View source for Korean language

{{Short description|Language spoken in Korea}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Korean
| image            = Hangugeo-Chosono.svg
| imagescale       = 0.6
| imagecaption     = {{tlit|ko|Hangugeo}} written (left) vertically in [[Hangul|Korean alphabet]] for South Korean and {{tlit|ko|Chosŏnŏ}} written (right) for North Korean when referring to the language
| image_class       = skin-invert-image
| nativename       = {{lang|ko|한국어}} ({{translit|ko|Hangugeo}}) (South Korea)<br />{{lang|ko|조선어}} ({{translit|ko|Chosŏnŏ}}) (North Korea)
| region           = [[Korea]]
| ethnicity        = [[Koreans]], formerly [[Jaegaseung]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|81.186970|2}} million
| date             = 2019–2022
| ref              = <ref>{{e28|kor}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Altaic
| fam1             = [[Koreanic]]
| fam2             = 
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Koreanic language|Proto-Koreanic]]
| ancestor2        = [[Old Korean]]
| ancestor3        = [[Middle Korean]]
| ancestor4        = {{ill|Early Modern Korean|ko|근대 한국어|ja|近世朝鮮語|preserve=yes}}
| dialects         = See ''[[Korean dialects]]''
| sign             = 
| stand1           = [[South Korean standard language|Pyojuneo]] ([[South Korea]])<!--ROK standard first because it has most international influence-->
| stand2           = [[North Korean standard language|Munhwaŏ]] ([[North Korea]])
| script           = {{ubli|
* '''In North Korea''': <!--Listed alphabetically to avoid any bias-->
* [[Hangul|Chosŏn'gŭl]] (identical to Hangul)
* [[Hanja]] ([[Idu script|Idu]], [[Hyangchal]] and [[Gugyeol]]; less common now)
* '''In South Korea''':
* [[Hangul]] (identical to Chosŏn'gŭl)
* [[Hanja]] (Supplementary use)
* [[Korean mixed script]] (archaic; limited)
}}
| nation           = {{plainlist|
* <!--Listed alphabetically to avoid any bias-->[[North Korea]]<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica URL|https://www.britannica.com/topic/Korean-language|Korean language|Samuel E. Martin}}</ref>
* [[South Korea]]<ref name="Britannica" />
}}
| minority         = [[Yanbian Prefecture]] and [[Changbai County]] (China)
| agency           = {{ubli|
* '''In South Korea''':<!--Not alphabetical because ROK organisation has more international influence on Korean-->
* [[National Institute of Korean Language]]
* '''In North Korea''':
* The Language Research Institute, Academy of Social Science
* '''In China''':
* China Korean Language Regulatory Commission
}}
| iso1             = ko
| iso2             = kor
| iso3             = kor
| lingua           = 45-AAA-a
| map              = Idioma coreano.png
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = kore1280
| glottorefname    = Korean
| module           = {{Infobox Korean name/auto|child=yes|title=South Korean name
| hangul = ^한국어
| hanja = 韓國語
| ipa = {{IPA|ko|ha(ː)n.ɡu.ɡʌ|}}
| othername1 = North Korean name
| hangul1 = ^조선어
| hanja1 = 朝鮮語
| ipa1 = {{IPA|ko|tso.sɔ.nɔ|}}
| iparef1 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Hermann |first=Winfred |year=1994 |title=Lehrbuch der Modernen Koreanischen Sprache |location=Berlin |publisher=Buske|page=26 |url=https://archive.org/details/north_korean_language_textbooks/Lehrbuch%20der%20Modernen%20Koreanischen%20Sprache/page/26/mode/2up |access-date=27 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="naenara" />
}}
}}
'''Korean''' is the [[first language|native language]] for about 81 million people, mostly of [[Koreans|Korean]] descent.{{efn|Measured as of 2020. The estimated 2020 combined population of North and South Korea was about 77 million.}} It is the [[national language]] of both [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]]. In the south, the language is known as '''{{tlit|ko|Hangugeo}}''' ({{Langx|ko|한국어|label=[[South Korean standard language|South Korean]]}}) and in the north, it is known as '''{{tlit|ko|Chosŏnŏ}}''' ({{Langx|ko|조선어|label=[[North Korean standard language|North Korean]]}}).<ref name="naenara">{{cite web |title=국가상징 |url=http://naenara.com.kp/main/index/ko/politics?arg_val=symbol |access-date=19 August 2024 |website= |publisher=[[Naenara]] |language=ko |quote=조선민주주의인민공화국의 국어는 조선어이다.}}</ref> Since the turn of the 21st century, [[Korean Wave|Korean popular culture]] has spread around the world through [[globalization]] and [[Korean Wave|cultural exports]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=legaltranslations |date=2020-03-16 |title=The Korean Language: Key Differences Between North and South - Blog |url=https://legal-translations.com.au/korean-language-key-differences-north-south/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=Legal Translations |language=en-AU}}</ref> Korean uses the [[Hangul]] alphabet.

Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a [[minority language]] in parts of [[China]], namely [[Jilin]], and specifically [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian Prefecture]], and [[Changbai Korean Autonomous County|Changbai County]]. It is also spoken by [[Sakhalin Koreans]] in parts of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Russia]]n island just north of Japan, and by the {{Lang|ko-latn|[[Koryo-saram]]}} in parts of [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Hölzl">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cC9tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |title = A typology of questions in Northeast Asia and beyond: An ecological perspective |last = Hölzl |first = Andreas |date = 2018-08-29 |publisher = Language Science Press |isbn = 978-3-96110-102-3 |page = 25 |access-date = 13 December 2020 |archive-date = 6 November 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231106134711/https://books.google.com/books?id=cC9tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status = live }}</ref> The language has a few [[Extinct language|extinct]] relatives which—along with the [[Jeju language]] (Jejuan) of [[Jeju Island]] and Korean itself—form the compact [[Koreanic language family]]. Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not [[mutually intelligible]]. The [[linguistic homeland]] of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary [[Manchuria]].<ref name="Hölzl"/> The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a [[Korean speech levels|system of speech levels]] and [[Korean honorifics|honorifics]] indicative of the formality of any given situation.

Modern Korean is written in the [[Hangul|Korean script]] ({{Korean/auto|hangul=^한글|rr=yes|labels=no}} in South Korea, {{Korean/auto|hangul=^조선글|mr=yes|labels=no}} in North Korea), an [[alphabet]] system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the mid 20th century ([[Hanja]] and [[Korean mixed script|mixed script]] were the primary script until then).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim-Renaud |first1=Young-Key |author-link1=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |title=Mixed Script and Literacy in Korea |journal=Korean Linguistics |date=1 January 2004 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=161–182 |doi=10.1075/kl.12.07ykk |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/kl.12.07ykk |access-date=14 December 2024 |language=en |issn=0257-3784|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The script uses 24 basic letters (''jamo'') and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones.

Interest in Korean language acquisition (as a [[second language|foreign language]]) has been generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between [[South Korea–United States relations|South Korea–United States]] and [[China–North Korea relations|China–North Korea]] since the end of [[World War II]] and the [[Korean War]]. Along with other languages such as [[Sinitic languages|the Chinese languages]] and [[Arabic]], Korean is ranked at the [[Defense Language Aptitude Battery|top difficulty level]] for English speakers by the [[United States Department of Defense]].

==History==
{{Main|History of Korean}}

Modern Korean descends from [[Middle Korean]], which in turn descends from [[Old Korean]], which descends from the [[Proto-Koreanic language]], which is generally suggested to have its [[Urheimat|linguistic homeland]] somewhere in [[Manchuria]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Janhunen|first=Juha|date=2010 |title=Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia|journal=Studia Orientalia|quote=... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.|number=108}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Vovin |first=Alexander |year=2013 |title=From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean |journal=Korean Linguistics |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=222–240|doi=10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov }}</ref> Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the [[Korean Peninsula]] at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic [[Mumun pottery period|Mumun]] cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whitman |first=John |date=2011-12-01|title=Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan|journal=Rice |volume=4|issue=3|pages=149–158|issn=1939-8433 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0|doi-access=free|bibcode=2011Rice....4..149W }}</ref>

Since the establishment of two independent governments, [[North–South differences in the Korean language|North–South differences]] have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. While there tends to be strong political conflict between North and South Korea regarding these linguistic "differences," regional dialects within each country actually display greater linguistic variations than those found between North and South Korean standards. Nevertheless, these dialects remain largely [[mutually intelligible]].

=== Writing systems ===
{{See also|Origin of Hangul}}

[[File:Hunminjeongum.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|King Sejong's proclamation of the Hangul script, written in [[Classical Chinese]]]]
The [[Chinese language]], written with [[Chinese characters]] and read with [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations]], was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century.{{sfnp|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=111, 287–288}} Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as [[Hanja]]) to write their own language, creating scripts known as [[Idu script|idu]], [[hyangchal]], [[gugyeol]], and gakpil.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hannas|first=Wm C.|title=Asia's Orthographic Dilemma|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0|page=57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA57|year=1997}}</ref>{{sfnp|Cho|Whitman|2020|pp=41–45}} These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of the population was illiterate.

In the 15th century King [[Sejong the Great]] personally developed an [[alphabet]]ic [[featural writing system]], known today as [[Hangul]], to promote literacy among the common people.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Koerner|first1=E. F. K.|last2=Asher|first2=R. E.|title=Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists|publisher=Elsevier|date=2014-06-28|page=54|isbn=978-1-4832-9754-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCqLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kim-Renaud |first=Young-Key |author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |title=The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure |date=1997 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1723-7 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nonRl2cerIgC&pg=PA15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:알고 싶은 한글 |url=https://www.korean.go.kr/hangeul/setting/002.html|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134258/https://www.korean.go.kr/hangeul/setting/002.html |archive-date=18 February 2020 |access-date=4 December 2017 |website= |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |language=ko}}</ref> Introduced in the document {{Lang|ko-latn|[[Hunminjeongeum]]}}, it was called {{Lang|ko-latn|eonmun}} ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea.

The Korean alphabet was denounced by the {{Lang|ko-latn|[[yangban]]}} aristocracy, who looked down upon it for being too easy to learn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ktlit.com/korean-literature-in-translation-chapter-four-the-creation-of-hangeul/ |title=Korean Literature in Translation – Chapter Four: It All Changes! The Creation of Hangul |last=Montgomery |first=Charles |date=19 January 2016 |publisher=KTLit |access-date=2016-04-20 |quote=Hangul was sometimes known as the "language of the inner rooms," (a dismissive term used partly by yangban in an effort to marginalize the alphabet), or the domain of women. |archive-date=8 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508055319/http://www.ktlit.com/korean-literature-in-translation-chapter-four-the-creation-of-hangeul/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chan |first=Tak-hung Leo|title=One into Many: Translation and the Dissemination of Classical Chinese Literature|date=2003 |publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-0815-1|page=183 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5oPBC2AfgAC&pg=PA183 }}</ref> However, it gained widespread use among the common class<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Korea News Review |date=1 January 1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3m6AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Despite+the+initial+cool+reception,+Hangul+gradually+become+widely+used+by+commoners+in+writing+letters,+poetry+and+other+stories.%22 |access-date=26 December 2016 |publisher=Korea Herald, Incorporated |language=en |title=Korea Newsreview |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106134712/https://books.google.com/books?id=P3m6AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Despite+the+initial+cool+reception,+Hangul+gradually+become+widely+used+by+commoners+in+writing+letters,+poetry+and+other+stories.%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Kenneth B.|title=Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1997|isbn=978-0-275-95823-7|page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrZQs-6KswMC&pg=PA90}}</ref> Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By the 17th century, the {{Lang|ko-latn|yangban}} had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.aks.ac.kr/letter/letterViewer.aspx?datauci=G002+LET+KSM-XF.1692.0000-20140430.B0016_9-010 |title=Archive of Joseon's Hangul letters – A letter sent from Song Gyuryeom to slave Guityuk (1692) |access-date=9 September 2018 |archive-date=9 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909112530/http://archive.aks.ac.kr/letter/letterViewer.aspx?datauci=G002+LET+KSM-XF.1692.0000-20140430.B0016_9-010 }}</ref>

In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the [[Kabo Reform]] of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese.{{sfnp|Cho|Whitman|2020|p=49}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://korea.assembly.go.kr/history_html/history_07/mod_09.jsp |title=Korean History |publisher=Korea.assembly.go.kr |access-date=2016-04-26 |quote=[[Korean Empire]], Edict No. 1 – All official documents are to be written in Hangul, and not Chinese characters. |archive-date=4 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204210419/http://korea.assembly.go.kr/history_html/history_07/mod_09.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref> Some newspapers were published in Hangul, but other publications used [[Korean mixed script]], with Hanja for [[Sino-Korean vocabulary]] and Hangul for other elements.{{sfnp|Sohn|2001|p=145}} North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools.{{sfnp|Sohn|2001|p=145}} Their usage in South Korea is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies.

==Names==
The Korean names for the language are based on the [[Names of Korea|names for Korea]] used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from [[Goryeo]], which is thought to be the first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the [[Post-Soviet states|former USSR]] refer to themselves as {{Lang|ko-latn|[[Koryo-saram]]}} or {{Lang|ko-latn|Koryo-in}} (literally, '[[Names of Korea#Goryeo|Koryo/Goryeo]] people'), and call the language {{Lang|ko-latn|[[Koryo-mar]]}}. Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in the late 1800s.<ref name="GoogleNGrams">According to Google's NGram English corpus of 2015, {{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Korea%2CCorea&year_start=1800&year_end=1950&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2CKorea%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CCorea%3B%2Cc0|title=Google Ngram Viewer}}</ref>

In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including {{Lang|ko-latn|hangugeo}} ('Korean language'), {{Lang|ko-latn|hangungmal}} ('Korean speech') and {{Lang|ko-latn|urimal}} ('our language'); "{{Lang|ko-latn|hanguk}}" is taken from the name of the [[Korean Empire]] ({{korean|대한제국|大韓帝國|Daehan Jeguk|labels=no}}). The "{{Lang|ko-latn|han}}" ({{Lang|ko|韓|italic=no}}) in {{Lang|ko-latn|Hanguk}} and {{Lang|ko-latn|Daehan Jeguk}} is derived from [[Samhan]], in reference to the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula),<ref>{{cite web |last1=이기환 |script-title=ko:[이기환의 흔적의 역사]국호논쟁의 전말…대한민국이냐 고려공화국이냐 |url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201708300913001&code=960100&www |website=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]] |access-date=2 July 2018 |language=ko |date=30 August 2017 |archive-date=12 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812154305/http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201708300913001&code=960100&www |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=이덕일 |script-title=ko:[이덕일 사랑] 대~한민국 |website=조선닷컴 |publisher=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |url=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/08/14/2008081401512.html |access-date=2 July 2018 |language=ko |archive-date=18 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218134345/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/08/14/2008081401512.html |url-status=live }}</ref> while "{{Lang|ko-latn|-eo}}" and "{{Lang|ko-latn|-mal}}" mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as {{Lang|ko-latn|gugeo}}, literally "national language". This name is based on the same [[Hanja|Han characters]] ({{Lang|ko|國語|italic=no}} 'nation' + 'language') that are also used in [[Taiwan]] and Japan to refer to their respective national languages.

In North Korea and [[China]], the language is most often called {{Lang|ko-latn|Joseonmal}}, or more formally, {{Lang|ko-latn|Joseoneo}}. This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the [[Joseon]] period until the proclamation of the [[Korean Empire]], which in turn was annexed by the [[Empire of Japan]].

In [[mainland China]], following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term {{Lang|cmn-latn|Cháoxiǎnyǔ|italic=no}} or the short form ''Cháoyǔ'' has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian]], whereas ''Hánguóyǔ'' or the short form ''Hányǔ'' is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea.{{Citation needed |date=December 2014}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A19/A19_ztzl/ztzl_yywzgfbz/guifanbzjs/201703/t20170324_300720.html |script-title=zh:朝鲜语规范化取得新成果《朝鲜语规范集》修订本出版发行 |website= Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China |language=zh-Hans |access-date=2025-09-07}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{see also|Comparison of Japanese and Korean}}
Korean is a member of the [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic family]] along with the [[Jeju language]]. Some linguists have included it in the [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support.{{sfnp|Cho|Whitman|2020|pp=11–12}} The [[Khitan language]] has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting a Korean influence on Khitan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |date=June 2017 |title=Koreanic loanwords in Khitan and their importance in the decipherment of the latter |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=207–215 |doi=10.1556/062.2017.70.2.4 |url=http://real.mtak.hu/56022/1/062.2017.70.2.4.pdf |access-date=20 September 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224042740/http://real.mtak.hu/56022/1/062.2017.70.2.4.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The hypothesis that Korean could be related to [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as [[Samuel E. Martin]]<ref>{{harvp|Martin|1966}}, {{harvp|Martin|1990}}</ref> and [[Roy Andrew Miller]].<ref>e.g. {{harvp|Miller|1971}}, {{harvp|Miller|1996}}</ref> [[Sergei Starostin]] (1991) found about 25% of potential [[cognate]]s in the Japanese–Korean 100-word [[Swadesh list]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Starostin|first=Sergei|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/Starostin_AP.pdf|title=Altaiskaya problema i proishozhdeniye yaponskogo yazika|publisher=Nauka|year=1991|location=Moscow|language=ru|trans-title=The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language|access-date=22 November 2012|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509142850/http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/Starostin_AP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
Some linguists concerned with the issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic relationship]], but rather to a ''[[sprachbund]]'' effect and heavy borrowing, especially from [[Ancient Korean]] into Western [[Old Japanese]].{{sfnp|Vovin|2008}} A good example might be [[Middle Korean]] ''sàm'' and Japanese ''asá'', meaning '[[hemp]]'.<ref>{{harvp|Whitman|1985|p=232}}, also found in {{harvp|Martin|1966|p=233}}</ref> This word seems to be a cognate, but although it is well attested in Western Old Japanese and [[Northern Ryukyuan languages]], in [[Eastern Old Japanese]] it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the [[Southern Ryukyuan languages|Southern Ryukyuan language group]]. Also, the [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublet]] ''wo'' meaning 'hemp' is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term.{{sfnp|Vovin|2010|pp=173–174}}

Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre-[[Nivkh languages|Nivkh]] substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as ''Amuric'') were once distributed on the [[Korean Peninsula]] before the arrival of Koreanic speakers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=Mark J. | author-link1=Mark J. Hudson |last2=Robbeets |first2=Martine |author-link2=Martine Robbeets |date=2020 |title=Archaeolinguistic Evidence for the Farming/Language Dispersal of Koreanic |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |language=en |volume=2 |at=e52 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.49 |pmid=37588366 |pmc=10427439 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Main|Korean phonology}}
[[File:Ko-구매자는 판매자에게 제품 대금으로 20달러를 지급하여야 한다.ogg|thumb|right|Spoken Korean (adult man):<br />
구매자는 판매자에게 제품 대금으로 20달러를 지급하여야 한다.<br />
''gumaejaneun panmaejaege jepum daegeumeuro isip dalleoreul ($20) jigeuphayeoya handa.''<br />
"The buyer must pay the seller $20 for the product."<br />''lit.'' [the buyer] [to the seller] [the product] [in payment] [twenty dollars] [have to pay] [do]]]
Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide {{IPA|/j, w, ɰ/}} and final coda {{IPA|/p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/}} surrounding a core vowel.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br />palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅁ|ㅁ]]}} {{IPAslink|m}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄴ|ㄴ]]}} {{IPAslink|n}}
|
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅇ|ㅇ]]}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}{{efn-ua|only at the end of a syllable}}
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
!<small>plain</small>
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅂ|ㅂ]]}} {{IPAslink|p}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄷ|ㄷ]]}} {{IPAslink|t}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅈ|ㅈ]]}} {{IPAslink|t͡s}} or {{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄱ|ㄱ]]}} {{IPAslink|k}}
|
|-
! <small>[[tenseness#Consonants|tense]]</small>
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅃ|ㅃ]]}} {{IPA|/p͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄸ|ㄸ]]}} {{IPA|/t͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅉ|ㅉ]]}} {{IPA|/t͡s͈/}} or {{IPA|/t͡ɕ͈/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄲ|ㄲ]]}} {{IPA|/k͈/}}
|
|-
! <small>aspirated</small>
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅍ|ㅍ]]}} {{IPA|/pʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅌ|ㅌ]]}} {{IPA|/tʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅊ|ㅊ]]}} {{IPA|/t͡sʰ/}} or {{IPA|/t͡ɕʰ/}}
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅋ|ㅋ]]}} {{IPA|/kʰ/}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2|[[Fricative]]
! <small>plain</small>
|
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅅ|ㅅ]]}} {{IPAslink|s}} or {{IPA|/ɕ/}}
|
|
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅎ|ㅎ]]}} {{IPAslink|h}}
|-
! <small>tense</small>
|
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㅆ|ㅆ]]}} {{IPA|/s͈/}} or {{IPA|/ɕ͈/}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2|[[Approximant]]
| {{IPAslink|w}}{{efn-ua|name=semivowels|The semivowels {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} are represented in Korean writing by modifications to vowel symbols (see below).}}
|
| {{IPAslink|j}}{{efn-ua|name=semivowels}}
|
|
|-
! colspan=2|[[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
| {{lang|ko|[[wikt:ㄹ|ㄹ]]}} {{IPAslink|l}} or {{IPAslink|ɾ}}
|
|
|
|}
{{notelist|group=upper-alpha}}

====Assimilation and allophony====
The [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] symbol {{angbr IPA|◌͈}} ({{unichar|0348|cwith=◌}}) is used to denote the [[Tenseness|tensed]] consonants {{IPA|/p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/}}. Its official use in the [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extensions to the IPA]] is for [[Fortis and lenis|"strong"]] articulation, but is used in the literature for [[faucalized voice]]. The Korean consonants also have elements of [[stiff voice]], but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted [[glottis]] and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx.

{{IPA|/s/}} is aspirated {{IPA|[sʰ]}} and becomes an [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] {{IPA|[ɕʰ]}} before {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[i]}} for most speakers (but see [[North–South differences in the Korean language]]). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, {{IPA|/s/}} changes to {{IPA|/t/}} (example: beoseot ({{lang|ko|버섯}}) 'mushroom').<!-- it's actually much more complicated than this, isn't it?-->

{{IPA|/h/}} may become a [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]] {{IPA|[ɸ]}} before {{IPA|[o]}} or {{IPA|[u]}}, a [[palatal consonant|palatal]] {{IPA|[ç]}} before {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[i]}}, a [[velar consonant|velar]] {{IPA|[x]}} before {{IPA|[ɯ]}}, a voiced {{IPA|[ɦ]}} between voiced sounds, and a {{IPA|[h]}} elsewhere.

{{IPA|/p, t, t͡ɕ, k/}} become voiced {{IPA|[b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ]}} between voiced sounds.

{{IPA|/m, n/}} frequently denasalize at the beginnings of words.

{{IPA|/l/}} becomes alveolar flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} between vowels, and {{IPA|[l]}} or {{IPA|[ɭ]}} at the end of a syllable or next to another {{IPA|/l/}}. A written syllable-final '{{lang|ko|ㄹ}}', when followed by a vowel or a glide (''i.e.'', when the next character starts with '{{lang|ko|ㅇ}}'), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes {{IPA|[ɾ]}}.

Traditionally, {{IPA|/l/}} was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before {{IPA|[j]}}, and otherwise became {{IPA|/n/}}. However, the inflow of western [[Konglish|loanwords]] changed the trend, and now word-initial {{IPA|/l/}} (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or {{IPA|[l]}}.

All [[obstruent]]s (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with [[no audible release]], {{IPA|[p̚, t̚, k̚]}}.

Plosive sounds {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} become nasals {{IPA|[m, n, ŋ]}} before nasal sounds.

[[Hangul]] spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word.

The traditional prohibition of word-initial {{IPA|/ɾ/}} became a morphological rule called "initial law" ({{lang|ko|두음법칙}}) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example,
* "labor" ({{lang|ko-Hani|勞動}}) – north: {{xlit|ko|'''r'''odong}} ({{lang|ko|로동}}), south: {{xlit|ko|'''n'''odong}} ({{lang|ko|노동}})
* "history" ({{lang|ko-Hani|歷史}}) – north: {{xlit|ko|'''ry'''eoksa}} ({{lang|ko|력사}}), south: {{xlit|ko|'''y'''eoksa}} ({{lang|ko|역사}})
* "female" ({{lang|ko-Hani|女子}}) – north: {{xlit|ko|'''ny'''eoja}} ({{lang|ko|녀자}}), south: {{xlit|ko|'''y'''eoja}} ({{lang|ko|여자}})

===Vowels===
[[File:Korean_short_vowel_chart.svg|thumb|[[Short vowel]] chart]]
[[File:Korean_long_vowel_chart.svg|thumb|[[Long vowel]] chart]]

The standard Korean monophthongs and their pronunciation principles<ref name="korean.go.kr">{{cite web |script-title=ko:표준어 규정-표준 발음법 |url=https://korean.go.kr/kornorms/regltn/regltnView.do?regltn_code=0002&regltn_no=346#a346 |website=한국어 어문 규범 |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |access-date=1 March 2025}}</ref> are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Monophthongs
|{{lang|ko|ㅏ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/a/}}{{ref|ㅏ|[A]}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅓ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/ʌ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}}{{ref|ㅓ|[B]}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅗ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/o/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅜ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/u/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅡ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/ɯ/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅣ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/i/}}<br />{{IPA|/e/}} {{lang|ko|ㅔ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/ɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅐ}},&nbsp;{{IPA|/ø/}} {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/y/}} {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}
|-
!Vowels preceded by intermediaries,<br />or diphthongs
|{{lang|ko|ㅑ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/ja/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅕ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/jʌ/}} or {{IPA|/jə/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅛ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/jo/}}<br />{{lang|ko|ㅠ}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA|/ju/}}<br />{{IPA|/je/}} {{lang|ko|ㅖ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/jɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅒ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/we/}} {{lang|ko|ㅞ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/wɛ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅙ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/wa/}} {{lang|ko|ㅘ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/ɰi/}} {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}, &nbsp;{{IPA|/wʌ/}} {{lang|ko|ㅝ}}
|}
{{note|ㅏ|[A]}} {{lang|ko|ㅏ}} is closer to a [[near-open central vowel]] ({{IPA|[ɐ]}}), though {{angbr|a}} is still used for tradition.

{{note|ㅓ|[B]}} ㅓ is generally pronounced as [ə] when it becomes a long vowel.

However, in Korea, with the exception of older generations in certain regions, most people neither pronounce nor distinguish clearly between the two monophthongs 'ㅐ' (ae) and 'ㅔ' (e). Similarly, 'ㅟ' and 'ㅚ' are sometimes pronounced as [ɥi] and [we] respectively.<ref name="korean.go.kr"/> The demographic that maintains monophthongal realizations of 'ㅟ' and 'ㅚ' is reportedly limited to elderly speakers in the Gyeonggi, Gangwon, and Chungcheong provinces. The official standard pronunciation guidelines acknowledge this variation by permitting both monophthongal and diphthongal pronunciations of these vowels.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:모음체계 |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0078687 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=1 March 2025}}</ref>

In South Korea, while the distinction between long and short vowels is not clearly pronounced in contemporary speech, this distinction is maintained in standard language norms for reasons of tradition and semantic differentiation.<ref name="korean.go.kr"/>

===Morphophonemics===
{{Main|Morphophonology}}
Grammatical [[morpheme]]s may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include ''-eun/-neun'' ({{lang|ko|-은/-는}}) and ''-i/-ga'' ({{lang|ko|-이/-가}}).

Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include ''-eul/-reul'' ({{lang|ko|-을/-를}}), ''-euro/-ro'' ({{lang|ko|-으로/-로}}), ''-eseo/-seo'' ({{lang|ko|-에서/-서}}), ''-ideunji/-deunji'' ({{lang|ko|-이든지/-든지}}) and ''-iya/-ya'' ({{lang|ko|-이야/-야}}).

* However, ''-euro/-ro'' is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a [[ㄹ]] (rieul consonant).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Korean particles
! After a consonant !! After a ㄹ (rieul) !! After a vowel
|-
| colspan="3" | ''-ui'' ({{lang|ko|-의}})
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-eun'' ({{lang|ko|-은}}) || ''-neun'' ({{lang|ko|-는}})
|-
| colspan="2" |''-i'' ({{lang|ko|-이}}) || ''-ga'' ({{lang|ko|-가}})
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-eul'' ({{lang|ko|-을}}) || ''-reul'' ({{lang|ko|-를}})
|-
| colspan="2" | ''-gwa'' ({{lang|ko|-과}}) || ''-wa'' ({{lang|ko|-와}})
|-
| ''-euro'' ({{lang|ko|-으로}}) || colspan="2" | ''-ro'' ({{lang|ko|-로}})
|}

Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically.

==Grammar==
{{Main|Korean grammar}}

Korean is an [[agglutinative language]]. The Korean language is traditionally considered to have [[Korean parts of speech|nine parts of speech]]. Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV), but the ''verb'' is the only required and immovable element and [[word order]] is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages.

'''Question'''
{{fs interlinear|lang=ko
| 가게에 가셨어요?
| gage-e ga-syeoss-eo-yo
| store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL
| 'Did [you] go to the store?'
}}
'''Response'''
{{fs interlinear|lang=ko
| 예/네.
| ye/ne
| AFF
| 'yes.'
}}

The relationship between a speaker/writer and their [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] and audience is paramount in [[Korean grammar]]. The relationship between the speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in ''[[honorific]]s'', whereas that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in ''[[Korean speech levels|speech level]]''.

===Honorifics===
{{Main|Korean honorifics}}
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if they are an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if they are a younger stranger, student, employee, or the like. Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences, and both honorific or normal sentences.

Honorifics in traditional Korea were strictly hierarchical. The caste and estate systems possessed patterns and usages much more complex and stratified than those used today. The intricate structure of the Korean honorific system flourished in traditional culture and society. Honorifics in contemporary Korea are now used for people who are psychologically distant. Honorifics are also used for people who are superior in status, such as older people, teachers, and employers.{{sfnp|Sohn|2006}}

===Speech levels===
{{Main|Korean speech levels}}
There are seven verb [[paradigm]]s or [[Korean speech levels|''speech levels'' in Korean]], and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation.<ref>{{cite book |last= Choo|first=Miho |date=2008 |title=Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=3 |isbn=978-1-139-47139-8}}</ref> Unlike [[honorifics]]—which are used to show respect towards the referent (the person spoken of)—''speech levels'' are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience (the person spoken to). The names of the seven levels are derived from the non-honorific [[Imperative mood|imperative]] form of the verb {{lang|ko|[[wikt:하다|하다]]}} (''hada'', "do") in each level, plus the suffix {{lang|ko|체}} (''che'', [[Hanja]]: {{lang|ko|體}}), which means "style".

The three levels with high politeness (very formally polite, formally polite, casually polite) are generally grouped together as ''jondaenmal'' ({{lang|ko|존댓말}}), whereas the two levels with low politeness (formally impolite, casually impolite) are ''banmal'' ({{lang|ko|반말}}) in Korean. The remaining two levels (neutral formality with neutral politeness, high formality with neutral politeness) are neither polite nor impolite.

Nowadays, younger-generation speakers no longer feel obligated to lower their usual regard toward the referent. It is common to see younger people talk to their older relatives with ''banmal''. This is not out of disrespect, but instead it shows the intimacy and the closeness of the relationship between the two speakers. Transformations in social structures and attitudes in today's rapidly changing society have brought about change in the way people speak.{{sfnp|Sohn|2006}}{{page needed|date=January 2022}}

==<span class="anchor" id="Native Korean vocabulary"></span>Vocabulary==
[[File:The oldest Korean dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|"Chosŏnŏ Sajeon", the oldest Korean dictionary (1920)]]
The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of ''native Korean'' words. However, a significant proportion of the vocabulary, especially words that denote abstract ideas, are [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|''Sino-Korean'']] words.<ref name="Sohn">{{harvp|Sohn|2001|loc=Section 1.5.3 "Korean vocabulary", pp. 12–13}}</ref> To a much lesser extent, some words have also been borrowed from [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and other languages.{{sfnp|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=6}} More recent loanwords are dominated by English.

In South Korea, it is widely believed that North Korea wanted to emphasize the use of unique Korean expressions in its language and eliminate the influence of foreign languages. However, according to researchers such as Jeon Soo-tae, who has seen first-hand data from North Korea, the country has reduced the number of difficult foreign words in a similar way to South Korea.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=ko:남북의 언어 |author=이장균 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/133661-20040417.html |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=27 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427153920/https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/133661-20040417.html |url-status=live |newspaper=[[Radio Free Asia]] |date=17 April 2004 }}</ref>

In 2021, Moon Sung-guk of [[Kim Il Sung University]] in North Korea wrote in his thesis that [[Kim Jong Il]] had said that vernacularized Sino-Korean vocabulary should be used as it is, not modified. "A language is in constant interaction with other languages, and in the process it is constantly being developed and enriched," he said. According to the paper, Kim Jong Il argued that academic terms used in the natural sciences and engineering, such as {{Korean|hangul=콤퓨터|labels=no}} ({{Transliteration|ko|mr|k'omp'yut'ŏ}}; 'computer') and {{Korean|hangul=하드디스크|labels=no}} ({{Transliteration|ko|mr|hadŭdisŭk'ŭ}}; 'hard disk') should remain in the names of their inventors, and that the word {{Korean|hangul=쵸콜레트|labels=no}} ({{Transliteration|ko|mr|ch'ok'ollet'ŭ}}; 'chocolate') should not be replaced because it had been used for so long.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:위대한 령도자 김정일동지께서 어휘정리사업이 편향없이 진행되도록 이끌어주신 불멸의 령도 |url=http://www.ryongnamsan.edu.kp/univ/ko/research/articles/125b93c9b50703fe9dac43ec231f5f83?cp=0 |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081751/http://www.ryongnamsan.edu.kp/univ/ko/research/articles/125b93c9b50703fe9dac43ec231f5f83?cp=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

South Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the [https://stdict.korean.go.kr/main/main.do 표준국어대사전] ([[Standard Korean Language Dictionary]]), and North Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the [https://web.archive.org/web/20231224145010/https://dprktoday.com/kor_dic/ 조선말대사전] (Korean Language Dictionary).

=== Sino-Korean ===
{{Main|Sino-Korean vocabulary}}

{| class="wikitable floatright"
! rowspan="2" | Number
! colspan="3" | [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]] cardinal numbers
! colspan="2" | Native Korean cardinal numbers
|-
! [[Hangul]]
![[Hanja]]
! [[Revised romanization of Korean|Romanization]]
! [[Hangul]]
! [[Revised romanization of Korean|Romanization]]
|-
| 1
| {{lang|ko|일}}
|{{lang|ko|一}}
| ''il''
| {{lang|ko|하나}}
| ''hana''
|-
| 2
| {{lang|ko|이}}
|{{lang|ko|二}}
| ''i''
| {{lang|ko|둘}}
| ''dul''
|-
| 3
| {{lang|ko|삼}}
|{{lang|ko|三}}
| ''sam''
| {{lang|ko|셋}}
| ''set''
|-
| 4
| {{lang|ko|사}}
|{{lang|ko|四}}
| ''sa''
| {{lang|ko|넷}}
| ''net''
|-
| 5
| {{lang|ko|오}}
|{{lang|ko|五}}
| ''o''
| {{lang|ko|다섯}}
| ''daseot''
|-
| 6
| {{lang|ko|육}}, {{lang|ko|륙}}
|{{lang|ko|六}}
| ''yuk'', ''ryuk''
| {{lang|ko|여섯}}
| ''yeoseot''
|-
| 7
| {{lang|ko|칠}}
|{{lang|ko|七}}
| ''chil''
| {{lang|ko|일곱}}
| ''ilgop''
|-
| 8
| {{lang|ko|팔}}
|{{lang|ko|八}}
| ''pal''
| {{lang|ko|여덟}}
| ''yeodeol''
|-
| 9
| {{lang|ko|구}}
|{{lang|ko|九}}
| ''gu''
| {{lang|ko|아홉}}
| ''ahop''
|-
| 10
| {{lang|ko|십}}
|{{lang|ko|十}}
| ''sip''
| {{lang|ko|열}}
| ''yeol''
|}

Sino-Korean vocabulary consists of:
* [[Borrowed words|words directly borrowed]] from [[written Chinese]], and
* compounds coined in Korea or Japan and read using the Sino-Korean reading of [[Chinese characters]].

Therefore, just like other words, Korean has [[Korean numerals|two sets of numeral systems]]. English is similar, having native English words and [[Latinate]] equivalents such as ''water-aqua'', ''fire-flame'', ''sea-marine'', ''two-dual'', ''sun-solar'', ''star-stellar''. However, unlike English and Latin which belong to the same [[Indo-European languages]] family and bear a certain resemblance, Korean and Chinese are [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetically unrelated]] and the two sets of Korean words differ completely from each other. All Sino-Korean [[morpheme]]s are [[Monosyllabic language|monosyllabic]] as in Chinese, whereas native Korean morphemes can be polysyllabic. The Sino-Korean words were deliberately imported alongside corresponding Chinese characters for a written language and everything was supposed to be written in Hanja, so the coexistence of Sino-Korean would be more thorough and systematic than that of Latinate words in English.

The exact proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary is a matter of debate. Sohn (2001) stated 50–60%.<ref name="Sohn" /> In 2006 the same author gives an even higher estimate of 65%.{{sfnp|Sohn|2006|p=5}} Jeong Jae-do, one of the compilers of the dictionary ''Urimal Keun Sajeon'', asserts that the proportion is not so high. He points out that Korean dictionaries compiled during the [[Korea under Japanese rule|colonial period]] include many unused Sino-Korean words. In his estimation, the proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary in the Korean language might be as low as 30%.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kim|first=Jin-su|date=2009-09-11|script-title=ko:우리말 70%가 한자말? 일제가 왜곡한 거라네|language=ko|trans-title=Our language is 70% hanja? Japanese Empire distortion|periodical=The Hankyoreh|url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/book/376204.html|access-date=2009-09-11|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011114508/http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/religion/376204.html|url-status=live}} The dictionary mentioned is {{Cite book|year=1992|script-title=ko:우리말 큰 사전|location=Seoul|publisher=Hangul Hakhoe|oclc=27072560}}</ref>

=== Western loanwords ===
{{See also|Konglish}}
The vast majority of [[loanword]]s other than Sino-Korean come from modern times, approximately 90% of which are from [[English language|English]].<ref name=Sohn /> Many words have also been borrowed from [[European languages|Western languages]] such as [[German language|German]] via [[Japanese language|Japanese]] (e.g. {{lang|ko|아르바이트}} (''[[wikt:アルバイト|areubaiteu]]'') 'part-time job', {{lang|ko|알레르기}} (''allereugi'') '[[allergy]]', {{lang|ko|기브스}} (''gibseu'' or ''gibuseu'') 'plaster cast used for broken bones'). Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese during the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation of Korea]], taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example "dozen"&nbsp;> {{lang|ja-Kana|ダース}} ''dāsu''&nbsp;> {{lang|ko|다스}} ''daseu''. However, most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current "Hangulization" rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented "Hangeulizations" of the countries' endonyms or English names.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choo |first1=Sungjae |title=The use of Hanja (Chinese characters) in Korean toponyms: Practices and issues |journal=Journal of the International Council of Onomastic Sciences |date=2016 |volume=51 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.34158/ONOMA.51/2016/2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Because of such a prevalence of English in modern South Korean culture and society, [[lexical borrowing]] is inevitable. English-derived Korean, or "Konglish" ({{lang|ko|콩글리시}}), is increasingly used. The vocabulary of the South Korean dialect of the Korean language is roughly 5% loanwords (excluding Sino-Korean vocabulary).{{sfnp|Sohn|2006|p=87}} However, due to North Korea's isolation, such influence is lacking in North Korean speech.

==Gender==

In general, Korean lacks [[grammatical gender]]. As one of the few exceptions, the [[third-person singular]] pronoun has two different forms: 그 ''geu'' (male) and 그녀 ''geunyeo'' (female). Before 그녀 was invented in need of translating 'she' into Korean, 그 was the only third-person singular pronoun and had no grammatical gender. Its origin causes 그녀 never to be used in spoken Korean but appearing only in writing.

To have a more complete understanding of the intricacies of gender in Korean, three models of language and gender that have been proposed: the deficit model, the dominance model, and the cultural difference model. In the deficit model, male speech is seen as the default, and any form of speech that diverges from that norm (female speech) is seen as lesser than. The dominance model sees women as lacking in power due to living within a patriarchal society. The cultural difference model proposes that the difference in upbringing between men and women can explain the differences in their speech patterns. It is important to look at the models to better understand the misogynistic conditions that shaped the ways that men and women use the language. Korean's lack of grammatical gender makes it different from most European languages. Rather, gendered differences in Korean can be observed through formality, intonation, word choice, etc.{{sfnp|Cho|2006|p=189}}

However, one can still find stronger contrasts between genders within Korean speech. Some examples of this can be seen in: (1) the softer tone used by women in speech; (2) a married woman introducing herself as someone's mother or wife, not with her own name; (3) the presence of gender differences in titles and occupational terms (for example, a ''sajang'' is a company president, and ''yeosajang'' is a female company president); (4) females sometimes using more [[tag question]]s and rising tones in statements, also seen in speech from children.{{sfnp|Cho|2006|pp=189–198}}

Between two people of asymmetric status in Korean society, people tend to emphasize differences in status for the sake of solidarity. Koreans prefer to use kinship terms, rather than any other terms of reference.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kim |first=Minju |title=Cross Adoption of language between different genders: The case of the Korean kinship terms hyeng and enni |journal=Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Women and Language Conference |location=Berkeley |publisher=Berkeley Women and Language Group |year=1999}}</ref> In traditional Korean society, women have long been in disadvantaged positions. Korean social structure traditionally was a patriarchically dominated family system that emphasized the maintenance of family lines. That structure has tended to separate the roles of women from those of men.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Palley |first=Marian Lief |title=Women's Status in South Korea: Tradition and Change |journal=Asian Survey |volume=30 |number=12 |date=December 1990 |pages=1136–1153|doi=10.2307/2644990 |jstor=2644990 }}</ref>

Cho and Whitman (2019) explore how categories such as male and female and social context influence Korean's features. For example, they point out that usage of ''jagi'' (자기 you) is dependent on context. While ''jagi'' is usually used as a reflexive pronoun, especially as 'oneself', its meaning has become diverse in modern times. For example, among middle-aged women, ''jagi'' is used to address someone who is close to them, while young Koreans use ''jagi'' to address their lovers or spouses regardless of gender.

Korean society's prevalent attitude towards men being in public (outside the home) and women living in private still exists today. For instance, the word for ''husband'' is ''bakkannyangban'' (바깥양반 'outside nobleman'), but a husband introduces his wife as ''ansaram'' (안사람 an 'inside' 'person'). Also in kinship terminology, ''oe'' (외/外 'outside') is added for maternal grandparents, creating ''oeharabeoji'' and ''oehalmeoni'' (외할아버지, 외할머니 'grandfather and grandmother'), with different lexicons for males and females and patriarchal society revealed. Further, in interrogatives to an addressee of equal or lower status, Korean men tend to use ''haennya'' (했냐? 'did it?')' in aggressive masculinity, but women use ''haenni'' (했니? 'did it?')' as a soft expression.{{sfnp|Brown|2015}} However, there are exceptions. Korean society used the question endings ''-ni'' ({{Korean|hangul=니|labels=no}}) and ''-nya'' ({{Korean|hangul=냐|labels=no}}), the former prevailing among women and men until a few decades ago. In fact, ''-nya'' ({{Korean|hangul=냐|labels=no}}) was characteristic of the [[Jeolla]] and [[Chungcheong]] dialects. However, since the 1950s, large numbers of people have moved to Seoul from Chungcheong and Jeolla, and they began to influence the way men speak. Recently, women also have used the ''-nya'' ({{Korean|hangul=냐|labels=no}}). As for ''-ni'' ({{Korean|hangul=니|labels=no}}), it is usually used toward people to be polite even to someone not close or younger. As for ''-nya'' ({{Korean|hangul=냐|labels=no}}), it is used mainly to close friends regardless of gender.

Like the case of "actor" and "actress", it also is possible to add a gender prefix for emphasis: ''biseo'' (비서 'secretary') is sometimes combined with ''yeo'' (여 'female') to form ''yeobiseo'' (여비서 'female secretary'); ''namja'' (남자 'man') often is added to ''ganhosa'' (간호사 'nurse') to form ''namja ganhosa'' (남자 간호사 'male nurse').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Song |first=Sooho |date=2022 |title=Analysis of Gender Pronoun Errors in Korean Speakers' English Speech |url=http://journal.kate.or.kr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/v77_1_02.pdf |journal=English Teaching |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=7–8 |doi=10.15858/engtea.77.1.202203.21 |s2cid=247804299 |access-date=21 December 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221211809/http://journal.kate.or.kr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/v77_1_02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another crucial difference between men and women is the tone and pitch of their voices and how they affect the perception of politeness. Men learn to use an authoritative falling tone; in Korean culture, a deeper voice is associated with being more polite. In addition to the deferential speech endings being used, men are seen as more polite as well as impartial, and professional. While women who use a rising tone in postposition with ''-yo'' ({{Korean|hangul=요|labels=no}}) are not perceived to be as polite as men. The ''-yo'' ({{Korean|hangul=요|labels=no}}) also indicates uncertainty since the ending has many prefixes that indicate uncertainty and questioning while the deferential ending has no prefixes to indicate uncertainty. The ''-hamnida'' ({{Korean|hangul=합니다|labels=no}}) ending is the most polite and formal form of Korea, and the ''-yo'' ({{Korean|hangul=요|labels=no}}) ending is less polite and formal, which reinforces the perception of women as less professional.{{sfnp|Brown|2015}}{{sfnp|Cho|2006|pp=193–195}}

Hedges and euphemisms to soften assertions are common in women's speech. Women traditionally add nasal sounds ''neyng'', ''neym'', ''ney-e'' in the last syllable more frequently than men. Often, ''l'' is added in women's for female stereotypes and so ''igeolo'' (이거로 'this thing') becomes ''igeollo'' (이걸로 'this thing') to communicate a lack of confidence and passivity.{{sfnp|Sohn|2006}}{{page needed|date=January 2022}}

Women use more linguistic markers such as exclamation ''eomeo'' (어머 'oh') and ''eojjeom'' (어쩜 'what a surprise') than men do in cooperative communication.{{sfnp|Brown|2015}}

==Writing system==
[[File:Yeongdong Expressway Entrance Sign in Wonju Interchange.JPG|thumb|The [[Latin alphabet]] used in [[Romanization of Korean|romanization]] on [[road signs]], for foreigners in South Korea]]
[[File:Street sign in Daejeon.jpg|thumb|210px|Road Name Address sign in Hangul and Latin script in South Korea]]
{{Main|Hangul|Hanja|Korean Braille}}
{{See also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables}}

Modern Korean is written with an alphabet script, known as {{Transliteration|ko|[[Hangul]]}} in South Korea and {{Transliteration|ko|Chosŏn'gŭl}} in North Korea. The [[Korean mixed script]], combining Hanja and Hangul, is still used to a certain extent in South Korea, but that method is slowly declining in use even though students learn Hanja in school.<ref>{{cite web |work=royalpalace.go.kr |url=http://www.royalpalace.go.kr:8080/content/community/question/view.asp?seq=23&page=9&c1=&c2= |access-date=2016-04-26 |script-title=ko:현판 글씨들이 한글이 아니라 한자인 이유는? |language=ko |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310060249/http://www.royalpalace.go.kr:8080/content/community/question/view.asp?seq=23&page=9&c1=&c2= |archive-date=2017-03-10}}</ref>

Below are charts of the letters of the Korean alphabet and their [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]] (RR) and canonical [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) values:

{| class="wikitable" style="width:fit-content"
|+ Consonants
|-
! [[Hangul]]
| {{lang|ko|ㄱ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㄲ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㄴ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㄷ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㄸ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㄹ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅁ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅂ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅃ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅅ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅆ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅇ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅈ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅉ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅊ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅋ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅌ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅍ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅎ}}
|-
! [[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]
| ''g''
| ''kk''
| ''n''
| ''d''
| ''tt''
| ''r''&nbsp;(initial), ''l''&nbsp;(final)
| ''m''
| ''b''
| ''pp''
| ''s''
| ''ss''
| —&nbsp;(initial), ''ng''&nbsp;(final)
| ''j''
| ''jj''
| ''ch''
| ''k''
| ''t''
| ''p''
| ''h''
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| {{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|k͈}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| {{IPA|t}}
| {{IPA|t͈}}
| {{IPA|ɾ}}&nbsp;(initial), {{IPA|ɭ}}&nbsp;(final)
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|p͈}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|s͈}}
| ∅&nbsp;(initial), {{IPA|ŋ}}&nbsp;(final)
| {{IPA|t͡ɕ}}
| {{IPA|t͡ɕ͈}}
| {{IPA|t͡ɕʰ}}
| {{IPA|kʰ}}
| {{IPA|tʰ}}
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|h}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowels
|-
! [[Hangul]]
| {{lang|ko|ㅣ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅔ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅐ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅏ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅗ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅜ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅓ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅡ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅖ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅒ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅑ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅛ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅠ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅕ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅟ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅞ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅙ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅘ}}
| {{lang|ko|ㅝ}}
|-
! [[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]
| ''i''
| ''e''
| ''oe''
| ''ae''
| ''a''
| ''o''
| ''u''
| ''eo''
| ''eu''
| ''ui''
| ''ye''
| ''yae''
| ''ya''
| ''yo''
| ''yu''
| ''yeo''
| ''wi''
| ''we''
| ''wae''
| ''wa''
| ''wo''
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ø}}, {{IPA|we}}
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|o}}
| {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA|ʌ}}
| {{IPA|ɯ}}
| {{IPA|ɰi}}
| {{IPA|je}}
| {{IPA|jɛ}}
| {{IPA|ja}}
| {{IPA|jo}}
| {{IPA|ju}}
| {{IPA|jʌ}}
| {{IPA|ɥi}}, {{IPA|wi}}
| {{IPA|we}}
| {{IPA|wɛ}}
| {{IPA|wa}}
| {{IPA|wʌ}}
|}

The letters of the Korean alphabet are not written linearly like most alphabets, but instead arranged into blocks that represent [[syllable]]s. So, while the word ''[[bibimbap]]'' (Korean rice dish) is written as eight characters in a row in the Latin alphabet, in Korean it is written {{lang|ko|비빔밥}}, as three "syllabic blocks" in a row. ''[[Mukbang]]'' ({{Lang|ko|먹방}} 'eating show') is seven characters after [[romanization]] but only two "syllabic blocks" before.

Modern Korean is written with spaces between words, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese (except when Japanese is written exclusively in [[hiragana]], as in children's books). The [[Punctuation mark|marks]] used for [[Korean punctuation]] are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns, from top to bottom, right to left, like traditional Chinese. However, the syllabic blocks are now usually written in rows, from left to right, top to bottom, like English.

==Dialects==
{{Main|Korean dialects|Koreanic languages}}
[[File:Korean dialect zones.svg|thumb|Korean dialect zones]]
Korean has numerous small local [[dialect]]s (called ''mal'' ({{Korean|hangul=말|labels=no|lit='speech'}}), ''saturi'' ({{lang|ko|사투리}}), or ''bangeon'' ({{Korean|hangul=방언|hanja=方言|labels=no}})). South Korean authors claim that the [[standard language]] (''pyojuneo'' or ''pyojunmal'') of both South Korea and North Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul (which, as Hanyang, was the capital of [[Joseon]]-era Korea for 500 years), but since 1966, North Korea officially states that its standard is based on the Pyongyang speech.<ref>{{cite web |last1=전 |first1=영선 |script-title=ko:북한 언어문화의 변화양상과 전망 |url=https://www.gyeoremal.or.kr/file/conference05.pdf |access-date=28 April 2023 |archive-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802012237/https://www.gyeoremal.or.kr/file/conference05.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Lucien |last2=Yeon |first2=Jaehoon |title=The handbook of Korean linguistics |date=2015 |pages=477, 484 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-1-118-37100-8 |edition=1st}}</ref> All dialects of Korean are similar to one another and largely are [[mutually intelligible]] (with the exception of dialect-specific phrases or nonstandard vocabulary unique to dialects) though the [[Jeju language|dialect of Jeju Island]] is divergent enough to be generally considered a separate language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Changyong |chapter=Revising the Language Map of Korea |date=2019 |title=Handbook of the Changing World Language Map |pages=1–15 |editor-last=Brunn |editor-first=Stanley D |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-73400-2_110-1 |isbn=978-3-319-73400-2 |last2=O'Grady |first2=William |last3=Yang |first3=Sejung |last4=Hilton |first4=Nanna Haug |last5=Kang |first5=Sang-Gu |last6=Kim |first6=So-Young |s2cid=188565336 |editor2-last=Kehrein |editor2-first=Roland |chapter-url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/b1525cfd-87be-4027-a356-5b994afcb04d |access-date=26 September 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102123748/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/95566880/Yang2019_ReferenceWorkEntry_RevisingTheLanguageMapOfKorea.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=김보향 (Kim Bo-hyang) |date=August 2014 |title=Osaka Ikuno-ku jiyeok jaeil Jejuinui Jeju bangeon sayong siltaee gwanhan yeongu |script-title=ko:오사카 이쿠노쿠 지역 재일제주인의 제주방언 사용 실태에 관한 연구 |trans-title=A Study on the Jeju Dialect Used by Jeju People Living in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan |journal=영주어문 학술저널 |volume=28 |page=120 |trans-journal=Yeongju Language and Literature Academic Journal |issn=1598-9011 |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE10878526 |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102123748/https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE10878526 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Yukjin Korean|Yukjin dialect]] in the far northeast is also quite distinctive.{{sfnp|Lee|Ramsey|2000|p=313}}

One of the more salient differences between dialects is the use of tone: speakers of the [[Seoul dialect]] make use of vowel length, but speakers of the [[Gyeongsang dialect]] maintain the [[Pitch-accent language|pitch accent]] of Middle Korean. Some dialects are conservative, maintaining Middle Korean sounds (such as ''z, β, ə''), which have been lost from the standard language, and others are highly innovative.

{{harvp|Kang Yoonjung|Han Sungwoo|2013}}, {{harvp|Kim Mi-Ryoung|2013}}, and {{harvp|Cho Sunghye|2017}} suggest that the modern Seoul dialect is currently undergoing [[tonogenesis]] based on the finding that in recent years [[Fortis and lenis|lenis consonants]] (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), [[aspirated consonant]]s (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from a distinction via [[voice onset time]] to that of pitch change;<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kang Yoonjung|author2=Han Sungwoo |date=September 2013 |title=Tonogenesis in early Contemporary Seoul Korean: A longitudinal case study |journal=Lingua |volume=134|pages=62–74 |doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2013.06.002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kim Mi-Ryoung |date=2013 |title=Tonogenesis in contemporary Korean with special reference to the onset-tone interaction and the loss of a consonant opposition |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=133|issue=5 Supplement |at=3570|doi=10.1121/1.4806535 |bibcode=2013ASAJ..133.3570K}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |author=Cho Sunghye|date=2017|type=PhD |title=Development of pitch contrast and Seoul Korean intonation |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4012&context=edissertations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321141401/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4012&context=edissertations|archive-date=2020-03-21}}</ref> however, {{harvp|Choi Jiyoun|Kim Sahyang|Cho Taehong|2020}} disagree with the suggestion that the consonant distinction shifting away from voice onset time is due to the introduction of tonal features, and instead proposes that it is a [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodically conditioned change]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Choi Jiyoun |author2=Kim Sahyang |author3=Cho Taehong |date=October 22, 2020 |title=An apparent-time study of an ongoing sound change in Seoul Korean: A prosodic account |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=15|issue=10 |at=e0240682 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0240682 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1540682C |pmid=33091043 |pmc=7580931 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

There is substantial evidence for a history of extensive [[dialect levelling]] or even [[convergent evolution]] or intermixture of two or more originally-distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have a basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects. For example, "[[garlic chives]]" translated into Gyeongsang dialect is {{IPA|[t͡ɕʌŋ.ɡu.d͡ʑi]}} ({{Korean/auto|hangul=정구지|rr=yes|labels=no}}), but in Standard Korean, it is {{IPA|[puːt͡ɕʰu]}} ({{Korean/auto|hangul=부추|rr=yes|labels=no}}). This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is today.<ref>{{cite web|last=정(Jeong)|first=상도(Sangdo)|url=http://www.kookje.co.kr/news2011/asp/newsbody.asp?code=1700&key=20170401.22019192614|script-title=ko:도청도설 부추와 정구지|date=31 March 2017|work=[[The Kookje Daily News]]|language=ko|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414142006/http://www.kookje.co.kr/news2011/asp/newsbody.asp?code=1700&key=20170401.22019192614|url-status=live}}</ref> See also the [[Classification of the Japonic languages#Japonic-Koreanic theory|Japanese–Koreanic languages]] hypothesis.

== North–South differences ==
{{Main|North–South differences in the Korean language}}
The language used in the North and the South exhibit differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Kanno |editor-first=Hiroomi |editor2=Society for Korean Linguistics in Japan |year=1987 |trans-title=Chōsengo o manabō |title=『朝鮮語を学ぼう』|language=ja |publisher=Sanshūsha |location=Tokyo |isbn=4-384-01506-2}}</ref>

===Pronunciation===
In North Korea, [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of {{IPA|/si/}} is optional, and {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}} can be pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels.

Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently (such as the examples below). The pronunciations below are given in [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]], [[McCune–Reischauer]] and modified [[Hangul]] (what the Korean characters would be if one were to write the word as pronounced).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="3" | Word
! rowspan="3" | {{Tooltip|RR|Revised Romanization}}
! rowspan="3" | Meaning
! colspan="6" | Pronunciation
|-
! colspan="3" | North
! colspan="3" | South
|-
!{{Tooltip|RR|Revised Romanization}}
!{{Tooltip|MR|McCune–Reischauer}}
![[Hangul|Chosŏn'gŭl]]
!{{Tooltip|RR|Revised Romanization}}
!{{Tooltip|MR|McCune–Reischauer}}
![[Hangul]]
|-
|{{lang|ko|읽고}}
|il'''g'''o
|to read (continuative form)
|il'''k'''o
|il'''k'''o
|{{lang|ko|(일)'''코'''}}
|il'''kk'''o
|il'''kk'''o
|{{lang|ko|(일)'''꼬'''}}
|-
|{{lang|ko|압록강}}
|am'''n'''okgang
|[[Yalu River|Amnok River]]
|am'''r'''okgang
|am'''r'''okkang
|{{lang|ko|'''암'''(록)'''깡'''}}
|am'''n'''okkang
|am'''n'''okkang
|{{lang|ko|'''암녹깡'''}}
|-
|{{lang|ko|독립}}
|dong'''n'''ip
|independence
|dong'''r'''ip
|tong'''r'''ip
|{{lang|ko|'''동'''(립)}}
|dong'''n'''ip
|tong'''n'''ip
|{{lang|ko|'''동닙'''}}
|-
|{{lang|ko|관념}}
|gwa'''nn'''yeom
|idea / sense / conception
|gwa'''ll'''yeom
|kwa'''ll'''yŏm
|{{lang|ko|'''괄렴'''}}
|gwa'''nn'''yeom
|kwa'''nn'''yŏm
|{{lang|ko|(관)'''념'''}}
|-
|{{lang|ko|혁신적}}*
|hyeoksin'''j'''eok
|innovative
|hyeoksin'''jj'''eok
|hyŏksin'''tch'''ŏk
|{{lang|ko|(혁)'''씬쩍'''}}
|hyeoksin'''j'''eok
|hyŏksin'''j'''ŏk
|{{lang|ko|(혁)'''씬'''(적)}}
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> In the North, similar pronunciation is used whenever the Hanja "{{lang|ko|的}}" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in {{lang|ko|ㄴ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅁ}} or {{lang|ko|ㅇ}}.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.

===Spelling===
{{see also|Korean spelling alphabet}}
Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="2" | Word
!rowspan="2" | Meaning
!rowspan="2" | Pronunciation (RR/MR)
!rowspan="2" | Remarks
|-
!North spelling
!South spelling
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|해빛}}
|{{lang|ko-KR|햇빛}}
|sunshine
|haeppit (haepit)
|The "sai siot" ('{{lang|ko|ㅅ}}' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|벗꽃}}
|{{lang|ko-KR|벚꽃}}
|cherry blossom
|beotkkot (pŏtkkot)
|
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|못읽다}}
|{{lang|ko-KR|못 읽다}}
|cannot read
|modikda (modikta)
|Spacing.
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|한나산}}
|{{lang|ko-KR|한라산}}
|[[Hallasan]]
|hallasan (hallasan)
|When a {{lang|ko|ㄴㄴ}} combination is pronounced as ''ll'', the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, whereas the Hangul is changed in the South.
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|규률}}
|{{lang|ko-KR|규율}}
|rules
|gyuyul (kyuyul)
|In words where the original Hanja is spelt "{{lang|ko|렬}}" or "{{lang|ko|률}}" and follows a vowel, the initial {{lang|ko|ㄹ}} is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the {{lang|ko|ㄹ}} is dropped in the spelling.
|}

===Spelling ''and'' pronunciation===
Basically, the standard languages of North and South Korea, including pronunciation and vocabulary, are both linguistically based on the Seoul dialect, but in North Korea, words have been modified to reflect the theories of scholars like [[Kim Tu-bong]], who sought a refined language, as well as political needs. Some differences are difficult to explain in terms of political ideas, such as North Korea's use of the word ''rajio'' ({{Korean|hangul=라지오|labels=no}}).:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|력량}}
| ryeongryang (ryŏngryang)
| {{lang|ko-KR|역량}}
| yeongnyang (yŏngnyang)
| strength
| Initial ''r'''s are dropped if followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|로동}}
| rodong (rodong)
| {{lang|ko-KR|노동}}
| nodong (nodong)
| work
| Initial ''r'''s are demoted to an ''n'' if not followed by ''i'' or ''y'' in the South Korean version of Korean.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|원쑤}}
| wonssu (wŏnssu)
| {{lang|ko-KR|원수}}
| wonsu (wŏnsu)
| mortal enemy
| "Mortal enemy" and "[[Wonsu|field marshal]]" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to [[Kim Il Sung]], [[Kim Jong Il]] or [[Kim Jong Un]] as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced {{lang|ko|쑤}} in the North.<ref>{{harvp|Sohn|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4CsWDEi52IC&pg=PA38 38]}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|라지오}}
| rajio (rajio)
| {{lang|ko-KR|라디오}}
| radio (radio)
| radio
| In South Korea, the expression ''rajio'' is considered a Japanese expression that was introduced during the Japanese colonial rule and does not properly represent the pronunciation of Korean.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ko:일본을 거쳐서 들어온 외래 어휘 |url=https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/nklife/1995_2/5_3.html |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]] |access-date=24 June 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624121331/https://www.korean.go.kr/nkview/nklife/1995_2/5_3.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|우}}
| u (u)
| {{lang|ko-KR|위}}
| wi (wi)
| on; above
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|안해}}
| anhae (anhae)
| {{lang|ko-KR|아내}}
| anae (anae)
| wife
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|꾸바}}
| kkuba (kkuba)
| {{lang|ko-KR|쿠바}}
| kuba (k'uba)
| [[Cuba]]
| When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases.
|-
|{{lang|ko-KP|페}}
|pe (p'e)
|{{lang|ko-KR|폐}}
|pye (p'ye), pe (p'e)
|lungs
|In the case where ''ye'' comes after a consonant, such as in ''hye'' and ''pye'', it is pronounced without the palatal approximate. North Korean orthography reflects this pronunciation nuance.
|}

In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Original name
! colspan="2" | North Korea transliteration
! rowspan="2" | English name
! colspan="2" | South Korea transliteration
|-
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
|-
| [[Ulaanbaatar]]
| {{lang|ko|울란바따르}}
| ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ)
| Ulan Bator
| {{lang|ko|울란바토르}}
| ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ)
|-
| København
| {{lang|ko|쾨뻰하븐}}
| koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn)
| [[Copenhagen]]
| {{lang|ko|코펜하겐}}
| kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen)
|-
| al-Qāhirah
| {{lang|ko|까히라}}
| kkahira (kkahira)
| [[Cairo]]
| {{lang|ko|카이로}}
| kairo (k'airo)
|}

===Grammar===
Some grammatical constructions are also different:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North {{abbr|pronun.|pronunciation}}
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|되였다}}
| doeyeotda (toeyŏtta)
| {{lang|ko-KR|되었다}}
| doeeotda (toeŏtta)
| past tense of {{lang|ko|되다}} (doeda/toeda), "to become"
| All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in {{lang|ko|ㅣ}} in the stem (i.e. {{lang|ko|ㅣ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅐ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅔ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅚ}}, {{lang|ko|ㅟ}} and {{lang|ko|ㅢ}}) in the North use {{lang|ko|여}} instead of the South's {{lang|ko|어}}.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|고마와요}}
| gomawayo (komawayo)
| {{lang|ko-KR|고마워요}}
| gomawoyo (komawŏyo)
| thanks
| {{lang|ko|ㅂ}}-irregular verbs in the North use {{lang|ko|와}} (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|할가요}}
| halgayo (halkayo)
| {{lang|ko-KR|할까요}}
| halkkayo (halkkayo)
| Shall we do?
| Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed {{lang|ko|ㄲ}} sound).
|}

===Punctuation===
In the North, [[guillemet]]s ({{lang|ko-KP|《|italic=no}} and {{lang|ko-KP|》|italic=no}}) are the symbols used for [[Quote marks|quotes]]; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones ({{lang|ko-KR|"|italic=no}} and {{lang|ko-KR|"|italic=no}}) are standard (although {{lang|ko-KR|『 』|italic=no}} and {{lang|ko-KR|「 」|italic=no}} are also used).

===Vocabulary===
Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North word
! North pronun.
! South word
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|문화주택}}
| munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek)
| {{lang|ko-KR|아파트}}
| apateu (ap'at'ŭ)
| Apartment
| {{lang|ko-KP|아빠트}} (''appateu/appat'ŭ'') is also used in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|조선어}}
| joseoneo (chosŏnŏ)
| {{lang|ko-KR|한국어}}
| hangugeo (han'gugŏ)
| Korean language
| The Japanese pronunciation of 조선말 was used throughout Korea and Manchuria during Japanese imperial rule, but after liberation, the government in the South chose the name 대한민국 (''daehanminguk'') which was derived from the name immediately prior to Japanese imperial rule, and claimed by government-in-exile from 1919. The syllable 한 (''han'') was drawn from the same source as that name (in reference to the Han people). [[Names of Korea#20th century|Read more]].

{{lang|ko-KP|조선어}} (''joseoneo/chosŏnŏ'') is officially used in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|곽밥}}
| gwakbap (kwakpap)
| {{lang|ko-KR|도시락}}
| [[dosirak]] (tosirak)
| lunch box
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-KP|동무}}
| dongmu (tongmu)
| {{lang|ko-KR|친구}}
| chingu (ch'in'gu)
| Friend
| {{lang|ko|동무}} was originally a non-ideological word for "friend" used all over the Korean peninsula, but North Koreans later adopted it as the equivalent of the Communist term of address "[[comrade]]". As a result, to South Koreans today the word has a heavy political tinge, and so they have shifted to using other words for friend like ''chingu'' ({{lang|ko|친구}}) or ''beot'' ({{lang|ko|벗}}). Today, ''beot'' ({{lang|ko|벗}}) is closer to a term used in literature, and ''chingu'' ({{lang|ko|친구}}) is the widest-used word for friend.
Such changes were made after the Korean War and the ideological battle between the anti-Communist government in the South and North Korea's communism.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/30/world/asia/30iht-dialect.2644361.html |first=Sang-hun |last=Choe |author-link=Choe Sang-hun |title=Koreas: Divided by a common language |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=2006-08-30 |access-date=2012-08-16 |archive-date=2 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302145757/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/30/world/asia/30iht-dialect.2644361.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2881801|title=Beliefs that bind |work=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=2007-10-23|access-date=2012-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501094647/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2881801|archive-date=2013-05-01 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>
|}

==Geographic distribution==
{{See also|Korean diaspora}}

Korean is spoken by the [[Koreans|Korean people]] in both South Korea and North Korea, and by the [[Korean diaspora]] in many countries including the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]], and [[Russia]]. In 2001, Korean was the fourth most popular foreign language in China, following English, Japanese, and Russian.{{sfnp|Sohn|2001|p=6}} Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of [[cultural assimilation]] into host countries, not all ethnic Koreans may speak it with native fluency.

===Official status===
<gallery widths="250" heights="180" class="center">
File:Pyongyang-Kaesong motorway 02.JPG|Highway sign in Korean,<br />[[Reunification Highway]], [[Pyongyang]], Korea
File:AH1sign-Daegu,Korea.jpg|Highway sign in Korean and English,<br />[[Gyeongbu Expressway]], [[Daegu]], Korea
File:大石头还有两公里 （吉延高速 ） Jilin-Yanji Highway - panoramio.jpg|Highway sign in Korean and Chinese,<br />[[G12 Hunchun–Ulanhot Expressway|Hunwu Expressway]], [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian]], China
</gallery>
Korean is the [[official language]] of South Korea and North Korea. It, along with [[Mandarin Chinese]], is also one of the two official languages of China's [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture]].

In North Korea, the regulatory body is the Language Institute of the Academy of Social Sciences ({{Korean|hangul=사회과학원 어학연구소|hanja=社會科學院語學硏究所|labels=no}}). In South Korea, the regulatory body for Korean is the [[Seoul]]-based [[National Institute of Korean Language]], which was created by presidential decree on 23 January 1991.

===King Sejong Institute===
Established pursuant to Article 9, Section 2, of the Framework Act on the National Language, the [[King Sejong Institute]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sejonghakdang.org/home/instituteInfo.do |access-date=19 January 2021 |script-title=ko:누리-세종학당 |archive-date=21 January 2021|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121083807/https://www.sejonghakdang.org/home/instituteInfo.do}}</ref> is a public institution set up to coordinate the government's project of propagating Korean language and culture; it also supports the King Sejong Institute, which is the institution's overseas branch. The King Sejong Institute was established in response to:
* An increase in the demand for Korean language education;
* a rapid increase in Korean language education thanks to the spread of the culture (''[[hallyu]]''), an increase in international marriage, the expansion of Korean enterprises into overseas markets, and enforcement of employment licensing system;
* the need for a government-sanctioned Korean language educational institution;
* the need for general support for overseas Korean language education based on a successful domestic language education program.
King Sejong Institute has 59 in Europe, 15 in Africa, 146 in Asia, 34 in the Americas, and 4 in Oceania.<ref>[https://www.ksif.or.kr/ste/ksf/hkd/lochkd.do?menuNo=20101800&lang=eng KSIF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219122629/https://www.ksif.or.kr/ste/ksf/hkd/lochkd.do?menuNo=20101800&lang=eng |date=19 February 2024 }} - KSIF</ref>

=== TOPIK Korea Institute ===
The [[TOPIK]] Korea Institute is a lifelong educational center affiliated with a variety of Korean universities in Seoul, South Korea, whose aim is to promote Korean language and culture, support local Korean teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges.

The institute is sometimes compared to language and culture promotion organizations such as the King Sejong Institute. Unlike that organization, however, the TOPIK Korea Institute operates within established universities and colleges around the world, providing educational materials. In countries around the world, Korean embassies and cultural centers ({{Korean|hangul=한국문화원|labels=no}}) administer TOPIK examinations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TOPIK|publisher=iSeodang Korean Language Center|url=https://iseodang.com/topik/|access-date=2020-09-15|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021164209/https://iseodang.com/topik/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Foreign language==
{{Main|Korean as a foreign language}}
For native English-speakers, Korean is generally considered to be one of the most difficult foreign languages to master despite the relative ease of learning Hangul. For instance, the [[United States]]' [[Defense Language Institute]] places Korean in Category IV with [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] and [[Cantonese]]), and [[Arabic]], requiring 64 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 26 weeks for Category I languages like [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) to bring an English-speaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which they have "sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements" and "can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Raugh |first=Harold E. |title=The Origins of the Transformation of the Defense Language Program |journal=Applied Language Learning |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=1–12 |url=http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/all16two.pdf |access-date=2008-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630173621/http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/all16two.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-08-01 |title=DLI's language guidelines |url=https://www.ausa.org/articles/dlis-language-guidelines |access-date=2021-04-20 |website=AUSA |language=en |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420214109/https://www.ausa.org/articles/dlis-language-guidelines |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, the [[Foreign Service Institute]]'s School of Language Studies places Korean in Category IV, the highest level of difficulty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/m/fsi/sls/orgoverview/languages |title=Languages |publisher=United States Department of State |access-date=2016-05-27 |archive-date=5 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805123622/https://2009-2017.state.gov/m/fsi/sls/orgoverview/languages |url-status=live }}</ref>

The study of the Korean language in the United States was dominated by [[Korean American]] [[heritage language learning|heritage language students]]; in 2007, these students were estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lee|first=Saekyun H. |author2=HyunJoo Han|title=Issues of Validity of SAT Subject Test Korea with Listening|journal=Applied Language Learning|volume=17|issue=1|pages=33–56 |url=http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/ALL17.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625112846/http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/academic_materials/all/ALLissues/ALL17.pdf|archive-date=2008-06-25}}</ref> However, [[Sejong Institute]]s in the United States have noted a sharp rise in the number of people of other ethnic backgrounds studying Korean between 2009 and 2011, which they attribute to [[Korean Wave|rising popularity]] of [[K-Pop|South Korean music]] and [[Korean drama|television shows]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://view.koreaherald.com/kh/view.php?ud=20120722000212|title=Global popularity of Korean language surges|work=[[The Korea Herald]]|date=2012-07-22|access-date=2012-08-16|archive-date=6 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106135225/https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20120722000212|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, it was reported that the rise in K-Pop was responsible for the increase in people learning the language in US universities.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pickles |first=Matt |date=2018-07-11 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44770777 |title=K-pop drives boom in Korean language lessons |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2018-07-12 |language=en-GB |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716105916/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44770777 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Testing ===
There are two widely used tests of Korean as a foreign language: the [[Korean Language Ability Test]] (KLAT) and the [[Test of Proficiency in Korean]] (TOPIK). The Korean Language Proficiency Test, an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers' competence in Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-10-10|title=Korea Marks 558th Hangul Day|work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200410/200410100002.html|access-date=2008-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219042456/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200410/200410100002.html |archive-date=2008-02-19}}</ref> The TOPIK was first administered in 1997 and was taken by 2,274 people. Since then the total number of people who have taken the TOPIK has surpassed 1 million, with more than 150,000 candidates taking the test in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Korean language test-takers pass 1 mil.|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|url=https://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2013/01/113_129158.html |author1=Yun Suh-young |access-date=25 January 2013|date=2013-01-20|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202537/http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2013/01/113_129158.html|url-status=live}}</ref> TOPIK is administered in 45 regions within South Korea and 72 nations outside of South Korea, with a significant portion being administered in Japan and North America, which would suggest the targeted audience for TOPIK is still primarily foreigners of Korean heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.topik.go.kr/usr/cmm/subLocation.do?menuSeq=211010402|script-title=ko:해외시험장 |website=TOPIK 한국어능력시험 |access-date=2017-10-24|archive-date=25 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025022701/http://www.topik.go.kr/usr/cmm/subLocation.do?menuSeq=211010402|language=ko}}</ref> This is also evident in TOPIK's website, where the examination is introduced as intended for Korean heritage students.

== Example text ==
From Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Korean ([[South Korean standard language|South Korean standard]]):<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Korean (Hankuko) |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/korean-hankuko |website=OHCHR |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230727100255/https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/korean-hankuko |archive-date= Jul 27, 2023 }}</ref>
{{Fs interlinear|모든 인간은 태어날 때부터 자유로우며 그 존엄과 권리에 있어 동등하다. 인간은 천부적으로 이성과 양심을 부여받았으며 서로 형제애의 정신으로 행동하여야 한다.|Modeun inganeun taeeonal ttaebuteo jayuroumyeo geu joneomgwa gwollie isseo dongdeunghada. Inganeun cheonbujeogeuro iseonggwa yangsimeul buyeobadasseumyeo seoro hyeongjeaeui jeongsineuro haengdonghayeoya handa.|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |archive-date=2021-03-16 |access-date=2022-01-07 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>|indent=2|lang=ko}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Korea|Language}}
* [[Korean Wave]]
* [[Miracle on the Han River]]
* [[Outline of Korean language]]
* [[Korean count word]]
* [[Korean Cultural Center]] (KCC)
* [[Korean dialects]]
* [[Korean language and computers]]
* [[Korean as a foreign language]]
* [[Korean mixed script]]
* [[Debate on the use of Korean mixed script|Debate on mixed script and Hangul exclusivity]]
* [[Korean particles]]
* [[Korean proverbs]]
* [[wikt:Category:Korean language|Korean words]]
* [[Korean Sign Language|Korean sign language]]
* [[Korean romanization]]
** [[McCune–Reischauer]]
** [[Revised romanization of Korean]]
** [[Yale romanization of Korean]]
* [[List of English words of Korean origin]]
* [[Vowel harmony]]
* [[History of Korean]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Cited works==
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=L. |year=2015 |title=Expressive, Social and Gendered Meanings of Korean Honorifics |journal=Korean Linguistics |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=242–266 |doi=10.1075/kl.17.2.04bro}}
* {{cite book |last=Cho |first=Young A. |chapter=Gender Differences in Korean Speech |title=Korean Language in Culture and Society |editor-first=Ho-min |author-link=Ho-min Sohn |editor-last=Sohn |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2006 |page=189}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cho |first1=Sungdai |last2=Whitman |first2=John |title=Korean: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-521-51485-9}}
* {{cite book | surname1 = Lee | given1 = Iksop |author-link1=Iksop Lee | surname2 = Ramsey | given2 = S. Robert | title = The Korean Language | publisher = SUNY Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-7914-4831-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Ki-Moon |last2=Ramsey |first2=S. Robert |title=A History of the Korean Language | title-link = A History of the Korean Language |year=2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-66189-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |year=1966 |title=Lexical Evidence Relating Japanese to Korean |journal=Language |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=185–251 |doi=10.2307/411687 |jstor=411687}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |year=1990 |chapter=Morphological clues to the relationship of Japanese and Korean |editor-last=Baldi |editor-first=Philip |editor-link=Philip Baldi |title=Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology |series=Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs |volume=45 |pages=483–509}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roy Andrew |year=1971 |title=Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-52719-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roy Andrew |year=1996 |title=Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic |location=Oslo, Norway |publisher=Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture |isbn=974-8299-69-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Sohn |first=Ho-Min |title=The Korean Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sx6gdJIOcoQC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-36943-5 |year=2001 |orig-date=1999}}
* {{cite book |last=Sohn |first=Ho-Min |title=Korean Language in Culture and Society |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=Boston, MA |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8248-2694-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |year=2010 |title=Koreo-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin |location=Honolulu, HI |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press}}
* {{cite report |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |year=2008 |script-title=ja:萬葉集と風土記に見られる不思議な言葉と上代日本列島に於けるアイヌ語の分布|title=Man'yōshū to Fudoki ni Mirareru Fushigina Kotoba to Jōdai Nihon Retto ni Okeru Ainugo no Bunpu |trans-title=Strange Words in the ''Man'yoshū'' and the ''Fudoki'' and the Distribution of the ''Ainu'' Language in the Japanese Islands in Prehistory |url=http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211234350/http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2014 |access-date=17 January 2011 |publisher=International Research Center for Japanese Studies |lang=ja}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Whitman |first=John B. |year=1985 |degree=PhD |title=The Phonological Basis for the Comparison of Japanese and Korean |location=Cambridge, MA |institution=Harvard University}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1=Argüelles |first1=Alexander |author1-link=Alexander Argüelles |last2=Kim |first2=Jong-Rok |year=2000 |title=A Historical, Literary and Cultural Approach to the Korean Language |location=Seoul, South Korea |publisher=Hollym}}
* {{cite book |last1=Argüelles |first1=Alexander |author1-link=Alexander Argüelles |last2=Kim |first2=Jongrok |year=2004 |title=A Handbook of Korean Verbal Conjugation |location=Hyattsville, Maryland |publisher=Dunwoody Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Argüelles |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Argüelles |year=2007 |title=Korean Newspaper Reader |location=Hyattsville, Maryland |publisher=Dunwoody Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Argüelles |first=Alexander |author1-link=Alexander Argüelles |year=2010 |title=North Korean Reader |location=Hyattsville, Maryland |publisher=Dunwoody Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Chang |first=Suk-jin |title=Korean |location=Philadelphia |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-55619-728-4 |volume=4 |series=London Oriental and African Language Library}}
* {{cite book |last=Hulbert |first=Homer B. |year=1905 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Dialects in India |location=Seoul |publisher=Methodist Publishing House}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |author-link=Samuel E. Martin |title=A Reference Grammar of Korean |title-link=A Reference Grammar of Korean |publisher=[[Tuttle Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8048-3771-2 |year=2006}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ramstedt |first=G. J. |year=1928 |title=Remarks on the Korean language |journal=Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne |volume=58}}
* {{cite book |last=Rybatzki |first=Volker |year=2003 |chapter=Middle Mongol |editor-first=Juha |editor-last=Janhunen |title=The Mongolic languages |location=London, England |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-7007-1133-3 |pages=47–82}}
* {{cite book |last1=Starostin |first1= Sergei A. |last2=Dybo |first2=Anna V. |last3=Mudrak |first3=Oleg A. |year=2003 |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages |location=Leiden, South Holland |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=90-04-13153-1}} In 3 volumes.
* {{cite book |last=Song |first=J.-J. |year=2005 |title=The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context |location=London, England |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last=Trask |first=R. L. |year=1996 |title=Historical linguistics |publisher=Hodder Arnold}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yeon |first1=Jaehoon |first2=Lucien |last2=Brown |year=2011 |title=Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar |location=London, England |publisher=Routledge}}

==External links==
* [http://www.wright-house.com/korean/korean-linguistics-origins.html Linguistic and Philosophical Origins of the Korean Alphabet (Hangul)]
* [http://korean.sogang.ac.kr/ Sogang University free online Korean language and culture course]
* [http://www.easy-korean.com/ Beginner's guide to Korean for English speakers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330224954/http://www.easy-korean.com/ |date=30 March 2019 }}
* [https://www.livelingua.com/fsi-korean-course.php U.S. Foreign Service Institute Korean basic course]
* [http://www.asianreadings.com/introduction asianreadings.com], Korean readings with hover prompts
* [http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesasie/16.htm Linguistic map of Korea]
* [http://dongsa.net/ dongsa.net], Korean verb conjugation tool
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180809000215/http://www.hanja.me/ Hanja Explorer], a tool to visualize and study Korean vocabulary

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[[Category:Korean language| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 4th century]]
[[Category:Languages of Korea]]
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[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Syllable-timed languages]]