View source for Han dynasty

{{Short description|Imperial dynasty in China (202 BC – 220 AD)}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Eastern Han|House of Liu|the Five Dynasties-era kingdom|Northern Han|other uses|House of Liu (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{langn|zh|漢}}
| conventional_long_name = Han
| common_name            = Han
| era                    = [[History of China|Imperial]]
| status                 = Empire
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start             = 202 BC
| year_end               = 220 AD
| event_start            = [[Battle of Gaixia]]; Liu Bang proclaimed [[Emperor of China|emperor]]
| event_end              = Abdication to [[Cao Wei]]
| life_span              = {{plainlist|
* 202 BC – 9 AD; 25–220 AD
* {{nwr|{{nobold|(9–23 AD: [[Xin dynasty|Xin]])}}}}
}}
| p1                     = Qin dynasty
| p2                     = Eighteen Kingdoms
| p3                     = Ailao Kingdom
| p4                     = Dian kingdom
| s1                     = Cao Wei
| s2                     = Shu Han
| s3                     = Eastern Wu
| event_pre              = [[Xiang Yu]] appointed [[Liu Bang]] as King of Han
| date_pre               = 206 BC
| event1                 = [[Xin dynasty]]
| date_event1            = 9–23 AD
| stat_year1             = 50 BC ({{est.}} Western Han peak){{sfnp|Taagepera|1979|p=128}}
| stat_area1             = 6000000
| stat_year2             = 2 AD{{sfnmp|Nishijima|1986|1pp=595–596|Bielenstein|1987|2p=14}}
| stat_pop2              = 57,671,400
| stat_year3             = 100 AD ({{est.}} Eastern Han peak){{sfnp|Taagepera|1979|p=128}}
| stat_area3             = 6500000
| image_map              = Han Dynasty 2 BC (cropped).svg
| image_map_caption      = The Western Han dynasty in 2&nbsp;AD{{sfnp|Barnes|2007|p=63}}
{{plainlist|
* {{color box|#0000ff}} Principalities and centrally-administered [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]]
* {{color box|#0080ff}} [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] ([[Tarim Basin]])
}}
| capital                = {{ubli|[[Chang'an]] (206 BC – 9 AD, 190–195 AD)|[[Luoyang]] (23–190 AD, 196 AD)|[[Xuchang]] (196–220 AD)}}
| common_languages       = [[Old Chinese]]
| religion               = {{hlist|[[Chinese folk religion]]|[[Taoism]]|[[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]]}}
| currency               = {{ubl|[[Ban Liang coin]]s|[[Wu Zhu coin]]s}}
| leader1                = [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gaozu]]
| leader2                = [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]]
| leader3                = [[Emperor Xuan of Han|Emperor Xuan]]
| leader4                = [[Emperor Guangwu]]
| leader5                = [[Emperor Xian]]
| year_leader1           = 202–195 BC (first)
| year_leader2           = 141–87 BC
| year_leader3           = 74–48 BC
| year_leader4           = 25–57 AD
| year_leader5           = 189–220 AD (last)
| title_leader           = [[List of emperors of the Han dynasty|Emperor]]
<!-- Please do not alter any information below this line -->
| deputy1                = [[Xiao He]]
| deputy2                = [[Cao Shen]]
| deputy3                = [[Dong Zhuo]]
| deputy4                = [[Cao Cao]]
| deputy5                = [[Cao Pi]]
| year_deputy1           = 206–193 BC
| year_deputy2           = 193–190 BC
| year_deputy3           = 189–192 AD
| year_deputy4           = 208–220 AD
| year_deputy5           = 220 AD
| title_deputy           = [[Grand chancellor (China)|Chancellor]]
<!-- Please do not alter any information above this line -->
| module                 = 
{{Infobox Chinese
| child = yes
| t = {{linktext|漢}}
| s = {{linktext|汉}}
| p = Hàn
| bpmf = ㄏㄢˋ
| myr = Hàn
| w = {{tonesup|Han4}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|}}
| gr = Hann
| tp = Hàn
| y = Hon
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|h|on|3}}
| j = Hon3
| tl = Hàn
| wuu = Hoe
| poj = Hàn
| mc = xàn
| oc-b92 = *{{IPA|xans}}
| oc-bs = *{{IPA|n̥ˤar-s}}
}}
}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}

The '''Han dynasty''' (202&nbsp;BC{{snd}}9&nbsp;AD, 25–220&nbsp;AD) was an [[imperial dynasty of China]] established by [[Liu Bang]], and preceded by the short-lived [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206&nbsp;BC) and the [[interregnum]] known as the [[Chu–Han Contention]] (206–202&nbsp;BC). It was succeeded by the [[Three Kingdoms]] period (220–280&nbsp;AD) and also briefly interrupted by the [[Xin dynasty]] (9–23&nbsp;AD) established by the usurping regent [[Wang Mang]]. It is thus separated into two periods—the [[#Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)|Western Han]] (202&nbsp;BC{{snd}}9&nbsp;AD) and the [[#Eastern Han (25–220 AD)|Eastern Han]] (25–220&nbsp;AD). The Han dynasty is considered a [[Golden ages of China|golden age in Chinese history]], impacting Chinese identity in later periods.{{sfnp|Zhou|2003|p=34}} The majority ethnic group of modern [[China]] refer to themselves as the "[[Han people]]", while [[spoken Chinese]] and [[written Chinese]] are referred to respectively as the "[[Chinese language|Han language]]" and "[[Han characters]]".{{sfnp|Schaefer|2008|p=279}}

[[List of emperors of the Han dynasty|The Han emperor]] was at the pinnacle of [[Society and culture of the Han dynasty|Han society and culture]]. He presided over the [[Government of the Han dynasty|Han government]] but shared power with both [[Chinese nobility|the nobility]] and the appointed ministers, who came largely from the scholarly [[Gentry (China)|gentry class]]. The Han Empire was divided into [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] directly controlled by the central government and also [[Kings of the Han dynasty|semi-autonomous kingdoms]]. These kingdoms gradually lost their autonomy, particularly following the [[Rebellion of the Seven States]]. From the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] ({{reign|141|87&nbsp;BC}}) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored [[Confucianism]] in education and court politics, synthesizing it with the [[cosmology]] of [[Dong Zhongshu]]. The Han dynasty experienced [[economy of the Han dynasty|periods of economic prosperity]] as well as significant growth in the [[History of Chinese currency#Imperial China|money economy]], which had first been established during the [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{circa|1050}}–256&nbsp;BC). [[Ancient Chinese coinage|The coinage]] minted by the central government in 119&nbsp;BC remained the standard in China until the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907&nbsp;AD). To finance its [[Military of the Han dynasty|military campaigns]] and settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized private salt and iron industries in 117&nbsp;BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during the Eastern Han period. There were significant advances in [[Science and technology of the Han dynasty|science and technology]] during the Han period, including the invention of [[papermaking]], [[rudder]]s for steering ships, [[negative number]]s in [[Chinese mathematics|mathematics]], [[raised-relief map]]s, [[hydraulic]]-powered [[armillary sphere]]s for [[Chinese astronomy|astronomy]], and [[seismometer]]s that discerned the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of [[inverted pendulum]]s.

The Han dynasty had many conflicts with the [[Xiongnu]], a nomadic confederation centered in the eastern [[Eurasian steppe]].{{sfnp|Bailey|1985|pp=25–26}} The Xiongnu [[Battle of Baideng|defeated the Han]] in 200&nbsp;BC, prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid Han China's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133&nbsp;BC when Emperor Wu began a [[Han–Xiongnu War|series of military campaigns]] to quell the Xiongnu. Han forces cleaved the [[Hexi Corridor]] and [[Han dynasty in Inner Asia|Inner Asian territory]] of the [[Tarim Basin]] away from the Xiongnu, helping to establish the [[Silk Road]] trade route. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as [[List of tributaries of China|Han vassals]], though the lands north of the Han's borders were later overrun by the nomadic [[Xianbei]] confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|conquests in the south]], annexing [[Han–Nanyue War|Nanyue in 111&nbsp;BC]] and [[Han campaigns against Dian|Dian in 109&nbsp;BC]]. He further expanded Han territory into the northern [[Korean Peninsula]], where Han forces [[Han conquest of Gojoseon|conquered Gojoseon]] and established the [[Xuantu]] and [[Lelang]] commanderies in 108&nbsp;BC. 

After 92&nbsp;AD, palace [[eunuchs]] increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various [[consort clan]]s of the empresses and [[empresses dowager]]. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large [[Taoist]] religious societies which instigated the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] and the [[Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion]]. Following the death of [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]] ({{reign|168|189&nbsp;AD}}), the palace eunuchs [[History of the Han dynasty#Downfall of the eunuchs|were massacred]] by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and [[End of the Han dynasty|divide the empire]]. The Han dynasty came to an end in 220&nbsp;AD when [[Cao Pi]], king of [[Cao Wei|Wei]], usurped the throne from [[Emperor Xian]].

==Etymology==
According to the ''[[Shiji]]'', after the collapse of the [[Qin dynasty]] the hegemon [[Xiang Yu]] appointed [[Liu Bang]] as prince of the small fief of [[Hanzhong]], named after its location on the [[Han River (Shaanxi and Hubei)|Han River]] (in modern southwest [[Shaanxi]]). Following Liu Bang's victory in the [[Chu–Han Contention]], the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=116}} The [[Chinese character]] ''Han'' ({{lang|zh|漢}}) was also an ancient name for the [[Milky Way]] or "Sky River".{{sfnp|Pankenier|2013|pp=383–403}}

==History==
{{Main|History of the Han dynasty}}
{{further|Timeline of the Han dynasty}}

===Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)<!--'Western Han' and 'Former Han' redirect here-->===
{{See also|Chu-Han contention|Han–Xiongnu Wars|Han dynasty in Inner Asia|Southward expansion of the Han dynasty}}
{{further|Loulan Kingdom|Shule Kingdom|Kingdom of Khotan|Saka|Tocharians|Timeline of the Chu-Han Contention}}

China's first [[Dynasties in Chinese history|imperial dynasty]] was the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206&nbsp;BC). The Qin united the Chinese [[Warring States]] by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]]. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=60–61}} Two former rebel leaders, [[Xiang Yu]] ({{died-in|202&nbsp;BC}}) of [[Kingdom of Chu|Chu]] and [[Liu Bang]] ({{died-in|195&nbsp;BC}}) of [[Hanzhong|Han]], engaged [[Chu–Han contention|in a war]] to determine who would have hegemony over China, which had fissured into [[Eighteen Kingdoms]], each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=116–122}} Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the [[Battle of Gaixia]] (202&nbsp;BC) in modern-day [[Anhui]]. Liu Bang assumed [[Emperor of China|the title of Emperor]] at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gaozu]] ({{reign|202|195&nbsp;BC}}).{{sfnp|Davis|2001|pp=44–46}} [[Chang'an]] (modern Xi'an) was chosen as the new capital of the [[History of the Han dynasty|reunified empire under Han]].{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=122}}
[[File:Han dynasty Kingdoms 195 BC.png|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Thirteen direct-controlled [[commandery (China)|commanderies]] including the capital region (yellow) and ten semi-autonomous kingdoms, 195&nbsp;BC]]

At the beginning of the '''Western Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zh|t=西漢|s=西汉|p=Xīhàn|first=t}}), also known as the '''Former Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zhi|t=前漢|s=前汉|p=Qiánhàn|first=t}}), thirteen centrally controlled [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]]—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten [[Kings of the Han dynasty|semi-autonomous kingdoms]].{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=122–125}} To placate his prominent commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu [[enfeoffed]] some of them as kings.

By 196, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal [[Liu]] family members, with the lone exception of [[Changsha Kingdom|Changsha]]. The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned,{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=122–125}} and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the [[Rebellion of the Seven States]] in 154—the imperial court began enacting a series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=139–144}} Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=106}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}} Kings became nominal heads of their [[fief]]s and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=106}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}} The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the remainder of Western and Eastern Han.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=105}}

To the north of [[China proper]], the nomadic [[Xiongnu]] chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]] ({{reign|209|174&nbsp;BC}}) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. By the end of his reign, he controlled the [[Inner Asia]]n regions of [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], and the [[Tarim Basin]], subjugating over twenty states east of [[Samarkand]].{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=175–189, 196–198}}{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=80–81}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=387–388}} Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade [[embargo]] against the group.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=75–77}}

In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now [[Shanxi]], where they [[Battle of Baideng|defeated the Han forces at Baideng]] in 200&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=75–77}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=190–192}} After negotiations, the ''[[heqin]]'' agreement in 198&nbsp;BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.{{sfnp|Yü|1967|pp=9–10}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=52}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=192–195}}

Despite the tribute and negotiation between [[Laoshang Chanyu]] ({{reign|174|160&nbsp;BC}}) and [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]] ({{reign|180|157&nbsp;BC}}) to reopen border markets, many of the [[Chanyu]]'s subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the [[Great Wall]] for additional goods.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=388–389}}{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=77, 82–83}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=195–196}} In a court conference assembled by [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] ({{reign|141|87&nbsp;BC}}) in 135&nbsp;BC, the [[Consensus decision-making|majority consensus]] of the ministers was to retain the ''heqin'' agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=389–390}}

However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a [[Battle of Mayi|limited engagement at Mayi]] involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=389–391}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=211–214}} When this plot failed in 133&nbsp;BC,{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=91–92}} Emperor Wu launched a series of [[Han–Xiongnu War|massive military invasions]] into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119&nbsp;BC at the [[Battle of Mobei]], when Han commanders [[Huo Qubing]] ({{died-in|117&nbsp;BC}}) and [[Wei Qing]] ({{died-in|106&nbsp;BC}}) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the [[Gobi Desert]], and Han forces reached as far north as [[Lake Baikal]].{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=390}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=237–240}}
[[File:Huo Qubing horse (cropped).jpg|thumb|Statue of a horse trampling a [[Xiongnu]] warrior, at the mausoleum of Western Han general [[Huo Qubing]] ({{died-in|117&nbsp;BC}}), who fought in the [[Han–Xiongnu War]]. This is the first known monumental stone statue in China.{{sfnp|Qingbo|2023}}]]
{{multiple image
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - painted figure of a cavalryman.jpg
| width1            = 150
| caption1          = A Western Han painted ceramic mounted cavalryman from a general's tomb at [[Xianyang]], Shaanxi
| image2            = Bronze horse with lead saddle, Han Dynasty.jpg
| width2            = 150
| caption2          = A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse statuette with a lead saddle
}}

After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader [[Huhanye]] ({{reign|58|31&nbsp;BC}}) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51&nbsp;BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, [[Zhizhi Chanyu]] ({{reign|56|36&nbsp;BC}}), was killed by Han forces under [[Chen Tang (general)|Chen Tang]] and [[Gan Yanshou]] at the [[Battle of Zhizhi]], in modern [[Taraz]], Kazakhstan.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=196–197, 211–213}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=395–398}}

In 121&nbsp;BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the [[Hexi Corridor]] to [[Lop Nur]]. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-[[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]] invasion of this northwestern territory in 111&nbsp;BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control: [[Jiuquan]], [[Zhangyi]], [[Dunhuang]], and [[Wuwei, Gansu|Wuwei]].{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=5–8}}{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=241–242}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=391}} The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=34–35}} On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour.{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=6, 15–16, 44–45}} The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=15–16, 33–35, 42–43}}

Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat [[Zhang Qian]]'s travels from 139 to 125&nbsp;BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered [[Dayuan]] ([[Fergana]]), [[Kangju]] ([[Sogdiana]]), and [[Daxia]] ([[Bactria]], formerly the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]); he also gathered information on Shendu (the [[Indus River]] valley) and Anxi (the [[Parthian Empire]]). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=247–249}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|pp=54–55}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=407}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=69}}{{sfnp|Torday|1997|pp=104–117}} These connections marked the beginning of the [[Silk Road]] trade network that extended to the [[Roman Empire]], bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two.{{sfnp|An|2002|p=83}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=70}}

From {{c.|115 BC}} until {{c.|60 BC}}, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han were eventually victorious and established the [[Protectorate of the Western Regions]] in 60&nbsp;BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs.{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=250–251}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=390–391, 409–411}}{{sfnp|Chang|2007|p=174}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=198}} The Han also [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|expanded southward]]. The [[Han–Nanyue War|naval conquest of Nanyue]] in 111&nbsp;BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], and northern Vietnam. [[Yunnan]] was brought into the Han realm with the [[Han campaigns against Dian|conquest]] of the [[Dian Kingdom]] in 109&nbsp;BC, followed by parts of the [[Korean Peninsula]] with the [[Han conquest of Gojoseon]] and establishment of the [[Xuantu]] and [[Lelang Commandery|Lelang commanderies]] in 108&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=83}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=448–453}} The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2&nbsp;AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=595–596}}

To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu [[nationalised]] several private industries. He created central government [[monopolies]] administered largely by [[Four occupations|former merchants]]. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as [[Ancient Chinese coinage|bronze coinage]]. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81&nbsp;BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually [[Discourses on Salt and Iron|abolished]] in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty.{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=1–17}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=160–161}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=581–588}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=75}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=57}}{{efn|See also {{harvp|Hinsch|2002|pp=21–22}}}}

The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent [[regency]] of [[Huo Guang]] ({{died-in|68&nbsp;BC}}). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Han also copied the Qin's centralized administration but emphasized meritocracy and virtue. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal [[Government budget|budget]] reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=162, 185–206}}{{sfnp|Paludan|1998|p=41}}{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=16–19}}

===Wang Mang's reign and civil war===
{{main|Wang Mang|Xin dynasty}}
[[File:Han Dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang.jpg|thumb|upright=2|These [[rammed earth]] ruins of a [[granary]] in Hecang Fortress ({{zhi|t=河仓城|p=Hécāng chéng}}), located approximately {{cvt|11|km|mi|sigfig=1}} northeast of the Western Han-era [[Yumen Pass]], were built during the Western Han (202&nbsp;BC{{snd}}9&nbsp;AD) and was significantly rebuilt during the [[Western Jin]] (280–316&nbsp;AD).{{sfnp|Wang|Li|Zhang|2010|pp=351–352}}]]

[[Wang Zhengjun]] (71&nbsp;BC{{snd}}13&nbsp;AD) was first empress, then [[empress dowager]], and finally [[grand empress dowager]] during the reigns of the Emperors [[Emperor Yuan of Han|Yuan]] ({{reign|49|33&nbsp;BC}}), [[Emperor Cheng of Han|Cheng]] ({{reign|33|7&nbsp;BC}}), and [[Emperor Ai of Han|Ai]] ({{reign|7|1&nbsp;BC}}), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=225–226}}{{sfnp|Huang|1988|pp=46–48}} Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew [[Wang Mang]] (45&nbsp;BC{{snd}}23&nbsp;AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under [[Emperor Ping]] ({{reign}}1&nbsp;BC{{snd}}6&nbsp;AD).{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=227–230}}

When Ping died on 3 February 6&nbsp;AD, [[Ruzi Ying]] ({{died-in|25&nbsp;AD}}) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=227–230}} Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=227–230}} Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine [[Mandate of Heaven]] called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the [[Xin dynasty]] (9–23&nbsp;AD).{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=23–24}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=230–231}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=66}}

Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, [[nationalizing]] and [[Well-field system|equally distributing]] land between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=134}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=232–234}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=58}}{{sfnp|Lewis|2007|p=23}} Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of {{circa|3}}&nbsp;AD and 11&nbsp;AD. Gradual silt build-up in the [[Yellow River]] had raised its water level and overwhelmed the [[Flood control|flood control works]]. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the [[Shandong Peninsula]], though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=135}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=196}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=241–244}}

The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the [[Red Eyebrows]] to survive.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=135}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=196}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=241–244}} Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the [[Weiyang Palace]] and killed Wang Mang.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=568}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|p=248}}
[[File:Summer Vacation 2007, 263, Watchtower In The Morning Light, Dunhuang, Gansu Province.jpg|thumb|left|The ruins of a Han dynasty [[watchtower]] made of [[rammed earth]] at [[Dunhuang]], located at the eastern edge of the [[Silk Road]]]]

The [[Gengshi Emperor]] ({{reign|23|25&nbsp;AD}}), a descendant of [[Emperor Jing of Han|Emperor Jing]] ({{reign|157|141&nbsp;BC}}), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch [[Liu Penzi]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=197, 560}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=249–250}} Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as [[Emperor Guangwu]] ({{reign|25|57&nbsp;AD}}), after distinguishing himself at the [[Battle of Kunyang]] in 23&nbsp;AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=558–560}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=251–254}}

Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made [[Luoyang]] his capital in 25&nbsp;AD, and by 27 his officers [[Deng Yu]] and [[Feng Yi]] had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for [[treason]].{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=251–254}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=196–198, 560}} From 26 until 36&nbsp;AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=54–55, 269–270, 600–601}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=254–255}}

The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han ({{zhi|t={{linktext|西漢}} |s={{linktext|西汉}} |p=Xīhàn|first=t}}) or Former Han ({{zhi|t={{linktext|前漢}} |s={{linktext|前汉}} |p=Qiánhàn|first=t}}) (206&nbsp;BC{{snd}}9&nbsp;AD). During this period the capital was at [[Chang'an]] (modern [[Xi'an]]). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until [[End of the Han dynasty|the fall of Han]] is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220&nbsp;AD).{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=24–25}}

=== Eastern Han (25–220 AD)<!--'Eastern Han' and 'Later Han (25–220)' redirect here--> ===
{{Anchor|Eastern Han}}
{{further|Red Eyebrows}}
[[File:Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chief (seal, reverse image, transcription).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|[[Seal (East Asia)|Bronze seal]] of a Xiongnu chieftain with impression and transcription, conferred by the Eastern Han government and inscribed with the following text: {{lang|lzh|漢匈奴，歸義親，漢長}} ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han"){{sfnp|Psarras|2015|p=19}}]]

The '''Eastern Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zh|t=東漢|s=东汉|p=Dōnghàn|first=t}}), also known as the '''Later Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zhi|t=後漢|s=后汉|p=Hòuhàn|first=t}}), formally began on 5 August AD&nbsp;25, when Liu Xiu became [[Emperor Guangwu of Han]].{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=116}} During the widespread rebellion against [[Wang Mang]], the state of [[Goguryeo]] was free to raid Han's [[Four Commanderies of Han|Korean commanderies]]; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD&nbsp;30.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=450}}

The [[Trưng Sisters]] of [[Vietnam]] rebelled against Han in AD&nbsp;40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;49}}) in a campaign from AD&nbsp;42 to 43.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=562, 660}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=454}} Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the [[Xiongnu]], who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi ({{zhi|c=比}}), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu ({{zhi|c=蒲奴}}), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD&nbsp;50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=237–238}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=399–400}}

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD&nbsp;63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in [[Gansu]].{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=413–414}} [[Dou Gu]] ({{died-in|88&nbsp;AD}}) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the [[Battle of Yiwulu]] in AD&nbsp;73, evicting them from [[Turpan]] and chasing them as far as [[Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County|Lake Barkol]] before establishing a garrison at Hami.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}} After the new Protector General of the Western Regions [[Chen Mu]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;75}}) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in [[Karasahr]] and [[Kucha]], the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=73}}

At the [[Battle of Ikh Bayan]] in AD&nbsp;89, [[Dou Xian]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;92}}) defeated the [[Northern Chanyu (1st century)|Northern Xiongnu ''chanyu'']] who then retreated into the [[Altai Mountains]].{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=171}} After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the [[Ili River]] valley in AD&nbsp;91, the nomadic [[Xianbei]] occupied the area from the borders of the [[Buyeo Kingdom]] in Manchuria to the Ili River of the [[Wusun]] people.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=405, 443–444}} The Xianbei reached their apogee under [[Tanshihuai]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;181}}), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=444–446}}

[[File:Lead Ingot with Characters, Gansu Provincial Museum.jpg|thumb|Eastern Han inscriptions on a lead ingot, using the [[History of the Greek alphabet|Greek alphabet]] in the style of the [[Kushans]], excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd centuries&nbsp;AD{{snd}}[[Gansu Provincial Museum]]{{sfnp|Cribb|1978|pp=76–78}}]]
[[Ban Chao]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;102}}) enlisted the aid of the [[Kushan Empire]], which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue [[Kashgar]] and its ally Sogdiana.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|p=393}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=5–6}} When a request by Kushan ruler [[Vima Kadphises]] ({{reign|{{circa|90}}|{{circa|100&nbsp;AD}}}}) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD&nbsp;90, he sent his forces to [[Wakhan]] (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|p=393}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=5–6}} In AD&nbsp;91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=415–416}}

Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included [[Buddhist monks]] who [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|translated works into Chinese]], such as [[An Shigao]] from Parthia, and [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokaksema]] from Kushan-era [[Gandhara]].{{sfnp|Akira|1998|pp=248, 251}}{{sfnp|Zhang|2002|p=75}} In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the [[Parthian Empire]], as well as from kings in modern [[Burma]] and [[Wa (name of Japan)|Japan]]. He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] in AD&nbsp;97 with [[Gan Ying]] as emissary.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=239–240, 497, 590}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=450–451, 460–461}}

A [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman embassy]] of Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180&nbsp;AD}}) is recorded in the ''[[Weilüe]]'' and ''[[Book of Later Han]]'' to have reached the court of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] ({{reign|146|168&nbsp;AD}}) in AD&nbsp;166,{{sfnp|Chavannes|1907|p=185}} yet [[Rafe de Crespigny]] asserts that this was most likely a group of [[Roman commerce|Roman merchants]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=600}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=460–461}} In addition to [[Roman glass]]wares and [[Roman currency|coins]] found in China,{{sfnp|An|2002|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Ball|2016|p=153}} Roman medallions from the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at [[Óc Eo]] in Vietnam.{{sfnp|Ball|2016|p=153}}{{sfnp|Young|2001|pp=83–84}} This was near the commandery of [[Rinan]] where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from [[Tianzhu (India)|Tianzhu]] in northern India in 159 and 161.{{sfnp|Yule|1915|p=52}} Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "[[Cattigara]]" described by [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' ({{cx|150&nbsp;AD}}) as lying east of the [[Golden Chersonese]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]) along the ''[[Magnus Sinus]]'' (i.e. the [[Gulf of Thailand]] and [[South China Sea]]), where a Greek sailor had visited.{{sfnp|Young|2001|p=29}}{{sfnp|Mawer|2013|p=38}}{{sfnp|Suárez|1999|p=92}}{{sfnp|O'Reilly|2007|p=97}}

[[File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|A mural showing women dressed in traditional ''[[hanfu]]'' from the late Eastern Han-era Dahuting Tomb in [[Zhengzhou]], Henan]]

[[Emperor Zhang]]'s ({{reign|75|88&nbsp;AD}}) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=497, 500, 592}} Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by [[eunuch]] intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial [[consort clan]]s.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=25}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=136}} In 92&nbsp;AD, with the aid of the eunuch [[Zheng Zhong]] ({{died-in|107&nbsp;AD}}), [[Emperor He of Han|Emperor He]] ({{reign|88|105&nbsp;AD}}) had [[Empress Dou (Zhang)|Empress Dowager Dou]] ({{died-in|97&nbsp;AD}}) put under [[house arrest]] and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—[[Consort Liang]]—and then concealing her identity from him.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=280–283}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=499, 588–589}} After Emperor He's death, his wife [[Empress Deng Sui]] ({{died-in|121&nbsp;AD}}) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=283–284}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=123–127}}

When Empress Dowager Deng died, [[Emperor An of Han|Emperor An]] ({{reign|106|125&nbsp;AD}}) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run ({{lang|zh|李閏}}) and Jiang Jing ({{lang|zh|江京}}) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|p=284}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=128, 580}} After An's death, his wife, [[Empress Yan Ji|Empress Dowager Yan]] ({{died-in|126&nbsp;AD}}) placed the child [[Marquess of Beixiang]] on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch [[Sun Cheng]] ({{died-in|132&nbsp;AD}}) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone [[Emperor Shun of Han]] ({{reign|125|144&nbsp;AD}}). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=284–285}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=473–474, 582–583}} The regent [[Liang Ji]] ({{died-in|159&nbsp;AD}}), brother of [[Empress Liang Na]] ({{died-in|150&nbsp;AD}}), had the brother-in-law of [[Empress Deng Mengnü|Consort Deng Mengnü]] ({{died-in|165&nbsp;AD}}) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=285–286}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=597–598}}

Students from the [[Taixue|imperial university]] organized a widespread [[student protest]] against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=141}} Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=597, 599, 601–602}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=141–142}} Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying ({{lang|zh|李膺}}) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167&nbsp;AD, the Grand Commandant [[Dou Wu]] ({{died-in|168&nbsp;AD}}) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=602}} However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the [[Disasters of Partisan Prohibitions|Partisan Prohibitions]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=602}}

Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor [[Chen Fan]] ({{died-in|168&nbsp;AD}}) attempted a coup against the eunuchs [[Hou Lan]] ({{died-in|172&nbsp;AD}}), [[Cao Jie (eunuch)|Cao Jie]] ({{died-in|181&nbsp;AD}}), and Wang Fu ({{lang|zh|王甫}}). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested [[Empress Dou Miao|Empress Dowager Dou]] ({{died-in|172&nbsp;AD}}) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ({{lang|zh|張奐}}) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=319–322}}

Under [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]] ({{reign|168|189&nbsp;AD}}) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=511}}{{sfnp|Beck|1986|p=323}} Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs [[Zhao Zhong]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}) and [[Zhang Rang]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time [[Sexual roleplay|roleplaying]] with concubines and participating in military parades.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=513–514}}

===End of the Han dynasty===
{{main|End of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:Jian&#039;an Commanderies.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[List of provinces and commanderies of the Han dynasty|Provinces and commanderies]] in 219&nbsp;AD, the penultimate year of the Han dynasty]]
[[File:Hu and Han war narratives. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 CE). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between [[Donghu people|Hu]] barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops; Eastern Han-era, Tsangshan tomb, Linyi; also visible in the [[Yinan tombs]].{{sfnp|Bi|2019}}]]

The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] and [[Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion]] in 184&nbsp;AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the [[Four occupations|gentry class]] who might otherwise join the rebellions.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=511}} The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical [[Taoist]] religious societies led by faith healers [[Zhang Jue]] ({{died-in|184&nbsp;AD}}) and [[Zhang Lu (Three Kingdoms)|Zhang Lu]] ({{died-in|216&nbsp;AD}}), respectively.

Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what is now northern [[Sichuan]] and southern [[Shaanxi]], was not quelled until 215&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|pp=628–629}} Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight [[Government of the Han dynasty#Provincial authorities|provinces]] was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=339–340}} Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=84}}

General-in-chief [[He Jin]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}), half-brother to [[Empress He (Han dynasty)|Empress He]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}), plotted with [[Yuan Shao]] ({{died-in|202&nbsp;AD}}) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=339–344}} After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao ({{lang|zh|何苗}}) rescind the order.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|p=344}} The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189.

Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother [[Yuan Shu]] ({{died-in|199&nbsp;AD}}) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=344–345}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=62}} Zhang Rang had previously fled with [[Liu Bian|Emperor Shao]] ({{reign|single=189&nbsp;AD}}) and his brother Liu Xie—the future [[Emperor Xian of Han]] ({{reign|189|220&nbsp;AD}}). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|p=345}}

General [[Dong Zhuo]] ({{died-in|192&nbsp;AD}}) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made [[Government of the Han dynasty#Excellency of Works|Minister of Works]], taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=345–346}} After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191&nbsp;AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=346–349}}

Dong was killed by his adopted son [[Lü Bu]] ({{died-in|198&nbsp;AD}}) in a plot hatched by [[Wang Yun (Han dynasty)|Wang Yun]] ({{died-in|192&nbsp;AD}}).{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=158}} Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195&nbsp;AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by [[Cao Cao]] (155–220&nbsp;AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western [[Shandong]] and eastern [[Henan]], to move the capital to [[Xuchang]] in 196&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=349–351}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=36}}

Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the [[Battle of Guandu]] in 200&nbsp;AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son [[Yuan Tan]] (173–205&nbsp;AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=351–352}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=36–37}} His brothers [[Yuan Shang]] and [[Yuan Xi]] were killed in 207&nbsp;AD by [[Gongsun Kang]] ({{died-in|221&nbsp;AD}}), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=351–352}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=36–37}}

After Cao's defeat at the naval [[Battle of Red Cliffs]] in 208&nbsp;AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, [[Sun Quan]] (182–252&nbsp;AD) dominating the south, and [[Liu Bei]] (161–223&nbsp;AD) dominating the west.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|p=352}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=37}} Cao Cao died in March 220&nbsp;AD. By December his son [[Cao Pi]] (187–226&nbsp;AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as [[Emperor Wen of Wei]]. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the [[Three Kingdoms]]: [[Cao Wei]], [[Eastern Wu]], and [[Shu Han]].{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=353–357}}{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=206}}

==Culture and society==
{{main|Society and culture of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:Dahuting tomb banquet scene, Eastern Han mural.jpg|thumb|upright=3|center|A late Eastern Han mural in a tomb, showing lively scenes of a banquet (''yànyǐn'' {{lang|zh|宴飲}}), dance and music (''wǔyuè'' {{lang|zh|舞樂}}), acrobatics (''bǎixì'' {{lang|zh|百戲}}), and wrestling (''xiāngbū'' {{lang|zh|相撲}}), from the [[Dahuting]] tomb in [[Zhengzhou]], Henan]]

===Social class===
{{See also|Chinese nobility|Duke_Yansheng#Qin_dynasty_.28221.E2.80.93206_BCE.29_and_the_Western_and_Eastern_Han_dynasties_.28206_BCE_.E2.80.93_220_CE.29|label 2=Marquis Baocheng|Four occupations}}
[[File:Eastern Han Luoyang Mural of Liubo players.jpg|thumb|A mural from an Eastern Han tomb at Zhucun ({{lang|zh|朱村}}), Luoyang; the two figures in the foreground are playing ''[[liubo]]'', with the playing mat between them, and the ''liubo'' game board to the side of the mat.]]

In the hierarchical Han [[Society and culture of the Han dynasty|social order]], the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However, the emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the [[empress dowager]] or one of her male relatives.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=66–72}} Ranked immediately below the emperor were [[Kings of the Han dynasty|the kings]] who were of the same [[Liu]] family clan.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=105–107}} The rest of society, including [[Chinese nobility|nobles]] lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves, belonged to one of twenty ranks (''èrshí gōngchéng'' {{lang|zh|二十公乘}}).

Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full [[marquess]], came with a state pension and a territorial [[fief]]dom. Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=552–553}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=16}} [[Scholar-bureaucrat]]s who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=84}}

By the Eastern Han, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a nationwide [[Gentry (China)|gentry class]] with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|pp=631, 643–644}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=80}} When the government became noticeably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentry even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public office.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=141–142}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=601–602}}

Farmers, namely small landowner–cultivators, were ranked just below scholars and officials in the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage labourers, and slaves.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=104–111}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=556–557}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|pp=621–622}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1974|pp=173–174}} The Han dynasty made adjustments to [[slavery in China]] and saw an increase in agricultural slaves. Artisans, technicians, tradespeople, and craftsmen had a legal and socioeconomic status between that of owner-cultivator farmers and common merchants.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=112}}

State-registered merchants, who were forced by law to wear white-coloured clothes and pay high commercial taxes, were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a contemptible status.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=104–105, 119–120}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=576–577}} These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as industrialists and itinerant traders working between a network of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of government officials.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=576–577}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=114–117}}

Wealthy landowners, such as nobles and officials, often provided lodging for retainers who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes including fighting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves, retainers could come and go from their master's home as they pleased.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=127–128}} Physicians, pig breeders, and butchers had fairly high social status, while occultist diviners, runners, and messengers had low status.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=172–173, 179–180}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=106, 122–127}}
<gallery widths="190px" heights="200px">
File:-0202 0220 Brick Relief with Acrobatic Performance Han Dynasty National Museum of China anagoria.jpg|A Han dynasty brick relief with acrobats
File:Woman with a mirror, China, unearthed at Songjialin, Pixian, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, ceramic - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04768.jpg|A [[Chinese ceramic|ceramic]] statue of a seated woman holding a [[bronze mirror]], Eastern Han{{snd}}Sichuan Provincial Museum [[Chengdu]]
File:Pottery dog 1.JPG|A dog figurine found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog collar, indicating their domestication as pets.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=57, 203}} Dog figurines are a common archaeological find in Han tombs,{{sfnp|Eiland|2003|p=77}} while it is also known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks had kennels for keeping hunting dogs.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=83}}
File:Nswag, dinastia han, figurina dipinta di danzatrice.jpg|A Han pottery female dancer wearing [[Hanfu]] silk robes	
File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 069.jpg|A ceramic female servant wearing [[Hanfu]] silk robes
</gallery>

===Marriage, gender, and kinship===
{{See also|Women in ancient and imperial China#Han dynasty|label1=Women in Han China}}
[[File:Dahuting tomb mural detail of women wearing hanfu, Eastern Han period.jpg|thumb|Detail of an Eastern Han mural showing two women wearing ''[[Hanfu]]'' robes, from Dahuting, [[Zhengzhou]], Henan province]]

{{multiple image
|align = right
|image1 = Wall-Painting from a Han dynasty Tomb in Tung-p'ing County.jpg
|width1 =200
|alt1 =
|caption1 =
|image2 = Queen Mother of the West from a Wall-Painting in Han Dynasty Tomb.jpg
|width2 =210
|alt2 =
|caption2 =
|footer = Western Han- or Xin-era murals showing men and women dressed in ''[[hanfu]]'', with the [[Queen Mother of the West]] dressed in ''[[shenyi]]'', from a tomb in [[Dongping, Shandong]]
}}

The Han-era family was [[patrilineal]] and typically had four to five [[nuclear family]] members living in one household. Multiple generations of [[extended family]] members did not occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=3–9}} According to Confucian family norms, various family members were treated with different levels of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of a father versus a paternal uncle.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=9–10}}

Marriages were highly ritualized, particularly for the wealthy, and included many important steps. The giving of betrothal gifts, known as [[bride price]] and [[dowry]], were especially important. A lack of either was considered dishonourable and the woman would have been seen not as a wife, but as a concubine.{{sfnp|Wiesner-Hanks|2011|p=30}} [[Arranged marriage]]s were typical, with the father's input on his child's spouse being considered more important than the mother's.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=35}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=34}}

Monogamous marriages were also normal, although nobles and high officials were wealthy enough to afford and support concubines as additional lovers.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=44–47}}{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=38–39}} Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=40–45}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=37–43}} However, a woman who had been widowed continued to belong to her husband's family after his death. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. Her children would not be allowed to go with her.{{sfnp|Wiesner-Hanks|2011|p=30}}

Among the nobility, bisexuality was the norm, continuing the accepted tradition of sexual expression amongst other nobles since the Zhou dynasty.{{sfnp|Hinsch|1990|p=35}} In the Royal Court, Emperors often favored eunuchs above other non-castrated men for their bodies' "sexual passivity".{{sfnp|Hinsch|1990|p=44}} On the other hand, Han authors did not view male homosexual individuals as effeminate, as occurred in later dynasties.{{sfnp|Hinsch|1990|p=47}} While non-royal nobility were obligated to heterosexual marriages, male concubines were widely accepted. Despite openness to bisexuality or homosexuality, Han dynasty norms around gender and family obligated most moral questions, including that of polygamy, homosexuality, and bisexuality, to be solved by the patriarch within the household.{{sfnp|Hinsch|1990|p=50}}

Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks, [[inheritance]] practices did not involve [[primogeniture]]; each son received an equal share of the family property.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=16–17}} Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually sent his adult married sons away with their portions of the family fortune.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=6–9}} Daughters received a portion of the family fortune through their dowries, though this was usually much less than the shares of sons.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=17–18}} A different distribution of the remainder could be specified in a [[last will and testament|will]], but it is unclear how common this was.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=17}}

Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age. However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=49–59}} Women were exempt from the annual [[corvée]] labour duties, but often engaged in a range of income-earning occupations aside from their domestic chores of cooking and cleaning.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=74–75}}

The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, for sale at market, or for large textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women. Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could afford their own silk clothes.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=54–56}}{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=29, 51, 54, 59–60, 65–68, 70–74, 77–78}} Some women formed spinning collectives, aggregating the resources of several different families.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=29}}

===Education, literature, and philosophy===
{{further|Chinese philosophy|Chinese literature}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|image1=Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg
|width1=200
|alt1=
|caption1=
|image2=Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg
|width2=220
|alt2=
|caption2=
|footer= A Western Han [[fresco]] depicting Confucius and [[Laozi]], from a tomb of [[Dongping County]], Shandong
}}

The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the philosophical teachings of [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], [[Huang-Lao]] Taoism, and [[Confucianism]] in making state decisions and shaping government policy.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=24–25}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|pp=128–130}} However, the Han court under [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. In 136&nbsp;BC, he abolished all academic chairs not concerned with the [[Five Classics]], and in 124 BC he established the [[Taixue|Imperial University]], at which he encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian education.{{sfnp|Kramers|1986|pp=754–756}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=7–8}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|pp=121–125}}{{sfnp|Ch'en|1986|p=769}}

Unlike the original ideology espoused by [[Confucius]] (551–479&nbsp;BC), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the creation of [[Dong Zhongshu]] (179–104&nbsp;BC). Dong was a scholar and minor official who aggregated the ethical Confucian ideas of [[Li (Confucian)|ritual]], [[filial piety]], and [[Ren (Confucianism)|harmonious relationships]] with [[five phases]] and [[yin-yang]] cosmologies.{{sfnp|Kramers|1986|pp=753–755}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|pp=134–140}} Dong's synthesis justified the imperial system of government within the natural order of the universe.{{sfnp|Kramers|1986|p=754}}
[[File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - fragment of Xiping stone classics.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A fragment of the [[Xiping Stone Classics]]; these stone-carved [[Five Classics]] installed during [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]]'s reign along the roadside of the imperial university right outside Luoyang, were made at the instigation of [[Cai Yong]] (132–192&nbsp;AD), who feared the Classics housed in the imperial library were being [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolated]] by University Academicians.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=513}}{{sfnp|Barbieri-Low|2007|p=207}}{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=57}} ]]

The Imperial University grew in importance as the student body grew to over 30,000 by the 2nd century&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=77–78}}{{sfnp|Kramers|1986|p=757}} A Confucian-based education was also made available at commandery-level schools and [[private school]]s opened in small towns, where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition payments.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=103}} Schools were established in far southern regions where standard Chinese texts were used to assimilate the local populace.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History Of China |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-19620-8 |pages=82–83}}</ref>

Some important texts were created and studied by scholars. Philosophy written by [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong]] (53&nbsp;BC{{snd}}18&nbsp;AD), [[Huan Tan]] (43&nbsp;BC{{snd}}28&nbsp;AD), [[Wang Chong]] (27–100&nbsp;AD), and [[Wang Fu (philosopher)|Wang Fu]] (78–163&nbsp;AD) questioned whether human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order.{{sfnp|Ch'en|1986|pp=773–794}} The ''[[Shiji]]'' started by [[Sima Tan]] ({{died-in|110&nbsp;BC}}) and finished by his son [[Sima Qian]] (145–86&nbsp;BC) established the [[Chinese historiography|standard model]] for imperial China's [[Twenty-Four Histories|tradition of official histories]], being emulated initially by the ''[[Book of Han]]'' authored by [[Ban Biao]] (3–54&nbsp;AD) with his son [[Ban Gu]] (32–92&nbsp;AD), and his daughter [[Ban Zhao]] (45–116&nbsp;AD).{{sfnp|Hardy|1999|pp=14–15}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=137–138}} [[Biographies]] on important figures were written by members of the  gentry.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|p=645}} There were also [[Chinese dictionaries|dictionaries]] published during the Han period such as the ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' by [[Xu Shen]] ({{circa|58|147&nbsp;AD}}) and the ''[[Fangyan (book)|Fangyan]]'' by [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=185}}{{sfnp|Xue|2003|p=161}} Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the [[Fu (poetry)|''fu'' genre]], which achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=137–138}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1049}}{{sfnp|Neinhauser|Hartman|Ma|West|1986|p=212}}{{sfnp|Lewis|2007|p=222}}{{sfnp|Cutter|1989|pp=25–26}}

===Law and order===
[[File:Mawangdui silk banner from tomb no1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|A silk banner from [[Mawangdui]], draped over the coffin of [[Lady Dai]] ({{died-in|168&nbsp;BC}}), wife of the Marquess Li Cang ({{lang|zh|利蒼}}) ({{died-in|186&nbsp;BC}}), chancellor for the [[Kingdom of Changsha]].{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=117–119}}]]

Han scholars such as [[Jia Yi]] (201–169&nbsp;BC) portrayed the Qin as a brutal regime. However, archaeological evidence from [[Zhangjiashan]] and [[Shuihudi]] reveal that many of the statutes in the Han law code compiled by Chancellor [[Xiao He]] ({{died-in|193&nbsp;BC}}) were derived from Qin law.{{sfnp|Hulsewé|1986|pp=525–526}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=23–24}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=110–112}}

Various cases for rape, physical abuse, and murder were prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and criminal charges against men.{{sfnp|Hulsewé|1986|pp=523–530}}{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=82}} While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary fines, periods of forced hard labour for convicts, and the penalty of death by beheading.{{sfnp|Hulsewé|1986|pp=532–535}} Early Han punishments of torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with progressively less-severe beatings by the [[bastinado]].{{sfnp|Hulsewé|1986|pp=531–533}}

Acting as a judge in lawsuits was one of the many duties of the [[county magistrate]] and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high-profile, or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor.{{sfnp|Hulsewé|1986|pp=528–529}} In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a chief of police. Order in the cities was maintained by government officers in the marketplaces and [[constable]]s in the neighbourhoods.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=552–553, 576}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=146–147}}

===Food===
{{multiple image|align=right |direction=horizontal |header= |header_align= left/right/center |footer= Two Han dynasty red-and-black [[lacquerware]]s, one a bowl, the other a tray; usually only wealthy officials, nobles, and merchants could afford domestic luxury items like lacquerwares, which were common commodities produced by skilled artisans and craftsmen.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=83–85}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=581–583}} |footer_align= left |image1=西漢_黑地朱繪雲氣紋漆碗-Bowl_with_Geometric_Designs_MET_DP355715.jpg |width1=135 |caption1= |image2=CapitalMuseum15.jpg |width2=165 |caption2= }}

The most common staple crops consumed during Han were [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[foxtail millet]], [[proso millet]], rice, and [[bean]]s.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|p=52}} Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons, apricots, strawberries, [[Myrica|red bayberries]], [[jujube]]s, [[calabash]], [[bamboo shoot]]s, [[mustard plant]], and [[taro]].{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=53, 206}} Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens, [[Mandarin duck]]s, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels, and dogs (various types were bred specifically for food, while most were used as pets). Turtles and fish were taken from streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl, pheasant, magpie, [[sika deer]], and [[Chinese bamboo partridge]] were consumed.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=57–58}} Seasoning included sugar, honey, salt, and [[soy sauce]].{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=119–121}} Beer and wine were regularly consumed.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|p=206}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=119}}

===Clothing===
{{further|Hanfu}}

The types of clothing worn and the materials used during the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and [[slippers]] with inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. Peasants commonly wore clothes made of [[hemp]], [[wool]], and [[ferret]] skins.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=53, 59–63, 206}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|p=139}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=128}}

===Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics===
{{further|Chinese mythology|Chinese theology|Chinese folk religion}}
[[File:Bronze Chimera, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|upright|An Eastern Han bronze statuette of a ''[[qilin]]'', 1st century&nbsp;AD]]
{{Multiple image
|total_width=400
|image1=Mawangdui LaoTsu Ms2.JPG
|alt1=A vertical tattered silk scroll displaying Chinese characters written with ink
|image2=Guardians of Day and Night, Han Dynasty.jpg
|alt2=Painted and incised ceramic tiles with anthropomorphic animal figures, including a rat on the left and a rabbit on the right wearing clothes and holding objects in their hands
|footer=Left: A fragmentary [[Daoist]] manuscript from the 2nd century&nbsp;BC, ink on silk, [[Mawangdui]] tomb #3
{{pb}}Right: Anthropomorphized animalistic guardian spirits of day and night wearing [[Han Chinese clothing|Han-era robes]], Han-era paintings on ceramic tile; [[Michael Loewe]] writes that the [[Hybrid (mythology)|hybrid of man and beast]] in art and religious beliefs predated the Han and remained popular during the first half of Western Han and the Eastern Han.{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|pp=38–52}}
}}

Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors at [[Temple (Chinese)|temples and shrines]]. They believed that these items could be used by those in the spiritual realm.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=30–31}} It was thought that each person had a [[Hun and po|two-part soul]]: the spirit-soul which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]''), and the body-soul which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=119}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=140–141}}

In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted as the highest priest in the land who made sacrifices to Heaven, the [[Chinese mythology|main deities]] known as the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|Five Powers]], and spirits of mountains and rivers known as ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]''.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=71}} It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of [[yin and yang]] and the [[five phases]].{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|p=55}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|p=167}}{{sfnp|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|pp=2–3}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=78–79}} If the emperor did not behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could disrupt the fine balance of these cosmological cycles and cause calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, and swarms of locusts.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=78–79}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=201}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=496, 592}}

It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the [[Queen Mother of the West]] or [[Mount Penglai]].{{sfnp|Loewe|2005|pp=101–102}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=116–117}} Han-era Taoists assembled into small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques, and the use of medical elixirs.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=144}}

By the 2nd century&nbsp;AD, Taoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such as the [[Way of the Five Pecks of Rice]]. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher [[Laozi]] ({{floruit|6th century&nbsp;BC}}) was a holy prophet who would offer [[salvation]] and good health if his devout followers would confess their sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat sacrifices, and chant sections of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]''.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=144–146}}

Buddhism first entered Imperial China [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|through the Silk Road]] during the Eastern Han, and was first mentioned in 65&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Needham|1972|p=112}}{{sfnp|Demiéville|1986|pp=821–822}} [[Liu Ying (prince)|Liu Ying]] ({{died-in|71&nbsp;AD}}), a half-brother to [[Emperor Ming of Han]] ({{reign|57|75&nbsp;AD}}), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although [[Chinese Buddhism]] at this point was heavily associated with Huang–Lao Taoism.{{sfnp|Demiéville|1986|pp=821–822}} China's first known Buddhist temple, the [[White Horse Temple]], was constructed outside the wall of Luoyang during Emperor Ming's reign.{{sfnp|Demiéville|1986|p=823}} Important Buddhist canons were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century&nbsp;AD, including the ''[[Sutra of Forty-two Chapters]]'', ''[[Perfection of Wisdom]]'', ''[[Shurangama Sutra]]'', and ''[[Pratyutpanna Sutra]]''.{{sfnp|Akira|1998|pp=247–251}}{{efn|See also {{harvp|Needham|1972|p=112}}.}}

==Government and politics==
{{main|Government of the Han dynasty}}
{{see also|List of emperors of the Han dynasty|Translation of Han dynasty titles}}

===Central government===
{{Multiple image
|total_width=400
|image1=Rubbing of a Han Citang.JPG
|alt1=A rubbing of stone artwork depicting a large building complex
|image2=Pantings on Lacquar Basket Lo-lang.jpg
|alt2=A painted scene on a lacquerware basket showing kneeling and seated human figures in silk robes conversing
|footer=Left: A rubbing of a Han pictorial stone showing an [[ancestor worship]] hall (''cítang'' {{lang|zh|祠堂}})
{{pb}}Right: A scene of historic paragons of filial piety conversing with one another, Chinese painted artwork on a [[lacquerware]] basketwork box, excavated from a tomb of the [[Lelang Commandery]] on the [[Korean Peninsula]] dating to the Eastern Han
}}

In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and sole designator of official nominees appointed to the top posts in central and local administrations; those who earned a [[Government of the Han dynasty|600-bushel salary-rank or higher]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1216}}{{sfnp|Wang|1949|pp=141–143}} Theoretically, there were no limits to his power.

However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (''tingyi'' {{lang|zh|廷議}})—where ministers were convened to reach a majority consensus on an issue—pressured the emperor to accept the advice of his ministers on policy decisions.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=144}}{{sfnp|Wang|1949|pp=173–177}} If the emperor rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=70–71}}

Below the emperor were his [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] members known as the [[Three Councillors of State]]. These were the [[Chancellor of China|Chancellor]] or [[Minister over the Masses]], the Imperial Counsellor or Excellency of Works (''Yushi dafu'' {{lang|zh|御史大夫}} or ''Da sikong'' {{lang|zh|大司空}}), and Grand Commandant or Grand Marshal (''Taiwei'' {{lang|zh|太尉}} or ''Da sima'' {{lang|zh|大司馬}}).{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1221}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=7–17}}

The Chancellor, whose title had changed in 8&nbsp;BC to Minister over the Masses, was chiefly responsible for drafting the [[government budget]]. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and population, leading court conferences, acting as judge in lawsuits, and recommending nominees for high office. He could appoint officials below the salary-rank of 600 bushels.{{sfnp|Wang|1949|pp=143–144, 145–146, 177}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=7–8, 14}}

The Imperial Counsellor's chief duty was to conduct disciplinary procedures for officials. He shared similar duties with the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial reports. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8&nbsp;BC, his chief duty became the oversight of public works projects.{{sfnp|Wang|1949|pp=147–148}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=8–9, 15–16}}

The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to Grand Marshal in 119&nbsp;BC before reverting to Grand Commandant in 51&nbsp;AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiefly a civil official who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councillors of State.{{sfnp|Wang|1949|p=150}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=10–13}}

Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the [[Nine Ministers]], who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies (''Taichang'' {{lang|zh|太常}}) was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1222}}{{sfnp|Wang|1949|p=151}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=17–23}} The Minister of the Household (''Guang lu xun'' {{lang|zh|光祿勳}}) was in charge of the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks, and wherever the emperor made an outing [[Chariots in ancient China|by chariot]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1222}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=23–24}}

The Minister of the Guards (''Weiwei'' {{lang|zh|衛尉}}) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1223}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=31}} The Minister Coachman (''Taipu'' {{lang|zh|太僕}}) was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages, and coach-houses for the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1223}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=34–35}} The Minister of Justice (''Tingwei'' {{lang|zh|廷尉}}) was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and interpreting the law.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=38}}{{sfnp|Wang|1949|p=154}} The Minister Herald (''Da honglu'' {{lang|zh|大鴻臚}}) was the chief official in charge of receiving honoured guests like nobles and [[Foreign relations of Imperial China|foreign ambassadors]] at court.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=1223–1224}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=39–40}}

The Minister of the Imperial Clan (''Zongzheng'' {{lang|zh|宗正}}) oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles.{{sfnp|Wang|1949|p=155}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=41}} The Minister of Finance (''da sìnong'' {{lang|zh|大司農}}) was the [[treasurer]] for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues and set standards for units of measurement.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1224}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=43}} The Minister Steward (''Shaofu'' {{lang|zh|少府}}) served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical care, valuables and equipment.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1224}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=47}}

===Local government===
{{see also|List of provinces and commanderies of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:Li Bing Statue 2.JPG|thumb|upright|An Eastern Han devotional stone statue depicting [[Li Bing (Qin)|Li Bing]] ({{floruit|3rd century&nbsp;BC}}) in an official's cap and robe in [[Dujiangyan]], Sichuan]]
[[File:护乌桓校尉幕府图 东汉 盛乐博物馆 和林格尔, Horinger Eastern Han mural of Commandant protector of the Wuhuan's manor.png|thumb|300px|An Eastern Han (25–220) period Chinese mural of a ''[[mufu]]'' conference conducted by the Commandant-protector of the [[Wuhuan]] ({{lang|zh|护乌桓校尉}}) at his manor, from a Han tomb in [[Horinger]], [[Inner Mongolia]]]]

The Han empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates, was divided, in descending order of size, into political units of [[Zhou (country subdivision)|provinces]], [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]], and [[Counties of China#History|counties]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1228}} A county was divided into several districts (''xiang'' {{lang|zh|鄉}}), the latter composed of a group of [[hamlets]] (''li'' {{lang|zh|里}}), each containing about a hundred families.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=103}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=551–552}}

The heads of provinces, whose official title was changed from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=90–92}}{{sfnp|Wang|1949|pp=158–160}} On the basis of their reports, the officials in these local administrations would be promoted, demoted, dismissed, or prosecuted by the imperial court.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=91}}

A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1228}}

A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and was headed by an administrator.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1228}} He was the top civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defence, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers, and recommendations of nominees for office sent annually to the capital in a quota system first established by Emperor Wu.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=1230–1231}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=96}}{{sfnp|Hsu|1965|pp=367–368}} The head of a large county of about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the heads of smaller counties were called chiefs, and both could be referred to as [[magistrate]]s.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1230}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=100}} A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual [[corvée]] duties, repaired schools, and supervised public works.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=100}}

===Kingdoms and marquessates===
{{main|Kings of the Han dynasty}}
Kingdoms—roughly the size of [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]]—were ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semi-autonomous [[fiefdom]]s. Before 157&nbsp;BC, some kingdoms were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government.{{sfnp|Hsu|1965|p=360}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|p=126}} Although the emperor appointed the Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the remaining civil officials in their fiefs.{{sfnp|Hsu|1965|p=360}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=105–106}}

However, in 145&nbsp;BC, after several insurrections by the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to appoint officials whose [[Government of the Han dynasty#Salaries|salaries were higher than 400 bushels]].{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=105–106}} The Imperial Counsellors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=105–106}}

With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal heads of their fiefs, gaining a personal income from only a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|p=76}} Similarly, the officials in the administrative staff of a full marquess's fief were appointed by the central government. A marquess's chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his fief as personal income.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1230}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=108}}

Until the reign of [[Emperor Jing of Han]], the Han emperors had great difficulties controlling their vassal kings, who often switched allegiances to the [[Xiongnu]] whenever they felt threatened by imperial centralization of power. The seven years of Gaozu's reign featured defections by three vassal kings and one marquess, who then aligned themselves with the Xiongnu. Even imperial princes controlling fiefdoms would sometimes invite a Xiongnu invasion in response to the Emperor's threats. The Han  moved to secure a treaty with the Xiongnu, aiming to clearly divide authority between them. The Han and Xiongnu now held one another out as the "two masters" with sole dominion over their respective peoples; they cemented this agreement with a marriage alliance (''[[heqin]]''), before eliminating the rebellious vassal kings in 154&nbsp;BC. This prompted some of the Xiongnu vassals to swap allegiances to the Han, starting in 147. Han court officials were initially hostile to the idea of disrupting the status quo by expanding into Xiongnu territory in the steppe. The surrendered Xiongnu were integrated into a parallel military and political structures loyal to the Han emperor, a step toward a potential Han challenge to the superiority of Xiongnu cavalry in steppe warfare. This also brought the Han into contact with the interstate trade networks through the Tarim Basin in the far northwest, allowing for the Han's expansion from a regional state to a universalist, cosmopolitan empire achieved in part through further marriage alliances with the [[Wusun]], another steppe power.{{sfnp|Lewis|Hsieh|2017|pp=32–39}}

===Military===
{{main|Military of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|A mural showing [[Horses in East Asian warfare|chariots and cavalry]] from the [[Dahuting tomb]] near [[Zhengzhou]], Henan, dated to the late Eastern Han]]

At the beginning of the Han, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for [[conscription]] into [[Military of the Han dynasty|the military]]. The minimum age was reduced to twenty following the reign of [[Emperor Zhao]] ({{reign|87|74}}).{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=70–71}} Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was spent in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, [[Horses in ancient and imperial China|cavalry]], or [[Naval history of China|navy]]. Prior to the abolition of much of the conscription system after 30&nbsp;AD, soldiers could be called up for future service following the completion of their terms. They had to continue training regularly to maintain their skills, and were subject to annual inspections of their military readiness.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=599}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=114}} The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court, or in the capital under the Minister of the Guards. A small professional army was stationed near the capital.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=599}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|p=114}}

During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favoured the recruitment of a volunteer army.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=564–565, 1234}} The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (''Nanjun'' {{lang|zh|南軍}}), while the [[standing army]] stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (''Beijun'' {{lang|zh|北軍}}).{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=114–115}} Led by Colonels (''Xiaowei'' {{lang|zh|校尉}}), the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1234}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=117–118}} When central authority collapsed after 189&nbsp;AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=132–133}}

During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a general (''jiangjun'' {{lang|zh|將軍}}) led a [[Division (military)|division]], which was divided into [[regiment]]s led by a colonel or major (''sima'' {{lang|zh|司馬}}). Regiments were divided into [[company (military unit)|companies]] and led by captains. [[Platoon]]s were the smallest units.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1234}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=116, 120–122}}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Han dynasty}}

===Currency===
{{main|Han dynasty coinage}}
{{multiple image|align=right |direction=horizontal |header= |header_align=left/right/center |footer= |footer_align=left |image1=S-114 W Han wuzhu, Han Wudi, 140-87, 25 5mm.jpg |width1=230 |caption1=A ''wuzhu'' ({{lang|zh|五銖}}) coin issued during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] ({{reign|141|87&nbsp;BC}}), 25.5&nbsp;mm in diameter |image2=|width2=130 |caption2=A spade-shaped bronze coin issued during [[Wang Mang]]'s ({{reign|9|23&nbsp;AD}}) reign.}}
[[File:金饼 海昏侯国遗址.JPG|thumb|Gold coins from the Eastern Han]]

The Han dynasty inherited the ''[[Ancient Chinese coinage#Ban Liang coins|ban liang]]'' coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the [[Mint (coin)|government mint]] in favour of private [[Han dynasty coinage|minting of coins]]. This decision was reversed in 186&nbsp;BC by his widow [[Empress Lü Zhi|Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi]] ({{died-in|180&nbsp;BC}}), who abolished private minting.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=586}} In 182&nbsp;BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread [[inflation]] that was not reduced until 175&nbsp;BC, when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely {{cvt|2.6|g}} in weight.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=586}}

In 144&nbsp;BC, Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favour of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=586–587}} Emperor Wu introduced another in 120&nbsp;BC, but a year later he abandoned the ''ban liangs'' entirely in favour of the ''[[Ancient Chinese coinage#Western Han and the Wu Zhu coins|wuzhu]]'' coin, weighing {{cvt|3.2|g}}.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=587}} The ''wuzhu'' became China's standard coin until the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40&nbsp;AD by Emperor Guangwu.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|p=609}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=232–233}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=587–588}}

Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113&nbsp;BC. This central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the [[Government of the Han dynasty#Superintendent of Waterways and Parks|Superintendent of Waterways and Parks]], this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during the Eastern Han.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=587–588}}{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1980|pp=47, 83}}

===Taxation and property===

Aside from the landowner's [[Land value tax#History|land tax]] paid in a portion of their [[crop yield]], the [[poll tax]] and [[property tax]]es were paid in coin cash.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=600–601}} The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=598}} The poll tax stimulated a [[Economy of the Han dynasty|money economy]] that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118&nbsp;BC to 5&nbsp;AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=588}}

The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=601}} Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=577}}{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=113–114}}

The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=558–601}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1974|pp=173 174}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|pp=74–75}} The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans, and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in [[Tuntian|agricultural colonies]] until they could recover from their debts.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=75}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|pp=619–621}}

In 168&nbsp;BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,{{sfnp|Loewe|1986|pp=149–150}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=596–598}} and later to one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=596–598}}

The labour tax took the form of conscripted labour for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labour became more popular.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=599}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=564–565}}

===Private manufacture and government monopolies===
[[File:Iron ji and knife, Han Dynasty.JPG|thumb|An iron ''[[ji (polearm)|ji]]'' polearm and iron dagger]]

In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivalled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce numbering in the thousands. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|p=22}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=583–584}} To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117&nbsp;BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=584}}{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=1–2}}{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=21–22}} By the Eastern Han, the central government monopolies were repealed in favour of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=584}}{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=15–17}}

[[Liquor]] was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98&nbsp;BC. However, this was repealed in 81&nbsp;BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every {{convert|0.2|L|gal}} was levied for those who traded it privately.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|p=600}}{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=13–14}} By 110&nbsp;BC, Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government stores of grain at a lower price than that demanded by merchants.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=75}} Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68&nbsp;AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=605}}

==Science and technology==
{{main|Science and technology of the Han dynasty}}
[[File:ChangXingongdeng.jpg|thumb|upright|A gilded bronze [[oil lamp]] in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated to the 2nd century&nbsp;BC, found in the tomb of [[Dou Wan]], wife of [[Liu Sheng, Prince of Zhongshan]]; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=66}}{{sfnp|Wang|1982|p=100}} ]]

The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese [[Science and technology of the Han dynasty|science and technology]], comparable to the level of [[Technology of the Song dynasty|scientific and technological growth]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279).{{sfnp|Jin|Fan|Liu|1996|pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Needham|1972|p=111}}

===Writing materials===
In the 1st millennium&nbsp;BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|bronzeware]], [[Oracle bone script|oracle bones]], and [[bamboo slip]]s or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han, the chief writing materials were [[clay tablet]]s, silk cloth, hemp [[History of paper#Paper in China|paper]],{{sfnp|Needham|Tsien|1986|p=38}}{{sfnp|Li|1974}} and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=89, 94–95}}{{sfnp|Tom|1989|p=99}}{{sfnp|Cotterell|2004|pp=11–13}}

The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Buisseret|1998|p=12}}{{sfnp|Needham|Tsien|1986|p=38}} The standard papermaking process was invented by [[Cai Lun]] (AD&nbsp;50–121) in 105.{{sfnp|Needham|Tsien|1986|pp=1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228}}{{sfnp|Day|McNeil|1996|p=122}} The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han [[watchtower]] that had been abandoned in AD&nbsp;110, in [[Inner Mongolia]].{{sfnp|Cotterell|2004|p=11}}

===Metallurgy and agriculture===
[[File:Flying Horse, East Han Dynasty.Bronze. Gansu Provincial Museum.jpg|upright|thumb|The [[Flying Horse of Gansu]], depicted in full gallop, [[bronze sculpture]] 34.5&nbsp;cm in height. [[Wuwei, Gansu]] (25–220&nbsp;AD)]]
Evidence suggests that [[blast furnace]]s, that convert raw [[iron ore]] into [[pig iron]], which can be remelted in a [[cupola furnace]] to produce [[cast iron]] by means of a [[cold blast]] and [[hot blast]], were operational in China by the late [[Spring and Autumn period]] ({{circa|770|481&nbsp;BC}}).{{sfnp|Wagner|2001|pp=7, 36–37, 64–68, 75–76}}{{sfnp|Pigott|1999|pp=183–184}} The [[bloomery]] was non-existent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced [[wrought iron]] by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing [[decarburisation]].{{sfnp|Pigott|1999|pp=177, 191}} Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a [[finery forge|fining]] process.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|p=125}}{{sfnp|Pigott|1999|p=186}}

The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools, and domestic wares.{{sfnp|Wagner|1993|p=336}}{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=103–105, 122–124}} A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron [[seed drill]], invented by the 2nd century&nbsp;BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of [[sowing]] seeds by hand.{{sfnp|Greenberger|2006|p=12}}{{sfnp|Cotterell|2004|p=24}}{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=54–55}} The heavy mouldboard iron plough, also invented during the Han, required only one man to control it with two oxen to pull it. It had three [[ploughshare]]s, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly {{cvt|45730|m2}} of land in a single day.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=563–564}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1986|pp=616–617}}

To protect crops from wind and drought, the grain intendant Zhao Guo ({{lang|zh|趙過}}) created the alternating fields system (''daitianfa'' {{lang|zh|代田法}}) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=561–563}} Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=561–563}} Han farmers also used the pit field system ({{tlit|zh|aotian}} {{lang|zh|凹田}}) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require ploughs or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|pp=67–68}}{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=564–566}} In the southern and small parts of central Han-era China, [[paddy field]]s were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the [[Huai River]] used [[Transplanting|transplantation]] methods of rice production.{{sfnp|Nishijima|1986|pp=568–572}}

===Structural and geo-technical engineering===
{{Further|Han dynasty tomb architecture|Western Han dynasty imperial tombs}}
{{multiple image |align=right |direction=horizontal |header_align= left/right/center |footer='''Left''': A pottery model of a palace from a Han dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to execution.{{sfnp|Ch'ü|1972|pp=68–69}}<br /> '''Right''': A painted ceramic architectural model depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, [[veranda]]s, tiled rooftops, ''[[dougong]]'' support brackets, and a [[covered bridge]] extending from the third floor of the main tower to the smaller watchtower, found in an Eastern Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan{{sfnp|Guo|2005|pp=46–48}} |footer_align=left |image1=Han pottery manor 02.jpg |width1=250 |image2=七层连阁绘彩陶楼1394.jpg |width2=125}}

Timber was the chief building material during the Han; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls, and single-story houses.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=76}} Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=1–40}} The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty.{{sfnp|Steinhardt|2004|pp=228–238}} Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians as clues concerning lost Han architecture.{{sfnp|Thorp|1986|pp=360–378}}

Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and [[rammed earth]] remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth [[Chinese city wall|city walls]], rammed-earth and brick [[beacon]] towers, rammed-earth sections of the [[Great Wall]], rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in [[Gansu]].{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=1, 30, 39–40, 148–149}}{{sfnp|Chang|2007|pp=91–92}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=56}}{{efn|See also {{harvp|Ebrey|1999|p=76}}; see {{harvp|Needham|1972|loc=Plate V, Fig. 15, for a photo of a Han-era fortress in Dunhuang, Gansu that has rammed earth ramparts with defensive crenellations at the top}}.}} The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their [[Sewage collection and disposal|drainage systems]] of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic [[water pipe]]s.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=1–39}} Monumental stone pillar-gates called ''[[que (tower)|que]]'', of which 29 dated to the Han survive, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites.{{sfnp|Steinhardt|2005a|p=279}}{{sfnp|Liu|2002|p=55}} These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and [[balustrades]].{{sfnp|Steinhardt|2005a|pp=279–280}}{{sfnp|Liu|2002|p=55}}

The [[courtyard house]] is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1999|p=76}} Ceramic architectural [[Architectural model|models of buildings]], like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological sites.{{sfnp|Steinhardt|2005b|pp=283–284}}

Over ten [[Western Han dynasty imperial tombs|Han-era]] [[Han dynasty tomb architecture|underground tombs]] have been found, many of them featuring archways, [[vaulted]] chambers, and domed roofs.{{sfnp|Wang|1982|pp=175–178}} Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.{{sfnp|Watson|2000|p=108}} The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.{{sfnp|Watson|2000|p=108}}

From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle [[beam bridge]]s, [[arch bridge]]s, [[simple suspension bridge]]s, and floating [[pontoon bridge]]s existed during the Han.{{sfnp|Needham|1986d|pp=161–188}} However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=171–172}} There is only one Han-era relief sculpture, located in Sichuan, that depicts an arch bridge.{{sfnp|Liu|2002|p=56}}

Underground [[mine shafts]] were dug to extract metal ores, with some reaching depths of more than {{cvt|100|m}}.{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=191–194}}{{sfnp|Wang|1982|p=105}} [[Borehole]] drilling and [[derrick]]s were used to lift [[brine]] to iron pans where it was distilled into salt. The distillation furnaces were heated by [[natural gas]] funnelled to the surface through [[Pipeline transport|bamboo pipelines]].{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=191–194}}{{sfnp|Tom|1989|p=103}}{{sfnp|Ronan|1994|p=91}} It is possible that these boreholes reached a total depth of {{cvt|600|m}}.{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=193–194}}
<gallery widths="190px" heights="200px">
File:登封汉代少室阙.jpg|A pair of stone-carved ''[[Que (tower)|que]]'' from the Eastern Han, at the temple of [[Mount Song]] in [[Dengfeng]], Henan
File:幽州書佐秦君石闕 17.jpg|A pair of ''que'' from the Eastern Han in Babaoshan, Beijing
File:Gao Yi Que2.jpg|A stone-carved ''que'' {{cvt|6|m}} in height from the Eastern Han, at the tomb of Gao Yi in [[Ya'an]], Sichuan{{sfnp|Liu|2002|p=55}}
File:Eastern Han tomb, Luoyang 2.jpg|A [[vaulted]] tomb chamber made of small bricks from the Eastern Han, at Luoyang 
File:Han Dynasty pottery tower.JPG|A Han pottery model of a granary tower with windows and balcony placed several stories above the first-floor courtyard; [[Zhang Heng]] (78–139&nbsp;AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors.{{sfnp|Bulling|1962|p=312}}
</gallery>

===Mechanical and hydraulic engineering===
{{further|History of science and technology in China}}
{{Multiple image
|total_width=400
|image1=Mold for bronze gear Han dynasty.jpg
|alt1=A ceramic mold with a hollowed out section for smelting bronze gears
|image2=Iron scissors, E Han.JPG
|alt2=Pair of rusted iron scissors
|image3=Winnowing machine and tilt hammer.JPG
|alt3=Small ceramic model of two men operating a tilt hammer and winnowing machine
|footer=Left: A Han era [[Moulding (process)|mould]] for making [[Science and technology of the Han dynasty|bronze gear wheels]]{{snd}}[[Shanghai Museum]]
{{pb}}Center: A pair of iron scissors dated to the Eastern Han period
{{pb}}Right: A Han dynasty pottery model of two men operating a [[Fengshanche|winnowing machine]] with a [[Crank (mechanism)|crank handle]] and a [[tilt hammer]] used to pound grain
}}
[[File:EastHanSeismograph.JPG|thumb|A modern replica of [[Zhang Heng]]'s [[seismometer]]]]
Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavours to be far beneath them.{{sfnp|Fraser|2014|p=370}} Professional artisan-engineers (''jiang'' {{lang|zh|匠}}) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=2, 9}}{{efn|See also {{harvp|Barbieri-Low|2007|p=36}}.}} Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|p=2}}

Nevertheless, some literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15&nbsp;BC the philosopher and poet [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong]] described the invention of the [[belt drive]] for a [[quilling]] machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.{{sfnp|Needham|1988|pp=207–208}} The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman [[Ding Huan]] are mentioned in the ''Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital''.{{sfnp|Barbieri-Low|2007|p=197}} Around AD&nbsp;180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=99, 134, 151, 233}} Ding also used [[gimbal]]s as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known [[zoetrope]] lamp.{{sfnp|Needham|1986b|pp=123, 233–234}}

Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the [[Crank (mechanism)|crank handle]] was used to operate the [[Fan (mechanical)|fans]] of [[Fengshanche|winnowing machines]] that separated grain from [[chaff]].{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=116–119, Plate CLVI}} The [[odometer]] cart, invented during the Han period, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance travelled.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=281–285}} This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=283–285}}

Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal [[caliper]]s used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.{{sfnp|Loewe|1968|pp=195–196}}

The [[waterwheel]] appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan {{circa|20&nbsp;AD|lk=no}}, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron [[trip hammer]]s, and were used in pounding, [[threshing]], and polishing grain.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=183–184, 390–392}} However, there is no sufficient evidence for the [[watermill]] in China until around the 5th century.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=396–400}} The administrator, mechanical engineer, and metallurgist [[Du Shi]] ({{died-in|38&nbsp;AD}}) created a waterwheel-powered [[Reciprocating motion|reciprocator]] that worked the [[bellows]] for the smelting of iron.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=184}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|p=370}} Waterwheels were also used to power [[chain pump]]s that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century ''[[Lunheng]]''.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=89, 110, 342–344}}

The [[armillary sphere]], a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the [[celestial sphere]], was invented by the Han during the 1st century&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|p=343}} Using a [[water clock]], waterwheel, and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer [[Zhang Heng]] (78–139&nbsp;AD) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1050}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=30, 479 footnote e}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=70}}{{sfnp|Bowman|2000|p=595}} To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the [[pressure head]] of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1050}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|p=479 footnote e}}

Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" ({{tlit|zh|houfeng didong yi}} {{lang|zh|候風地動儀}}), which the British sinologist and historian [[Joseph Needham]] described as "the ancestor of all [[seismographs]]".<ref>Cited in {{harvp|Fraser|2014|p=375}}.</ref> This device was able to detect the exact [[Cardinal direction|cardinal]] or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometres away.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1050}}{{sfnp|Fraser|2014|p=375}}{{sfnp|Morton|Lewis|2005|p=70}} It employed an [[inverted pendulum]] that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=626–631}} The account of this device in the ''[[Book of the Later Han]]'' describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (modern Gansu), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device.{{sfnp|Fraser|2014|p=376}}

===Mathematics===
{{further|Chinese mathematics#Han mathematics}}

Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are the ''[[Book on Numbers and Computation]]'', the ''[[Zhoubi Suanjing]],'' and the ''[[Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''. Han mathematical achievements include solving problems with right triangles, [[square root]]s, [[cube root]]s, and [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix methods]],{{sfnp|Dauben|2007|p=212}}{{sfnp|Liu|Feng|Jiang|Zheng|2003|pp=9–10}} finding more accurate [[Chronology of computation of π|approximations for pi]],{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=99–100}}{{sfnp|Berggren|Borwein|Borwein|2004|p=27}} providing [[mathematical proof]] of the [[Pythagorean theorem]],{{sfnp|Dauben|2007|pp=219–222}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|p=22}} use of the [[Fraction (mathematics)|decimal fraction]],<ref>{{harvp|Needham|1986a|pp=84–86}}</ref> [[Gaussian elimination]] to solve [[System of linear equations|linear equations]],{{sfnp|Shen|Crossley|Lun|1999|p=388}}{{sfnp|Straffin|1998|p=166}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=24–25, 121}} and [[continued fraction]]s to find the [[root of a function|roots of equations]].{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=65–66}}

One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements was the world's first use of [[negative number]]s. Negative numbers first appeared in the ''Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'' as black [[counting rods]], where positive numbers were represented by red counting rods.{{sfnp|Liu|Feng|Jiang|Zheng|2003|pp=9–10}} Negative numbers were also used by the Greek mathematician [[Diophantus]] around AD&nbsp;275, and in the 7th-century [[Bakhshali manuscript]] of [[Gandhara]], South Asia,{{sfnp|Teresi|2002|pp=65–66}} but were not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century.{{sfnp|Liu|Feng|Jiang|Zheng|2003|pp=9–10}}

The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In [[musical tuning]], [[Jing Fang]] (78–37&nbsp;BC) realized that 53 [[perfect fifth]]s was approximate to 31 [[octave]]s. He also created a [[musical scale]] of 60 tones, calculating the difference at <sup>177147</sup>⁄<sub>176776</sub> (the same value of [[53 equal temperament]] discovered by the German mathematician [[Nicholas Mercator]] [1620–1687], i.e. 3<sup>53</sup>/2<sup>84</sup>).{{sfnp|McClain|Ming|1979|p=212}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986b|pp=218–219}}

===Astronomy===
{{further|Chinese astronomy}}
Mathematics were essential in drafting the [[Chinese calendar|astronomical calendar]], a [[lunisolar calendar]] that used the Sun and Moon as time-markers throughout the year.{{sfnp|Cullen|2006|p=7}}{{sfnp|Lloyd|1996|p=168}} In the 5th century&nbsp;BC, during the [[Spring and Autumn period]], the Chinese established the Sifen calendar ({{lang|zh|古四分歷}}), which measured the [[tropical year]] at 365.25 days. This was replaced in 104&nbsp;BC with the Taichu calendar ({{lang|zh|太初曆}}) that measured the tropical year at {{fraction|365|385|1539}} (~ 365.25016) days and the [[lunar month]] at {{fraction|29|43|81}} days.{{sfnp|Deng|2005|p=67}} However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the Sifen calendar.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=498}}

Han dynasty astronomers made [[star catalogue]]s and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky, including recording the appearance of the comet now known as [[Halley's Comet]] in 12&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|pp=61, 69}}{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=173–175}}{{sfnp|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|pp=5, 21–23}}{{sfnp|Balchin|2003|p=27}} They adopted a [[geocentric model]] of the universe, theorizing that it was a sphere surrounding the Earth in the centre.{{sfnp|Dauben|2007|p=214}}{{sfnp|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|p=62}}{{sfnp|Huang|1988|p=64}} They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that [[lunar eclipse]]s occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a [[solar eclipse]] occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=227, 414}} Although others disagreed with his model, Wang Chong accurately described the [[water cycle]] of the evaporation of water into clouds.{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|p=468}}

===Cartography, ships, and vehicles===
{{Multiple image
|total_width=400
|image1=Western Han Mawangdui Silk Map.JPG
|alt1=A slightly tattered silk map with geographical features and outlines of rivers
|image2=Eastern Han pottery boat.JPG
|alt2=A pottery model of a boat with a steering rudder at the stern and a small sailor figurine standing on board
|footer=Left: A silk map from the early Western Han depicting the kingdoms of [[Changsha Kingdom|Changsha]] and [[Nanyue]] in southern China, with the southern direction oriented at the top{{snd}}[[Mawangdui]] tomb {{numero|3}}
{{pb}}Right: An Eastern Han pottery boat model with a steering [[rudder]] at the stern and anchor at the bow
}}

Both literary and archaeological evidence has demonstrated that [[cartography]] in China predated the Han.{{sfnp|Hsu|1993|pp=90–93}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=534–535}} Some of the oldest Han-era maps that have been discovered were written using ink on silk, and were found amongst the [[Mawangdui Silk Texts]] in a 2nd-century&nbsp;BC tomb in Hunan.{{sfnp|Hsu|1993|pp=90–93}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=125}} The general [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] created the world's first known [[raised-relief map]] from rice in the 1st century.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=659}} This date could be revised if the tomb of [[Qin Shi Huang]] is excavated and the ''Shiji''{{'s}} account of a model map of the empire is proven to be true.{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=580–581}}

Although the use of [[Scale (map)|graduated scale]]s and [[grid reference]]s in maps was not thoroughly described prior to the work of [[Pei Xiu]] (AD&nbsp;224–271), there is evidence that their use was introduced in the early 2nd century by the cartographer Zhang Heng.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1050}}{{sfnp|Hsu|1993|pp=90–93}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|pp=538–540}}{{sfnp|Nelson|1974|p=359}}

The Han sailed in various types of ships that differed from those used in previous eras, such as the [[tower ship]]. The [[Junk (ship)|''junk'' design]] was developed and realized during the Han era. Junk ships featured a square-ended [[Bow (watercraft)|bow]] and [[stern]], a flat-bottomed [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] or [[Carvel (boat building)|carvel-shaped]] hull with no [[keel]] or [[sternpost]], and [[Bulkhead (partition)|solid transverse bulkheads]] in the place of [structural ribs found in Western vessels.{{sfnp|Turnbull|2002|p=14}}{{sfnp|Needham|1986d|pp=390–391}} Moreover, Han ships were the first in the world to be steered using a [[rudder]] at the stern, in contrast to the simpler [[steering oar]] used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the high seas.{{sfnp|Needham|1986d|pp=627–628}}{{sfnp|Chung|2005|p=152}}{{sfnp|Tom|1989|pp=103–104}}{{sfnp|Adshead|2000|p=156}}{{sfnp|Fairbank|Goldman|1998|p=93}}{{sfnp|Block|2003|pp=93, 123}}

Although ox carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=263–267}}{{sfnp|Greenberger|2006|p=13}} Han artwork of horse-drawn chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the softer ''breast strap''.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=308–312, 319–323}} Later, during the [[Northern Wei]] (386–534), the fully developed [[horse collar]] was invented.{{sfnp|Needham|1986c|pp=308–312, 319–323}}

===Medicine===
{{further|Traditional Chinese medicine#Han dynasty}}
[[File:Qigong taiji meditation.jpg|thumb|The physical exercise chart; a [[Mawangdui silk texts|painting on silk]] depicting the practice of ''[[Daoyin]]''{{snd}}Mawangdui tomb {{numero|3}}]]

Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body was subject to the same forces of nature that governed the greater universe, namely the [[cosmological]] cycles of yin and yang and the [[five phases]]. Each organ of the body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was viewed as a sign that [[qi]], or vital energy, channels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Han-era physicians prescribed medicine that was believed to counteract this imbalance.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=181–182}}{{sfnp|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|pp=3–4}}{{sfnp|Hsu|2001|p=75}}

For example, since the wood phase was believed to promote the fire phase, medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase could be used to heal an organ associated with the fire phase.{{sfnp|Csikszentmihalyi|2006|pp=181–182}} Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed [[moxibustion]], [[acupuncture]], and [[callisthenics]] as methods of maintaining one's health.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=332}}{{sfnp|Omura|2003|pp=15, 19–22}}{{sfnp|Loewe|1994|p=65}}{{sfnp|Lo|2001|p=23}} When surgery was performed by the Chinese physician [[Hua Tuo]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;208}}), he used [[anaesthesia]] to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped up the healing process for surgical wounds.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=332}} The physician [[Zhang Zhongjing]] ({{circa|150|219&nbsp;AD|lk=no}}) is known to have written the ''[[Shanghan Lun]]'' ("Dissertation on Typhoid Fever"), and it is thought that he and Hua Tuo collaborated to compile the ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'' medical text.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=1055}}

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* {{anl|Battle of Jushi}}
* {{anl|Campaign against Dong Zhuo}}
* [[Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires]]
* [[Chinese emperors family tree (early)#Han Dynasty, Xin Dynasty and Shu Han|Han Emperors family tree]]
* {{anl|Shuanggudui}}
* {{anl|Ten Attendants}}
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources cited===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{citation |surname=Adshead |given=Samuel Adrian Miles |title=China in World History |location=London |publisher=MacMillan |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-312-22565-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Akira |given=Hirakawa |title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamani to Early Mahayana |translator=Paul Groner |location=New Delhi |publisher=Jainendra Prakash Jain at Shri Jainendra Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-0955-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=An |given=Jiayao |chapter=When glass was treasured in China |pages=79–94 |title=Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road |editor-given1=Annette L. |editor-surname1=Juliano |editor-given2=Judith A. |editor-surname2=Lerner |location=Turnhout |publisher=Brepols Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-2-503-52178-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Bailey |given=H. W. |author-link=Harold Walter Bailey |title=Indo-Scythian Studies being Khotanese Texts Volume VII |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-521-11992-4 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Balchin |given=Jon |title=Science: 100 Scientists Who Changed the World |location=New York |publisher=Enchanted Lion Books |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-59270-017-2 |postscript=. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/science100scient0000balc }}
*{{citation |surname=Ball |given=Warwick |title=Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire |location=London & New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-415-72078-6 |postscript=. |author-link=Warwick Ball}}
*{{citation |surname=Barbieri-Low |given=Anthony J. |title=Artisans in Early Imperial China |location=Seattle & London |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-295-98713-2 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Barnes |given=Ian |title=Mapping History: World History |location=London |publisher=Cartographica |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84573-323-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Beck |given=Mansvelt |chapter=The fall of Han |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |pages=317–376 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-link1=Denis Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |editor-link2=Michael Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |given1=Lennart |surname1=Berggren |given2=Jonathan M. |surname2=Borwein |given3=Peter B. |surname3=Borwein |title=Pi: A Source Book |location=New York |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-387-20571-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |last1=Bi |first1=Zhicheng |title=Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition |journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |date=2019 |pages=175–177 |volume=368 |url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125923384.pdf |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Bielenstein |given=Hans |author-link=Hans Bielenstein |title=The Bureaucracy of Han Times |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-521-22510-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Bielenstein |given=Hans |author-mask=3 |chapter=Wang Mang, the Restoration of the Han Dynasty, and Later Han |pages=223–290 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation| surname=Bielenstein |given=Hans |author-mask=3|title= Chinese Historical Demography A D. 2 – 1982 | journal= Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities| volume=59 | date=1987| place=Stockholm| url= https://archive.org/details/bulletin-59/page/n5/mode/1up| postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Block |given=Leo |title=To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails |location=Annapolis |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-55750-209-4 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/toharnesswindsho00bloc }}
*{{citation |surname=Bowman |given=John S. |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-231-11004-4 |postscript=. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john }}
*{{citation |surname=Buisseret |given=David |title=Envisioning the City: Six Studies in Urban Cartography |location=Chicago |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-226-07993-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Bulling |given=A. |title=A landscape representation of the Western Han period |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=25 |number=4 |pages=293–317 |year=1962 |doi=10.2307/3249129 |jstor=3249129 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Chang |given=Chun-shu |title=The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157 |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-472-11534-1 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Chavannes |given=Édouard |title=Les pays d'Occident d'après le Heou Han chou |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=8 |pages=149–244 |year=1907 |url=https://chineancienne.fr/app/download/3972353762/chavannes_occident.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://chineancienne.fr/app/download/3972353762/chavannes_occident.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-10 |url-status=live |postscript=. |doi=10.1163/156853207x00111 }}
*{{citation |surname=Ch'en |given=Ch'i-Yün |chapter=Confucian, Legalist, and Taoist thought in Later Han |pages=766–806 |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Ch'ü |given=T'ung-tsu |title=Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure |editor-given=Jack L. |editor-surname=Dull |location=Seattle and London |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-295-95068-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Chung |given=Chee Kit |chapter=Longyamen is Singapore: The Final Proof? |title=Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia |location=Singapore |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2005 |isbn=978-981-230-329-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Cotterell |given=Maurice |title=The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army |location=Rochester |publisher=Bear and Company |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59143-033-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Cribb |given=Joe |title=Chinese lead ingots with barbarous Greek inscriptions |journal=Coin Hoards |volume=4 |pages=76–78 |year=1978 |url=https://www.academia.edu/33859218 |postscript=. |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816135559/https://academia.edu/33859218 |url-status=live }}
*{{citation |surname=Csikszentmihalyi |given=Mark |title=Readings in Han Chinese Thought |publisher=Hackett |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87220-710-3 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Cullen |given=Christopher |title=Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: The Zhou Bi Suan Jing |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03537-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Cutter |given=Robert Joe |title=The Brush and the Spur: Chinese Culture and the Cockfight |location=Hong Kong |publisher=The Chinese University of Hong Kong |year=1989 |isbn=978-962-201-417-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Dauben |given=Joseph W. |author-link=Joseph Dauben |chapter=Chinese Mathematics |pages=187–384 |title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook |editor-given=Victor J. |editor-surname=Katz |editor-link=Victor J. Katz |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-691-11485-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Davis |given=Paul K. |author-link=Paul K. Davis (historian) |title=100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-514366-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |given1=Lance |surname1=Day |given2=Ian |surname2=McNeil |title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-06042-4 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415060424 }}
*{{citation |surname=de Crespigny |given=Rafe |author-link=Rafe de Crespigny |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) |location=Leiden |publisher=Koninklijke Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-9-004-15605-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Demiéville |given=Paul |chapter=Philosophy and religion from Han to Sui |pages=808–872 |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Deng |given=Yingke |title=Ancient Chinese Inventions |translator=Wang Pingxing |location=Beijing |publisher=China Intercontinental Press (五洲传播出版社) |year=2005 |isbn=978-7-5085-0837-5 |postscript=. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng }}
*{{citation |surname=Di Cosmo |given=Nicola |author-link=Nicola Di Cosmo |title=Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77064-4 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Ebrey |given=Patricia Buckley |title=Estate and family management in the Later Han as seen in the ''Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People'' |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=173–205 |year=1974 |jstor=3596331 |postscript=. |doi=10.1163/156852074X00110}}
*{{citation |surname=Ebrey |given=Patricia Buckley |author-mask=3 |chapter=The Economic and Social History of Later Han |pages=608–648 |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Ebrey |given=Patricia Buckley |author-mask=3 |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-66991-7 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre }}
*{{citation |surname=Eiland |given=Murray |title=Looking at Ancient Chinese Dogs Looking at Ancient Chinese Dogs |journal=Athena Review |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=75–79 |year=2003 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Fairbank |given1=John K. |author-link1=John K. Fairbank |given2=Merle |surname2=Goldman |title=China: A New History, Enlarged Edition |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-674-11673-3 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/chinatraditiontr00fair }}
*{{citation |surname1=Fraser |given1=Ian W. |editor-given=Kerry |editor-surname=Brown |chapter=Zhang Heng 张衡 |title=The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography |location=Great Barrington |publisher=Berkshire |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-933782-66-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Greenberger |given=Robert<!--DO NOT LINK--> |title=The Technology of Ancient China |location=New York |publisher=Rosen |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4042-0558-1 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/technologyofanci0000gree }}
*{{citation |surname=Guo |given=Qinghua |title=Chinese Architecture and Planning: Ideas, Methods, and Techniques |location=Stuttgart and London |publisher=Axel Menges |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-932565-54-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hansen |given=Valerie |author-link=Valerie Hansen |title=The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600 |location=New York & London |publisher=W. W. Norton |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-393-97374-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hardy |given=Grant |title=Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-231-11304-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hinsch |given=Bret |title=Passions of the Cut Sleeve | publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-520-91265-6|postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hinsch |given=Bret |title=Women in Imperial China |location=Lanham |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7425-1872-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hsu |given=Cho-Yun |author-link=Cho-yun Hsu |title=The changing relationship between local society and the central political power in Former Han: 206 B.C. – 8 A.D. |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=7 |number=4 |pages=358–370 |year=1965 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500003777 |s2cid=146695190 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hsu |given=Elisabeth |chapter=Pulse diagnostics in the Western Han: how mai and qi determine bing |pages=51–92 |title=Innovations in Chinese Medicine |editor-given=Elisabeth |editor-surname=Hsu |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80068-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Hsu |given=Mei-ling |title=The Qin maps: a clue to later Chinese cartographic development |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=45 |pages=90–100 |year=1993 |doi=10.1080/03085699308592766 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Huang |given=Ray |author-link=Ray Huang |title=China: A Macro History |location=Armonk & London |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-87332-452-6 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/chinamacrohistor00huan_0 }}
*{{citation |surname=Hulsewé |given=A. F. P. |author-link=A. F. P. Hulsewé |chapter=Ch'in and Han law |pages=520–544 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Jin |given1=Guantao |surname2=Fan |given2=Hongye |surname3=Liu |given3=Qingfeng |chapter=Historical Changes in the Structure of Science and Technology (Part Two, a Commentary) |pages=165–184 |title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology |editor-given1=Fan |editor-surname1=Dainian |editor-given2=Robert S. |editor-surname2=Cohen |translator=Kathleen Dugan and Jiang Mingshan |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Kluwer |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |given=David R. |surname=Knechtges |author-link=David R. Knechtges |chapter=From the Eastern Han through the Western Jin (AD 25–317) |pages=116–198 |title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, volume 1 |editor-given=Stephen |editor-surname=Owen |editor-link=Stephen Owen (academic) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85558-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Kramers |given=Robert P. |chapter=The development of the Confucian schools |pages=747–756 |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Lewis |given=Mark Edward |author-link=Mark Edward Lewis |title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-674-02477-9 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo }}
*{{citation |editor-given=Ban |editor-surname=Wang |surname1=Lewis |given1=Mark Edward |surname2=Hsieh |given2=Mei-yu |title=Chinese Visions of World Order: Tianxia, Culture, and World Politics |chapter=Tianxia and the invention of empire in East Asia |year=2017 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822372448 |pages=25–48 |jstor=j.ctv11cw3gv |postscript=.}}
* {{citation |surname=Li |given=Hui-Lin |year=1974 |title=An archeological and historical account of cannabis in China |journal=Economic Botany |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=437–448 |doi=10.1007/BF02862859 |jstor=4253540 |s2cid=19866569 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Liu |given=Xujie |chapter=The Qin and Han dynasties |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesearchitect0000unse/page/33 33–60] |title=Chinese Architecture |editor-given=Nancy S. |editor-surname=Steinhardt |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09559-3 |postscript=. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/chinesearchitect0000unse/page/33 }}
*{{citation |surname1=Liu |given1=Guilin |surname2=Feng |given2=Lisheng |surname3=Jiang |given3=Airong |surname4=Zheng |given4=Xiaohui |chapter=The Development of E-Mathematics Resources at Tsinghua University Library (THUL) |pages=1–13 |title=Electronic Information and Communication in Mathematics |editor-surname1=Bai |editor-given1=Fengshan |editor-given2=Bern |editor-surname2=Wegner |publisher=Springer |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-540-40689-1 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Lloyd |given=Geoffrey Ernest Richard |author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |title=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into Ancient Greek and Chinese Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-55695-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Lo |given=Vivienne |chapter=The influence of nurturing life culture on the development of Western Han acumoxa therapy |title=Innovation in Chinese Medicine |pages=19–50 |editor-given=Elisabeth |editor-surname=Hsu |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80068-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Loewe |given=Michael |author-link=Michael Loewe |year=1968 |title=Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220 |location=London |publisher=B. T. Batsford |isbn=978-0-87220-758-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Loewe |given=Michael |author-mask=3 |chapter=The Former Han Dynasty |pages=103–222 |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Loewe |given=Michael |author-mask=3 |title=Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-45466-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Loewe |given=Michael |author-mask=3 |chapter=Funerary Practice in Han Times |pages=23–74 |title=Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines' |editor-given=Naomi Noble |editor-surname=Richard |publisher=Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-300-10797-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Mawer |given=Granville Allen |chapter=The Riddle of Cattigara |pages=38–39 |title=Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia |editor-given=Robert |editor-surname=Nichols |editor-given2=Martin |editor-surname2=Woods |location=Canberra |publisher=National Library of Australia |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-642-27809-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=McClain |given1=Ernest G. |surname2=Ming |given2=Shui Hung |title=Chinese cyclic tunings in late antiquity |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=205–224 |year=1979 |doi=10.2307/851462 |jstor=851462 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |given1=William Scott |surname1=Morton |given2=Charlton M. |surname2=Lewis |title=China: Its History and Culture |edition=Fourth |location=New York City |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-141279-7 |year=2005 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations |location=London |publisher=Syndics of the Cambridge University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-521-05799-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |author-mask=3 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3; Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |year=1986a |isbn=978-0-521-05801-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |author-mask=3 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1, Physics |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |year=1986b |isbn=978-0-521-05802-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |author-mask=3 |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |year=1986c |isbn=978-0-521-05803-2 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |author-mask=3 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |year=1986d |isbn=978-0-521-07060-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Needham |given1=Joseph |surname2=Tsien |given2=Tsuen-Hsuin |author-link2=Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing |location=Taipei |publisher=Caves Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-08690-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Needham |given=Joseph |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 9, Textile Technology: Spinning and Reeling |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-521-32021-4 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |given1=William H. |surname1=Neinhauser |given2=Charles |surname2=Hartman |given3=Y. W. |surname3=Ma |given4=Stephen H. |surname4=West |author-link4=Stephen H. West |title=The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature: Volume 1 |location=Bloomington |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-253-32983-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Nelson |given=Howard |title=Chinese maps: an exhibition at the British Library |journal=The China Quarterly |volume=58 |pages=357–362 |year=1974 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000011346 |s2cid=154338508 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Nishijima |given=Sadao |chapter=The economic and social history of Former Han |pages=545–607 |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Norman |given=Jerry |author-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist) |title=Chinese |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-521-29653-3 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Omura |given=Yoshiaki |title=Acupuncture Medicine: Its Historical and Clinical Background |location=Mineola |publisher=Dover |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-486-42850-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=O'Reilly |given=Dougald J. W. |title=Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia |location=Lanham, New York, Toronto, Plymouth |publisher=AltaMira |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7591-0279-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Paludan |given=Ann |author-link=Ann Paludan |title=Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China |location=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-500-05090-3 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofchine00palu }}
* {{cite book |author-last=Pankenier |author-first= David W. |editor-last=Pankenier |editor-first= David W. |year=2013 |title=Astrology and Cosmology in Early China: Conforming Earth to Heaven |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/astrology-and-cosmology-in-early-china/sky-river-andcosmography/F7878B4EA1E9241DFC997DE58B789E0A |language=EN |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |chapter=The Sky River and cosmography |pages=383-403 |isbn=9781139017466 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139017466.021 |access-date=}}
*{{citation |surname=Pigott |given=Vincent C. |title=The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-924171-34-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |last1=Psarras |first1=Sophia-Karin |title=Han Material Culture: An Archaeological Analysis and Vessel Typology |date=2 February 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-27267-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLD0BQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR19 |via=[[Google Books]] |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Ronan |given=Colin A. |author-link=Colin Ronan |year=1994 |title=The Shorter Science and Civilization in China: 4 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-32995-8 |postscript=.}} (an abridgement of Joseph Needham's work)
*{{citation |author-link=Duan Qingbo |last1=Qingbo |first1=Duan |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History |date=2023 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=48–49 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |language=en |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Schaefer |given=Richard T.<!--DO NOT LINK--> |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society: Volume 3 |location=Thousand Oaks |publisher=Sage |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Shen |given1=Kangshen |given2=John N. |surname2=Crossley |author-link2=John Crossley (mathematician) |given3=Anthony W. C. |surname3=Lun |title=The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-853936-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Steinhardt |given=Nancy Shatzman |title=The Tang architectural icon and the politics of Chinese architectural history |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=86 |number=2 |pages=228–254 |year=2004 |doi=10.2307/3177416 |jstor=3177416 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Steinhardt |given=Nancy S. |author-mask=3 |chapter=Pleasure tower model |pages=275–281 |title=Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines' |editor-given=Naomi Noble |editor-surname=Richard |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum |year=2005a |isbn=978-0-300-10797-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Steinhardt |given=Nancy S. |author-mask=3 |chapter=Tower model |title=Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines' |pages=283–285 |editor-given=Naomi Noble |editor-surname=Richard |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum |year=2005b |isbn=978-0-300-10797-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Straffin |given=Philip D. Jr |title=Liu Hui and the first Golden Age of Chinese mathematics |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=71 |number=3 |pages=163–181 |year=1998 |jstor=2691200 |postscript=. |doi=10.1080/0025570x.1998.11996627}}
*{{citation |surname=Suárez |given=Thomas |title=Early Mapping of Southeast Asia |location=Singapore |publisher=Periplus |year=1999 |isbn=978-962-593-470-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Sun |given1=Xiaochun |given2=Jacob |surname2=Kistemaker |title=The Chinese Sky During the Han: Constellating Stars and Society |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-10737-3 |postscript=. |bibcode=1997csdh.book.....S}}
*{{citation |surname=Taagepera |given=Rein |author-link=Rein Taagepera |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |pages=115–138 |jstor=1170959 |postscript=. |doi=10.1017/s014555320002294x|s2cid=147379141 }}
*{{citation |surname=Teresi |given=Dick |author-link=Dick Teresi |title=Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science–from the Babylonians to the Mayas |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-684-83718-5 |postscript=. |url=https://archive.org/details/lostdiscoveriesa00tere }}
*{{citation |surname=Thorp |given=Robert L.<!--DO NOT LINK--> |title=Architectural principles in early Imperial China: structural problems and their solution |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=68 |number=3 |pages=360–378 |year=1986 |jstor=3050972 |postscript=. |doi=10.1080/00043079.1986.10788358}}
*{{citation |surname=Tom |given=K. S. |title=Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-8248-1285-0 |postscript=. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/echoesfromoldchi0000tomk }}
*{{citation |surname=Torday |given=Laszlo |title=Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History |location=Durham |publisher=Durham |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-900838-03-0 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Turnbull |given=Stephen R. |author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title=Fighting Ships of the Far East: China and Southeast Asia 202 BC–AD 1419 |location=Oxford |publisher=Osprey |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84176-386-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Wagner |given=Donald B. |title=Iron and Steel in Ancient China |publisher=Brill |year=1993 |isbn=978-90-04-09632-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Wagner |given=Donald B. |author-mask=3 |title=The State and the Iron Industry in Han China |location=Copenhagen |publisher=Nordic Institute of Asian Studies |year=2001 |isbn=978-87-87062-83-1 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Wang |given=Yu-ch'uan |title=An outline of The central government of the Former Han dynasty |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=12 |number=1/2 |pages=134–187 |year=1949 |doi=10.2307/2718206 |jstor=2718206 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Wang |given=Zhongshu |author-link=Wang Zhongshu |year=1982 |title=Han Civilization |translator=((K. C. Chang and collaborators)) |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-02723-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname1=Wang |given1=Xudang |surname2=Li |given2=Zuixiong |author-link2=Li Zuixiong |surname3=Zhang |given3=Lu |editor=Neville Agnew |title=Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of China, June 28 – July 3, 2004 |chapter=Condition, Conservation, and Reinforcement of the Yumen Pass and Hecang Earthen Ruins Near Dunhuang |pages=351–352 [351–357] |year=2010 |publisher=Getty |isbn=978-1-60606-013-1 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Watson |given=William |author-link=William Watson (sinologist) |title=The Arts of China to AD 900 |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-300-08284-5 |postscript=.}}
*{{Citation |surname=Wiesner-Hanks |given=Merry E. |title=Gender in History: Global Perspectives |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2011 |orig-year=2001 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-4051-8995-8 |location=Oxford}}
*{{citation |surname=Xue |given=Shiqi |chapter=Chinese lexicography past and present |pages=158–173 |title=Lexicography: Critical Concepts |editor-given=R. R. K. |editor-surname=Hartmann |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-25365-9 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Young |given=Gary K. |year=2001 |title=Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305 |location=London & New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-24219-6 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Yü |given=Ying-shih |author-link=Yu Ying-shih |year=1967 |title=Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Yü |given=Ying-shih |author-mask=3 |chapter=Han foreign relations |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |pages=377–462 |editor-given1=Denis |editor-surname1=Twitchett |editor-given2=Michael |editor-surname2=Loewe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Yule |given=Henry |author-link=Henry Yule |year=1915 |editor=Henri Cordier |volume=1 |title=Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route |location=London |publisher=Hakluyt Society |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Zhang |given=Guangda |chapter=The role of the Sogdians as translators of Buddhist texts |pages=75–78 |title=Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road |editor-given1=Annette L. |editor-surname1=Juliano |editor-given2=Judith A. |editor-surname2=Lerner |location=Turnhout |publisher=Brepols |year=2002 |isbn=978-2-503-52178-7 |postscript=.}}
*{{citation |surname=Zhou |given=Jinghao |title=Remaking China's Public Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century |location=Westport |publisher=Greenwood |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-97882-2 |postscript=.}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
*{{citation |surname=Loewe |given=Michael |title=The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE–220 CE |publisher=Hackett |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87220-819-3 |postscript=.}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|EN-Han_dynasty-article.ogg|date=2016-04-27}}
{{Commons category|Han Dynasty}}
{{Wikibooks|1=Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World|2=The Han dynasty and China's Classical Age|3=the Han Dynasty}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090710041505/https://mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html "Han dynasty" by Emuseum – Minnesota State University, Mankato]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051201013511/http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-han.cfm Han dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts]
*[https://e-asia.uoregon.edu/earlychina/ Early Imperial China: A Working Collection of Resources ] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625031315/https://e-asia.uoregon.edu/earlychina/ |date=25 June 2010 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111010033305/https://hylae.com/en/hdwh.asp "Han Culture," Hanyangling Museum Website]
*[https://bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y29t The Han Synthesis], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Christopher Cullen, Carol Michaelson & Roel Sterckx (''In Our Time'', Oct. 14, 2004)

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Qin dynasty]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Dynasties in Chinese history]] |years=206 BC – AD 220}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Three Kingdoms]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Han dynasty topics}}
{{Empires}}
{{Portal bar|China|History}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Han dynasty| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century]]
[[Category:1st century BC in China|.]]
[[Category:1st century in China|.]]
[[Category:2nd century BC in China|.]]
[[Category:2nd century in China|.]]
[[Category:200s BC establishments]]
[[Category:206 BC]]
[[Category:220 disestablishments]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC establishments in China]]
[[Category:3rd-century disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:3rd century BC in China|.]]
[[Category:Dynasties of China]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]