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Ahrweiler |first1=Hélène |last2=Laiou |first2=Angeliki E. |author2-link=Angeliki Laiou |title=Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire |year=1998 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection |isbn=978-0-88402-247-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohFJD_QT3E8C |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220105/https://books.google.com/books?id=ohFJD_QT3E8C |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Ahrweiler |first=Hélène |title=L'idéologie politique de l'Empire byzantin |location=Paris |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z1SGAAAAMAAJ |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220106/https://books.google.com/books?id=z1SGAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |title=Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon Continuum) |location=London |publisher=Hambledon & London |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI1pAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-1-84725-179-4 |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220106/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI1pAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |editor-last=Kazhdan |editor-first=Alexander Petrovich |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |location=New York and Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3u5RAAACAAJ |isbn=978-0-19-504652-6}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |title=Byzantine Civilisation |year=1966 |location=London |publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]] |isbn=978-1-56619-574-4}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Toynbee |first=Arnold J. |title=Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1973 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T05oAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-19-215253-4 |access-date=4 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220107/https://books.google.com/books?id=T05oAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}

;'''Ottoman Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Davis |first1=Jack E. |last2=Zarinebaf |first2=Fariba |last3=Bennet |first3=John |title=A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece: The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century |year=2005 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens |isbn=978-0-87661-534-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju9sKUox3OcC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Davis |first1=Jack E. |last2=Davies |first2=Siriol |title=Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece |year=2007 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens |isbn=978-0-87661-540-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoZlbnrH2SEC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Gondicas |first1=Dimitri |last2=Issawi |first2=Charles Philip |title=Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century |year=1999 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Darwin Press |isbn=978-0-87850-096-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJcPAQAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Lampe |first1=John R. |last2=Jackson |first2=Marvin R. |title=Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations |year=1982 |location=Bloomington, IN |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-30368-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtW2axOSn10C}}

;'''Modern Greeks'''
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Frary |first1=Lucien J. |title=Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821-1844 |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873377-5 |page=296}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Herzfeld |first=Michael |title=Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece |year=1982 |location=Austin, TX |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-76018-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n620AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Holden |first=David |title=Greece without Columns: The Making of the Modern Greeks |year=1972 |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-397-00779-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/greecewithoutcol00hold |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Karakasidou |first=Anastasia N. |title=Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990 |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-226-42494-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGQ2enTZWO4C}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last1=Mackridge |first1=Peter |last2=Yannakakis |first2=Eleni |title=Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85973-138-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |editor-last=Mazower |editor-first=Mark |title=After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960 |year=2000 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-05842-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAszKv6JfQUC}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Toynbee |first=Arnold Joseph |title=The Greeks and Their Heritages |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-19-215256-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |title=Sociolinguistic Variation and Change |location=Edinburgh, UK |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7486-1515-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3l1iAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927220107/https://books.google.com/books?id=3l1iAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |ref=none |last=Zacharia |first=Katerina |title=Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity |year=2008 |location=Surrey, United Kingdom |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=978-0-7546-6525-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1fGJRxUG6wC |access-date=12 May 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927223112/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1fGJRxUG6wC |url-status=live}}
{{col-end}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
'''Diaspora'''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140710011641/http://en.sae.gr/?id=12377 World Council of Hellenes Abroad (SAE)], Umbrella Diaspora Organization

'''Religious'''
*[http://www.ec-patr.org/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
*[http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?lang=en Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria]
*[http://antiochpatriarchate.org/ Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140111061737/http://jerusalem-patriarchate.info/ Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem] 
*[http://www.churchofcyprus.org.cy/ Church of Cyprus]
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/ Church of Greece]

'''Academic'''
*[http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/ Transnational Communities Programme at the University of Oxford] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616074433/http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/ |date=16 June 2009 }}, includes papers on the [[Greek Diaspora]]
*[https://archive.today/20060211141151/http://www.chs.harvard.edu/activities_events.sec/conferences.ssp/conf_greeks_on_greekness.pg Greeks on Greekness]: The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire.
*The [[Modern Greek Studies Association]] is a scholarly organization for modern Greek studies in [[North America]], which publishes the ''[[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]]''.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074434/https://gotgreek.hellenext.org/ Got Greek? Next Generation National Research Study]
*[http://wihs.uwaterloo.ca/ Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies]

'''Trade organizations'''
*[http://www.hcbt.com/ Hellenic Canadian Board of Trade]
*[http://www.hcla.ca/ Hellenic Canadian Lawyers Association]
*[https://archive.today/20130115104316/http://www.helleniccongressbc.ca/The_Hellenic_Canadian_Congress_of_BC/Index.html Hellenic Canadian Congress of British Columbia]
*[http://www.hellenicamerican.cc/ Hellenic-American Chamber of Commerce]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725125734/http://www.camarahelenoargentina.org/ingles/instituciones-relacionadas.php Hellenic-Argentine Chamber of Industry and Commerce (C.I.C.H.A.)]

'''Charitable organizations'''
*[http://ahepacanada.org/ AHEPA] – [[American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association]]
*[http://www.HHF.ca/ Hellenic Heritage Foundation]
*[http://www.hellenichome.org/ Hellenic Home for the Aged]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130709094545/http://www.hellenichope.org/about-us Hellenic Hope Center]}}
*[http://www.hellenicscholarships.org/en/index_en.html Hellenic Scholarships]

{{Ethnic groups in Greece}}
{{Greece topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]]
[[Category:Greek people| ]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Europe]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]