View source for Molokans

{{short description|Ethno-religious group of Russian origin}}
{{more footnotes|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox religious group
| group         = Molokan<br />(Spiritual Christians)
| flag          = 
| flag_caption  = 
| image         = The Molokane (cropped).jpg
| image_caption = Molokan men, 1870s
| population    = 
| founder       = Semyon Uklein (1733–1809)
| regions       = {{ubl|[[Russia]]: 50,000–100,000|[[Ukraine]]: 10,000–20,000|[[Armenia]]: 10,000–20,000|[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]: 5,000–15,000|[[United States]]: 10,000|[[Azerbaijan]]: 5,000–10,000|[[Mexico]]: 2,000|[[Australia]]: ~2000|[[Turkey]]: 1,000 (ancestry)<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sobbiad/issue/36458/413102 | title=Malakanlar'in Anadolu'daki̇ İzleri̇ | journal=Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi | date=June 2017 | volume=18 | issue=39 | pages=22–43 | last1=Akça | first1=Bayram | last2=Kiyanç | first2=Sinan }}</ref> }}
| tablehdr =  
| region1       = 
| pop1          = 
| ref1          = 
| region2       = 
| pop2          = 
| ref2          = 
| religions     = [[Christianity]] ([[Spiritual Christianity]])
| scriptures    = ''[[Bible]]'' 
| languages     = {{ubl|[[Russian language|Russian]]|[[Erzyan language|Erzyan]]<ref name="mordva">[http://www.niign.ru/novosti/issledovanie-zhizni-i-byita-molokan-erzya-v-armenii Исследование традиционной культуры и быта молокан-эрзя в Армении]. НИИ ГН при правительстве Республики Мордовия</ref>}}
| related-c     = {{ubl|[[Russians]]|[[Mordovians]]<ref name="mordva">[http://www.niign.ru/novosti/issledovanie-zhizni-i-byita-molokan-erzya-v-armenii Исследование традиционной культуры и быта молокан-эрзя в Армении]. НИИ ГН при правительстве Республики Мордовия</ref>}}
| website       = {{ubl|{{url|сдхм.рф}}|{{url|molokane.org}}}}
| notes         = 
}}

The '''Molokans''' ({{lang-rus|[[wikt:молокан#Russian|молокан]]|p=məlɐˈkan}} or {{lang|ru|[[wikt:молоканин#Russian|молоканин]]}}, "dairy-eater") are a Russian [[Spiritual Christianity|Spiritual Christian]] sect that evolved from [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] in the [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] lands. Their traditions, especially [[dairy product|dairy]] consumption during Christian fasts, did not conform to those of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and they were regarded as heretics ({{lang|ru-latn|sektanty}}). The term {{lang|ru-latn|Molokan}} is an [[exonym]] used by their [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] neighbors. Members tend to identify themselves as '''Spiritual Christians''' ({{lang|ru|духовные христиане}}, {{lang|ru-latn|dukhovnye khristiane}}).

The specific beliefs and practices varied sharply between the various sects of Molokans. Some built chapels for worship, kept sacraments, and revered saints and icons, while others (like the [[Ikonobortsy]], "iconoclasts") discarded these practices in the pursuit of [[Sola scriptura|individual approaches to scripture]]. In general, they rejected the institutionalized formalism of Orthodoxy and denominations with similar doctrines in favor of more emphasis on [[Origins of Christianity|"Original Christianity"]] as they understood it. They emphasized [[spirituality]] and spiritual practice; such sacramental practices as water baptism have been permitted only as tangible signs and symbols of more important spiritual truths.

Similar to [[Presbyterian]]s among Protestants, and considered heretical by the Orthodox Church, they elect a [[presbyterian polity|council]] of dominant [[elder (Christianity)|elders]] who preserve a sort of [[apostolic succession]] in their view. Molokans had some practices similar to the European [[Quakers]] and [[Mennonites]], such as [[pacifism]], communal organization, spiritual meetings, and sub-groupings, but they arose in Russia together with the [[Doukhobors]] and Sabbatarians (also known as [[Subbotniks]]) and similar Spiritual Christian movements of [[Duhovnye Kristyanye]] and Ikonobortsy. They migrated into central Russia and Ukraine around the same time. As such, the Molokans have been compared to certain kinds of Protestants (such as Anabaptists and Baptists) because they have multiple similar aspects since they reject the Orthodox priesthood and icons, have their own presbyters, hold the Bible as their main guide and interpret the sacraments "spiritually". They are thus in many ways similar to [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] and [[Quaker]] Christians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Among Armenia's Molokans |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia-russian-molokans-society/26907858.html |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |access-date=3 July 2024 |language=en |date=18 March 2015 |quote=Molokans are sometimes compared to the Amish or Mennonites in the United States for their pacificism.}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wardin |first=Albert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XLlNAwAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant&pg=PA8 |title=On the Edge: Baptists and Other Free Church Evangelicals in Tsarist Russia, 1855–1917 |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Wipf and Stock |isbn=978-1-62032-962-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Buss |first=Andreas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvt5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant&pg=PA85 |title=The Russian-Orthodox Tradition and Modernity |date=2018-11-01 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-474-0272-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Mollica |first=Marcello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPGtDQAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant+icons&pg=PA78 |title=Fundamentalism: Ethnographies on Minorities, Discrimination and Transnationalism |date=2016 |publisher=LIT |location=Münster |isbn=978-3-643-80201-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2017-10-12 |title=Protestants in Russia: An active minority |url=https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/10/12/protestants-russia-active-minority/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=New Eastern Europe |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Formation and development==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}

===11th–14th centuries and origins of milk-drinking during Lent===
There are approximately 200 [[fasting]] days—especially the [[Great Fast]] (Lent)—when drinking milk was prohibited by Christian Orthodox ecclesiastical authorities. The practice of milk-drinking during these fasts was first sanctioned by the [[Nestorian Church]] in the 11th century in order to accommodate the conversion of some 200,000 [[Turkic Christians]], who lived on meat and milk, to Nestorian Christianity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borbone|first=Pier Giorgio |url=https://pisa.academia.edu/PierGiorgioBorbone/Papers/537579/Some_Aspects_of_Turco-Mongol_Christianity_in_the_Light_of_Literary_and_Epigraphic_Syriac_Sources |title=Some Aspects of Turco-Mongol Christianity in the Light of Literary and Epigraphic Syriac Sources |journal=Journal of Assyrain Academic Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=2005 |via=Academia.edu |access-date=2012-09-20}}</ref> Two theories emerge regarding the formation of the milk-drinking practice during Lent.

The first one suggests that the [[Keraites|Keraite]] Khan, Markus Buyruk Khan (formerly [[Cyriacus Buyruk Khan|Sadiq Khan]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Togan |first=İsenbike|title=Flexibility and limitation in steppe formations: the Kerait Khanate and Chinggis Khan|date=1998|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-10802-5|location=Leiden|oclc=37806168}}</ref> prior to Christian conversion), had converted to Nestorian Christianity along with around 200,000 of his Turco-Mongolic nomadic tribespeople in 1007. The Keraite people were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribes of the Tatar confederation prior to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan united the Tatar tribes into the Mongol Empire. The Keraite resided upon the Orkhon Steppes, south of Lake Baikal and north of the Gobi Desert, also referred to as the Altai-Sayan region. The Nestorian [[Church of the East|Metropolitan]], upon the conversion of the Turco-Mongolic people, asked the Patriarch [[Yohannan VI|John VI]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Unnik|first=Willem Cornelis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYdJwrUEe3gC&q=nestorian+milk+drinking&pg=PA104|title=Nestorian Questions on the Administration of the Eucharist, by Isho'Yabh IV: A Contribution to the History of the Eucharist in the Eastern Church|date=1970-01-01|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-6032-122-5|language=en}}</ref> what the appropriate fast for Lent should be for the new converts and it was decreed that the converts should abstain from meat eating and instead of drinking "soured" milk should consume "sweet" milk. Meat and fermented horse milk were staples of the Turco-Mongolic diet prior to the conversion to Christianity and instead of eliminating a long-held tradition of the nomadic people it was Christianized. Soured milk refers to fermented milk and sweet milk refers to fresh milk.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Halbertsma|first=Tjalling H. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tR2oBgAAQBAJ&q=nestorian+milk+drinking&pg=PA32|title=Early Christian Remains of Inner Mongolia: Discovery, Reconstruction and Appropriation |edition=2nd |date=2015-07-28|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28886-7|language=en}}</ref>

Arriving in [[All-Russian nation#Background|the Rus' lands]] with the 13th century Tatar (Mongolian) invasion<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheshire|first1=Harold T.|year=1926|title=The Great Tartar Invasion of Europe|journal=The Slavonic Review|volume=5|issue=13|pages=89–105|jstor=4202032}}</ref> of [[Batu Khan|Batu]] and [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]], the practice was adopted by other Christian groups, who had pastoral communities on the Eurasian plains.

The second theory proposes that King [[David IV of Georgia]] converted 40,000 [[Cumans|Cuman]]–[[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] tribal families to Christianity and resettled them in Georgia between 1118 and 1120. David IV assimilated these northern Turkic tribes because he was at war with the Muslim Seljuk Turks to the south and desired to reform his army. Each Kipchak family was required to provide one soldier with a horse and weapons. Though David IV is not reported as being a religious adherent, he was a promoter of [[Christian culture]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

The Cumans, Kipchaks, [[Tatars]], Mongolians, and Bashkirs (who descend from Kipchaks) all have the tradition of making fermented milk products. The Cumans call it ''[[kumis]],'' Mongolians call it ''airag,''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Airag – Fermented Mare's Milk – Mongolian Beverage|url=https://www.mongolfood.info/en/recipes/airag.html|access-date=2020-07-12|website=www.mongolfood.info}}</ref> Tatars call it ''azegay'', and the Baskir call it ''azekay''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Csáki|first=Éva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qARHlq4kK5wC&q=kipchaks+fermented+milk&pg=PA42|title=Middle Mongolian Loan Words in Volga Kipchak Languages|date=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-05381-5|language=en}}</ref> This lends itself to the possibility of the second theory, as well as the first.

One hundred families of the original Molokan Karaits were settled in Halychyna (specifically Lviv) by hostage arrangement between Daniel of Galicia and Batu Khan in 1246.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Historical Claims over Crimean Territory |url=https://voxukraine.org/en/historical-claims-over-crimean-territory |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=Vox Ukraine |language=en-US}}</ref>

===15th–16th centuries===
The [[Heresy of the Judaizers|Judaizers]] preceded the modern day Molokans. Although they are sometimes also called "Molokans", they constitute an independent movement. Their leader [[Matvei Dalmatov]] was tortured to death in a monastery prison by [[breaking wheel]].

In 1428, [[Crimea]] became independent and supported the original Molokan-Subbotniks, the [[Crimean Karaites]] (Qara-Tatars / Karaylar), who had always played an important role in Mongol politics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dunlop|first=D. M.|date=June 1944|title=The Karaits of Eastern Asia|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=11|issue=2|pages=276–289|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00072463|s2cid=128460011 |issn=0041-977X}}</ref> The linguistically dominant Church of the East Karait-Tatars, who had similar origins to the Khavars, became "Karaimstvuiuschie" (or Molokan Karaits).

===17th–18th centuries===
The first recorded use of the term "Molokan" appears in the 1670s, in reference to a group of people who had the practice of not fasting as well as eating dairy products during the 200 fasting days stipulated by the Orthodox Church. In Russian, {{lang|ru-Latn|moloko}} means "milk", and thus this came to be the name for these particular Christians. Nonetheless, these were "Spiritual Christians" who were not directly related to the group later known as "Molokans".

The "Molokans" that are known today by that name split in 1779 and 1780 from the [[Doukhobors]] because they thought that the Doukhobors neglected the Bible; in their belief, God had placed the Word directly into their hearts. The Molokans, however, held the written Bible in the highest regard. The founder of the Molokans, [[Semyon Matveevich Uklein]] (1733–1809), was a son-in-law of the Doukhobor leader [[Ilarion Poberokhin]] (1720–1792) as explained by O. Beznosova: "Soon (approximately in 1779–1780) a group broke away from Pobirohin's disciples. It was led by his son-in-law Semyon Uklein, who did not share the mystical spirit and self-deification of the former leader and defended the need for reliance on the Gospel texts in the organization of church life (Margaritov, 1914). This group (called 'Molokans') became a 'rational' direction of Spiritual Christianity, as opposed to the 'mystics' – 'christoverchestvo' adherents, 'Doukhobors', and '[[skoptsy]]'."<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Beznosova O |journal=Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences |title=The Perception in the Religious Space: The Assessment of the Impact of Western Reformation Ideas to Religious Movements of Russian-Ukrainian Steppe Borderlands in XVIII – The Early XIX Centuries |volume=236 |pages=320–326 |date=December 2016 |issn=1877-0428 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.12.037 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Uklein's Molokans from Tambov energetically proselytized in settlements along the [[Volga River]] and Russia's south-eastern frontier, spreading the Molokan faith in the provinces of [[Orenburg]], [[Saratov]], and [[Astrakhan]]; Uklein would further continue organizing congregations until his death in 1809.

===19th–20th centuries===
{{full citations needed|section|date=July 2025}}
From the intervention of Count [[Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov|Nikolay Zubov]] in 1795, Molokans <!--(бесшапочники)--> were tolerated under [[Catherine the Great]] but constrained by strict rules imposed upon them intended to curb community growth.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lvov.judaica.spb.ru/gersub.shtml |script-title=ru:А. Львов. Геры и субботники - "талмудисты" и "караимы" |language=ru |title= |trans-title=}}</ref> Those who ignored the restrictions were punished in [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] as [[Christian heresy|heretics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lvov.judaica.spb.ru/herm.shtml|script-title=ru:А. Львов. "Иудействовать и молоканить недозволено"}}</ref> Molokan evangelists and missionaries suffered imprisonment, banishment, and other forms of punishment. Prohibited from winning converts,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lvov.judaica.spb.ru/problems.shtml |script-title=ru:А. Львов. Русские иудействующие: проблемы, источники и методы исследования |language=ru |title= |trans-title=}}</ref> the Molokans were forced into [[endogamy]]. The government's policy was to send the Molokans away from the center of Russia into the Caucasus (1833) and other outlying areas to prevent their having influence on other peasants; they were sent to [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] (1834), [[Ukraine]] (1830s), central [[Asia]], and [[Siberia]], where many communities have survived into the present.

It is said that in 1900, despite the persecutions by the Tsarist government and Orthodox Church, there could have been about a half-million Spiritual Christians in the Russian empire. These figures appear, however, to be vastly exaggerated. In 1912, there were only 133,935 ''Molokane'' and 4,844 ''Pryguny'' counted in Russia (census of the Department of Spiritual Affairs<ref>[[Glenn Dynner]] (2011). "Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe"</ref>).

Fewer than one thousand ''Molokane'' fled Russia in the early 1900s (mostly 1905–1912), many of whom settled near other non-Orthodox immigrants from Russia in an ethnic [[enclave]] on and near [[Potrero Hill]], [[San Francisco|San Francisco, California]], where they built a prayer hall in 1929. A second prayer hall was established near [[Sheridan, Placer County, California|Sheridan, California]], to serve those scattered in Northern California. There has been a population of Molokans in [[Whittier, California|Whittier]] in southern California. As of 2022, there is still a church called New United Molokan Church.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Conovaloff |first1=Andrei |url=http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/ |title=Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki – books, fellowship, holidays, prophets and songs |publisher=Molokane.org}}</ref> Though some Spiritual Christian faith groups fled Russia in the early 1900s to avoid the military draft, all eligible ''Molokan'' boys registered for the [[Selective Service Act of 1917]], but were disqualified as aliens who did not speak English. During World War II, 136 eligible American ''Molokan'' boys enlisted during World War II, and two were [[conscientious objectors]].<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Samarin |editor1-first=Pavel I. |script-title=ru:Молокане в армии Америки |title=Molokane v armii Ameriki |trans-title=Molokans in the American army |script-journal=ru:Молоканское обозрение |journal=Molokanskoe Obozprenie |trans-journal=The Molokan Review |date=August 1943 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=26–27 |language=ru}}</ref>{{verify inline|reason=Russian text inferred from transliterations|date=July 2025}}

Being prohibited from winning converts under the laws of the Russian Empire, they adopted [[endogamy]] and were classified as an ethnic group under the Bolsheviks.

==Groups==
From 1904 through the 1920s, many different faith tribes in the Caucasus immigrated to North America under the guise of "Molokan". In 1899, when about a third of all ''[[Doukhobors|Dukhobortsty]]'' left the Caucasus to central Canada, the Canadian government also gave permission for "Molokans" to migrate and get the same privileges (land, communal, non-military). To take advantage of this generous privilege, many different faith tribes of [[spiritual Christians]] in the Caucasus all claimed to be "Molokan" while leaving Russia for Canada. Most all were diverted from Canada to Los Angeles by [[Peter Demens]], where they clashed, never uniting. Many descendants of those different tribes still claim the coveted ''Molokan'' heritage label which perpetuates confusion.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Conovaloff |first1=Andrei |title=Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups from Russia: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki — books, fellowship, holidays, prophets and songs. |url=http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy |website=Spiritual Christians Around the World |access-date=12 May 2024}}</ref>

===Constant Molokans and Molokan Jumpers===
[[File:Fioletovo - Armenia (2927007572).jpg|thumb|A Molokan villager in [[Fioletovo]], [[Armenia]]]]
The Russian term "constant" (invariable, steadfast, unchanged, original: {{lang|ru-latn|postoyanniye}} : {{lang|ru|постоянние}}) applied to the ''Molokans'' has been used with two different intentions. Original ''Molokans'' either refused to be evangelized by Protestant denominations or insisted that they would retain their faith unchanged by the "Jumper" revivalist movement in the 1830s. They originally constituted the by far largest segment of Molokanism. In 1833, a [[schism (religion)|schism]] occurred that was framed by collective cataclysms of disease, famine, and persecution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clay |first1=J. Eugene |title=The Woman Clothed in the Sun: Pacifism and Apocalyptic Discourse among Russian Spiritual Christian Molokan Jumpers |date=2011 |page=117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bulgakov |first1=F. O. |title="Sionskaia knizhka bogodukhnovennykh izrechenii Davyda Essevicha, on zhe Fedor Osipovich Bulgakov," in Bozhestvennyia izrecheniia nastavnikov i stradal'tsev za slovo bozhie, veru Iisusa i dukh sviatoi religii dukhovnykh khristian molokan- prygunov, ed. Ivan Gur'evich Samarin, 2nd ed. (Los Angeles: "Dukh i zhizn'," 1928), 80.}}</ref> A portion of the Molokans during this time began to experience a charismatic outpouring of the Holy Spirit,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clay |first1=J. Eugene |title=The Woman Clothed in the Sun: Pacifism and Apocalyptic Discourse among Russian Spiritual Christian Molokan Jumpers |page=115}}</ref> similar to later [[Pentecostal]] faiths. Eventually this sect evolved into what is known today as the "Molokan Jumpers".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clay |first1=J. Eugene |title=The Woman Clothed in the Sun: Pacifism and Apocalyptic Discourse among Russian Spiritual Christian Molokan Jumpers}}</ref> The old Molokans were termed ''Constants'' ({{lang|ru-latn|Postoyaniye}}), and the newly evolved "Molokans jumpers" ({{lang|ru-latn|Pryguny}}), also called {{lang|ru-latn|Skakuny}} (leapers). The Molokan ''Jumpers'' believed they were visited by a manifestation of the Holy Spirit, and this new smaller Molokan sect began a revival with intense zeal, reporting miracles that purportedly rivaled those of Christ's apostles.

=== Seeds of exodus ===
The "Constant" Molokan sect condemned the new sect to authorities, resulting in betrayals and imprisonment for many of the Molokan Jumpers. Some of these Molokan Jumpers called themselves "New Israelites", when one {{lang|ru-latn|Prygun}} leader [[Maxim Rudomyotkin]] in Nikitino, Erivan Guberniya was announced to be the "King of the Spirits" in 1853. The group, also known as Maximists", considered [[Efim Gerasimovich Klubnikin]] (1842-1915) in Romanovka, Kars oblast, a divinely inspired 12-year-old boy prophet. He prophesied a "coming time that would be unbearable and that the time to leave Russia was now." During the early 20th century under his leadership, about 2,000 {{lang|ru-latn|Pryguny}} emigrated to the [[United States]], first settling on the east side of [[Los Angeles]]. Most seeking rural isolation moved to Baja Mexico, then Arizona, Central California, and some other parts of the West Coast and Canada. Other Jumpers received a land grant from the [[Mexican government]] and settled in the [[Guadalupe, Baja California|Guadalupe Valley]] in [[Baja California]], [[Mexico]]. 
[[File:Presbyter_of_Molokans_of_Ivanovka_village,_Azerbaijan.jpg|thumb|Presbyter of Molokans of Ivanovka village, Azerbaijan]]
In Los Angeles, a small number of the Molokan Jumpers joined the development of the American Revival called "the [[Pentecostal]] [[Azusa Street Revival]]." The founder of [[The Full Gospel Business Men's Association]] associates this [[Pentecostal]] [[Christian revival|Revival]] to a child prophet of the Molokan Jumpers, E.G. Klubnikin.

=== Diaspora ===
[[File: Glendale-The_first_Russian_Molokans_Church-1950.JPG|250px|thumb|The first '''Russian Molokans Church''' (Spiritual Christians) in Glendale, Arizona was built in 1950 and is located at 7402 Griffin Ave. It is listed as a historical site by the Glendale Arizona Historical Society.]]
About 20,000 people identify as Molokans, at least ethnically, in the former Soviet Union. There are approximately 200 Molokan churches, 150 of them in Russia and [[Azerbaijan]]. They also lived in the [[North Caucasus]], [[Southern Ukraine]], [[Armenia]], and [[Central Asia]], where their ancestors had been exiled long ago.

Approximately 25,000 Molokans reside in the United States, of whom about 5,000 "ethnically" identify as "Molokans". The majority live in or near [[Los Angeles]], particularly in [[East Los Angeles, California|East Los Angeles]], [[Boyle Heights, Los Angeles|Boyle Heights]], and [[Commerce, California|Commerce]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-sep-14-me-22608-story.html | title=Laid to Rest Among Their Ancestors| newspaper=Los Angeles Times| date=1998-09-14| last1=Martin| first1=Hugo}}</ref>

During the 1960s other Molokans settled in southern [[Alaska]] and [[Australia]]. Molokans are said to be numerous in [[Australia]]. The majority are in [[South Australia]], with a number of families in [[Western Australia]] and a small group residing in [[Queensland]]. Over 1,000 reside in Canada in the province of [[British Columbia]] and hundreds more in [[Alberta]], keeping their traditional communal lifestyle. A group of Molokan families are also living in [[Latin America]] in the Guadalupe Valley, [[Mexico]] and in the country of [[Uruguay]].

A small Molokan community was located in the eastern province of [[Kars]], [[Turkey]]. They are known as [[Kars Molokans]]. Most of the community returned to Russia years ago; in the 21st century only one family of Molokans is left in Kars.<ref>[http://www.todayszaman.com/national_molokan-community-still-exists-in-kars-despite-decreasing-number_285869.html], ''Today's Zaman''</ref>

==Spiritual practices==
The Molokans have been compared to the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] that originated through the [[Radical Reformation]] and to the [[Quakers]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Georgieff |first=by Dimana Trankova; photography by Anthony |date=2015-09-24 |title=WHO ARE THE MOLOKANS? |url=https://vagabond.bg/who-are-molokans-1095 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=VAGABOND |language=en}}</ref> They have a protestant-like view of the authority of scripture, but interpreting the bible allegorically or "spiritually", they see the sacraments "spiritually", reject the use of icons, images of the cross, and Church hierarchy along with venerating the saints.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-03 |title=Molokans in Armenia: 20 years ago and now |url=https://jam-news.net/molokans-in-armenia-20-years-ago-and-now/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=English Jamnews |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> The Molokans advocate for pacifism, congregate in their own homes, do not drink or smoke, and oppose contraception and modern technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic Russian Sect Struggling to Survive in Azerbaijan {{!}} Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/ethnic-russian-sect-struggling-to-survive-in-azerbaijan |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Georgieff |first=by Dimana Trankova; photography by Anthony |date=2015-09-24 |title=WHO ARE THE MOLOKANS? |url=https://vagabond.bg/who-are-molokans-1095 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=VAGABOND |language=en}}</ref>

The Molokans follow the Old Testament laws, refusing to eat pork, shellfish, or unclean foods, they additionally refused to obey Orthodox mandates on fasting.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Among Armenia's Molokans |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia-russian-molokans-society/26907858.html |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |language=en}}</ref>

== Racial, ethnic, and familial lineage ==
[[File:Molokan Fioletovo1.jpg|thumb|Molokan children in Armenia]]
The Molokans from Tambov who proselytized in settlements along the Volga River and in the Orenburg, Saratov and Astrakhan provinces were mostly of Slavic descent. [[Tambov Oblast]] had been completely settled by Slavic people by the 17th century. The regions they proselytized in all had or still have high populations of Islamic adherents and people of 'Tatar' or Turkic ancestry.

Between the 1600s and late 1800s, intermarriage between ethnic Russians and Tatars (Tatar at this point meaning anyone of Turkic background) was common. For a Tatar, marrying a Russian was a way to increase social status or class.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Holloman|first1=Regina E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3gAB7A6-bgC&q=russian+tatar+marriage&pg=PA167|title=Perspectives on Ethnicity|last2=Arutiunov|first2=Serghei A.|date=2011-06-15|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-080770-7|language=en}}</ref> Muslim Tatars who converted to Christianity were exempted from taxes and gained other privileges.

Molokans as partially an admixture of Slavic and Turkic genetics is also supported by other accounts. Molokans complicated the work of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the conversion of Tatar or Turkic Muslims, as Molokans taught that religious iconography was a sin. Molokans are well-known iconoclasts, which was heresy to the Orthodox Church. Muslims, also being iconoclasts, found a draw to the Molokan faith as it preserved some Islamic traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kefeli|first=Agnès Nilüfer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmcfBQAAQBAJ&q=molokan+tatar&pg=PT234|title=Becoming Muslim in Imperial Russia: Conversion, Apostasy, and Literacy|date=2014-12-18|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5476-9|language=en}}</ref> Muslim converts in Russia were also well known to convert to Christianity to receive the benefits of conversion, only to convert back to Islam later. Molokans, being constrained to endogamy and marrying within their religion, would marry converts indiscriminate of their genetic background.

==In the United States==
[[File:Potrero Hill Neighborhood House, Russian immigrants.png|thumb|Molokan Russian immigrants at the [[Potrero Hill Neighborhood House]], San Francisco, California]]
=== History ===
Roughly 3,500 Molokans left Russia between 1901 and 1911 in search of religious freedom, escaping the persecution inflicted upon them by the Russian Orthodox Church and state. Starting around the early 1900s, many Molokans settled in the [[Potrero Hill]] neighborhood of San Francisco, California.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nolte |first=Carl |date=2019-03-16 |title=They escaped Russian persecution and settled atop Potrero Hill. An immigrant story |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/nativeson/article/They-escaped-Russian-persecution-and-settled-atop-13693389.php |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=San Francisco Chronicle |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Potrero Hill Neighborhood House]] was built in 1922 by the California Synodical Society of Home Mission, Inc. and the [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian Church]], in order to support this newfound community, provided adult education classes, a community center, and a kindergarten.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Linenthal |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUiXOutxxmIC |title=Potrero Hill |last2=Johnston |first2=Abigail |date=2009-04-01 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-0-7385-5966-7 |pages=33 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Carlsson |first=Chris |title=Neighborhood House |url=https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=Neighborhood_House |access-date=2023-05-23 |website=FoundSF}}</ref><ref name="NoeHill">{{Cite web |title=San Francisco Landmark #86: Potrero Hill Neighborhood House |url=https://noehill.com/sf/landmarks/sf086.asp |access-date=2023-05-23 |website=noehill.com}}</ref> By the 1970s, the Potrero Hill community was still in existence, but other smaller groups of the Molokans had become assimilated into the broader Russian-American community. 

Today, Molokans in the United States are largely assimilated into the general mainstay of American culture. They do however work to preserve the uniqueness of their own traditions and culture, such as the usage of Russian in their church services, community dinners (referred to as 'obed'), and a shared adherence to diet based upon their religious beliefs.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dunn |first=Ethel |title=American Molokans and Canadian Dukhobors: Economic Position and Ethnic Identity |date=1976-12-31 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110803501.97 |work=Ethnicity in the Americas |pages=97–114 |access-date=2023-12-29 |publisher=DE GRUYTER MOUTON|doi=10.1515/9783110803501.97 |isbn=978-90-279-3268-6 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Perception by others ===
Upon their arrival in the USA, the Molokans and their religious observances seemed very strange to Americans. The Molokan colonies and communities were labeled "cults" and Molokans were harassed by Americans with the creation of the derogatory term "Molokan Slackers". The Molokans were given this moniker primarily because they did not want to serve in [[World War I]], as they were [[Conscientious objector|conscientious objectors]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 21, 1920 |title=Making Slackers Into Loyal Citizens, Image 10 |pages=10 |newspaper=The Sun (New York, New York) |url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030431/1920-01-21/ed-1/seq-10/ |access-date=2018-03-09 |issn=2166-1820}}</ref>

=== Legal issues ===
On June 8, 1917, the ''[[The Arizona Republic|Arizona Republic]]'' reported that the Molokan community in Glendale, Arizona, refused to register under the [[Selective Service Act of 1917]]. The likely result would be the arrest of Molokan men who refused to sign the order. Molokans claimed that their religious precepts forbade them from signing such an agreement. The Czars had forced them into the military, and that is why they had fled Russia for the United States. The Molokans feared that history would repeat itself in America.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1917-06-08 |title=Arizona Republic. (Phoenix, Ariz.) 1890-1930, June 08, 1917, Image 8 |pages=8 |newspaper=Arizona Republican |url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020558/1917-06-08/ed-1/seq-8/ |access-date=2018-03-09 |issn=2157-135X}}</ref>

On August 9, 1917, ''The Daily Missoulian'' reported that 35 Molokans were arrested and given sentences of one year each for disobeying the Selective Service Act of 1917. Thirty-three other Molokans were arrested for creating a disturbance outside of the jail house; women struck police with their umbrellas and a knife-wielding man had to be overpowered. After the 35 men were sentenced, the Molokans in the courtroom broke out into ecstatic singing and dancing and some participants were slightly injured while being subdued.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1917-08-09 |title=The Daily Missoulian. (Missoula, Mont.) 1904-1961, August 09, 1917, Image 5 |pages=5 |newspaper=The Daily Missoulian |url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025316/1917-08-09/ed-1/seq-5/ |access-date=2018-03-09 |issn=2329-5457}}</ref>

=== Naming after immigration ===
Molokans are known for having different spellings of last names within the same immediate family for a few reasons. When Molokans arrived in the United States, some family names were horribly misspelled by immigration officials who could not read Cyrillic—for example, "Сусоев" became "Sessoyeff," which is unpronounceable in English. Also, like members of other pacifist communities, some Molokans changed the spelling of their names to avoid deportation. Many chose to use American versions of their names. So "Vasilli Bukroff" becomes "Bill" or "William Bukroff" or "Ivan Metchikoff" becomes "John Mitchell", and "Dunya Tikunov" becomes "Julie Tyler". They sometimes use "first names" that are not their legal names and are based on nicknames from childhood within the church that stuck with people as adults. For example, "Hazel Valov" became known as "Percy Valov" for being very "persistent". Another naming custom that can confuse those who are unfamiliar with the community was practiced by Molokans who settled in the Guadalupe Valley, Mexico. Many settlers adopted the Mexican versions of their names, so Rodion Pavlov became "Rodolfo Pabloff," and they named their children following the Mexican format. Accordingly, one will see what would have been a Russian name like "Ivan Pavilovich Pabloff" (Ivan son of Pavil (Paul) (Pavlov)), whose mother's maiden name is "Samarin," become "Juan Pablo Pabloff de Samarin" or "Juan Samarin Pabloff". In all these instances, tracing family history can be very difficult. Otherwise, they adhere to the common naming practices. Much can be learned from a Russian headstone which will commonly go back to the use of the Russian naming protocol regardless of what name the individual used while alive. If translated correctly, one can learn the names of an individual's father and grandfather from a male's headstone. If it is displayed in English at the bottom it most likely will not contain the information.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

== Ecumenical relations ==
In Russia, the ''Molokane'' historically maintained close relations with [[Baptist]]s.<ref name="BrockSocknat1999">{{cite book|last1=Brock|first1=Peter|last2=Socknat|first2=Thomas Paul|title=Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05O59Ro-Oz4C&q=molokans+mennonites |publisher=University of Toronto Press|language=English|isbn=9780802043719|page=23|quote=Baptists maintained close relations with both Mennonites and Molokans throughout the history of the Baptist Union.}}</ref>

==Notable people==
*[[:ru:Воронин, Никита Исаевич|Voronin, Nikita Isaevitj]], was founder and first [[presbyter]] for the Baptist congregation in Tiflis
*[[Ivan Prokhanov]], religious figure, engineer, poet, preacher,
*[[Lou Novikoff]], professional baseball player
*[[Jim Loscutoff]], professional basketball player
*[[Matvey Skobelev]], marxist revolutionary and politician
*[[Shirley Babashoff]], Olympic swimming champion

== See also ==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
*[[Spiritual Christianity]]
*[[Subbotniks]]
*[[Doukhobor]]
*[[Christian anarchism]]
*[[Peace church]]
*[[List of pacifist faiths]]
*[[Simple living]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Molokans}}
*[http://www.molokane.org/ Molokane.org]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050305005728/http://www.doukhobor.org/Molokan.htm Origin and Meaning of Molokan Surnames]
*[http://international.loc.gov/ammem/afccchtml/0028.html Russian Molokan Church service, September 14, 1938]
*[http://www.molokane.org/places/Turkey/Kars/2007_Molokan_short_film.html The Guest - a 2007 film about Spiritual Christians in eastern Turkey]
*[http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/index.htm Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: ''Molokane'', ''Pryguny'' and ''Dukh-i-zhizniki'' — books, fellowship, holidays, prophets and songs], by Andrei Conovaloff, updated July 2019.
*[https://www.economist.com/blogs/easternapproaches/2012/12/last-molokans?fsrc=nlw%7Cnewe%7C12-26-2012%7C4458151%7C114582083%7CUK The Economist - "The last of the Molokans"]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iEixviMjmF0 Iconobortsi Molokans in Azerbaijan]
*[http://ivanovka.net/ Ivanovka.net (ru)]
*[http://pryguny.ru pryguny.ru: site about molokans-jumpers] (ru)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Christian denominations established in the 16th century]]
[[Category:Spiritual Christianity]]
[[Category:Peace churches]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 1550s]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups in Russia]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups in the United States]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Russian diaspora in Armenia]]
[[Category:Russian diaspora in Turkey]]
[[Category:Russian diaspora in Mexico]]
[[Category:Russian diaspora in the United States]]
[[Category:Russian sub-ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Protestant ethnoreligious groups]]