View source for Old English

{{short description|Earliest historical form of English language}}
{{About|the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name          = Old English
| image         = Beowulf.Kenning.jpg
| imagecaption  = A detail of the first page of the ''[[Beowulf]]'' manuscript, showing the words {{lang|ang|ofer hron rade}}, translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the [[kenning]].
| nativename    = {{hlist|{{lang|ang|Englisċ}}|{{lang|ang|Ænglisċ}}}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|}}
| ethnicity     = [[Anglo-Saxons]]
| region        = [[England]] (except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern [[Scotland]], and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern [[Wales]]
| era           = [[5th century]] –[[12th century]]; mostly developed into [[Middle English]] and [[Early Scots]] by the 12th century
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3          = [[West Germanic]]
| fam4          = [[North Sea Germanic]]
| fam5          = [[Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam6          = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| ancestor      = [[Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2     = [[Proto-Germanic]]
| ancestor3     = [[Proto-West Germanic]]
| ancestor4     = [[Proto-English]]
| script        = [[Anglo-Saxon runes|Runic]], later [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Old English Latin alphabet]])
| iso2          = ang
| iso3          = ang
| iso6          = ango
| glotto        = olde1238
| glottorefname = Old English (ca. 450–1100)
| dia1          = [[Kentish Old English|Kentish]]
| dia2          = Anglian{{Indent|1}}{{*}} [[Mercian dialect|Mercian]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}} [[Northumbrian Old English|Northumbrian]]
| dia3          = [[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]]
| notice        = IPA
}}
{{Old English topics}}
{{Anglo-Saxon society}}

'''Old English''' ({{lang|ang|Englisc}} or {{lang|ang|Ænglisc}}, {{IPA|ang|ˈeŋɡliʃ|pron}} or {{IPA|ang|ˈæŋɡliʃ|}}), or '''Anglo-Saxon''',{{efn|name=Name|By the sixteenth century the term ''Anglo-Saxon'' came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.<ref>{{cite book | last=Crystal | first=David | title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-521-53033-0}}</ref>}} is the earliest attested form of the [[English language]], spoken in [[England]] and southern and eastern [[Scotland]] in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. It developed from the languages brought to [[Great Britain]] by [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|Anglo-Saxon settlers]] in the mid-5th century, and the first [[Old English literature]] dates from the mid-7th century. After the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] (a [[langues d'oïl|type of French]]) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as [[Middle English]] in England and [[Early Scots]] in Scotland.

Old English developed from a set of [[Anglo-Frisian]] or [[Ingvaeonic]] dialects originally spoken by [[Germanic tribes]] traditionally known as the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]] and [[Jutes]]. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language [[Celtic language decline in England|replaced]] the languages of [[Roman Britain]]: [[Common Brittonic]], a [[Celtic language]]; and [[Latin]], brought to Britain by the [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman conquest]]. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular [[heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]]: [[Kentish Old English|Kentish]], [[Mercian dialect|Mercian]], [[Northumbrian Old English|Northumbrian]], and [[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]]. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period,{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} although the dominant forms of Middle and [[Modern English]] would develop mainly from Mercian,{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong [[Old Norse]] influence due to [[Danelaw|Scandinavian rule]] and settlement beginning in the 9th century.

Old English is one of the [[West Germanic languages]], with its closest relatives being [[Old Frisian]] and [[Old Saxon]]. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study.<ref>{{Cite web | first=Arika | last=Okrent | date=26 July 2021 | title=Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | url=https://aeon.co/essays/why-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent | access-date=11 August 2021 | website=Aeon}}</ref> Within [[Old English grammar]], the nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many [[inflection]]al endings and forms, and [[word order]] is much freer.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a [[Anglo-Saxon runes|runic system]], but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a [[Old English Latin alphabet|version of the Latin alphabet]].

== Etymology ==
{{lang|ang|Englisċ}}, from which the word ''English'' is derived, means 'pertaining to the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]]'.<ref>{{cite book | last=Fennell | first=Barbara | year=2001 | title=A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | isbn=978-0-631-20073-4}}</ref> The Angles were one of the [[Germanic tribe]]s who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Pyles| first1=Thomas |last2=Algeo | first2=John | year=1993 | title=Origins and development of the English language | edition=4th | location=New York | publisher=Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich | isbn=978-0-15-500168-8}}</ref> By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as {{lang|ang|Englisċ}}.

This name probably either derives from [[Proto-Germanic]] {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*anguz}}, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast,<ref>{{cite book | last1=Barber | first1=Charles | last2=Beal | first2=Joan C. | last3=Shaw| first3=Philip A. | year=2009 | title=The English language. A historical introduction | edition=2nd | publisher=Cambridge University Press | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817601 | isbn=978-0-521-85404-7}}</ref> or else it may derive from a related word {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*angô}} which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks.<ref>{{cite book | editor-last=Mugglestone | editor-first=Lynda | year=2006| title=The Oxford History of English | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19924931-2}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hogg|Denison|2006}} Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a [[fishhook]], or else because they were fishermen (anglers).{{sfnp|Baugh|1960}}

== History ==
{{further|History of English}}
[[File:2022 04 16 - MAP West Germanic – cc. 580 CE - END.png|thumb|West Germanic languages {{circa|580&nbsp;CE}}]]
[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
{{legend|#ff0000|[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]}}
{{legend|#ff9933|[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]}}
{{legend|#ffff00|[[w:Old English|Old English]]}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]]).}}
{{legend|#0000ff|[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]] ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]]

Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain]] in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the [[Norman Conquest]]. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a [[synthetic language]].{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of [[Modern English]] vocabulary.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}

Old English is a [[West Germanic language]], and developed out of [[North Sea Germanic]] dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the [[heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]] which became the [[Kingdom of England]]. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern [[Scotland]], which for several centuries belonged to the [[kingdom of Northumbria]]. Other parts of the island continued to use [[Celtic languages]] ([[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]]{{snd}}and perhaps some [[Pictish]]{{snd}}in most of Scotland, [[Cornish language#Middle Cornish|Medieval Cornish]] all over [[Cornwall]] and in adjacent parts of [[Devon]], [[Cumbric]] perhaps to the 12th century in parts of [[Cumbria]], and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] in [[Wales]] and possibly also on the English side of the [[Anglo-Welsh border]]); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where [[Old Norse]] was spoken and [[Danelaw|Danish law]] applied.

Old English literacy developed after the [[Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England]] in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of [[Old English literature]] is ''[[Cædmon's Hymn]]'', which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} There is a limited corpus of [[Anglo-Saxon runes|runic inscriptions]] from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the [[Franks Casket]]) date to the early 8th century. The [[Old English Latin alphabet]] was introduced around the 8th century.

[[File:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Alfred the Great]] statue in [[Winchester]], Hampshire. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.]]
With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the [[Danelaw]]) by [[Alfred the Great]] in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the [[West Saxon dialect]] (Early West Saxon). Alfred [[Alfred the Great#Advocacy of education in English|advocated education in English]] alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as [[Pope Gregory I]]'s treatise ''[[Pastoral Care]]'', appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}

A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop [[Æthelwold of Winchester]], and was followed by such writers as the prolific [[Ælfric of Eynsham]] ("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "[[Winchester]] standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English.{{sfnp|Hogg|1992|p=83}} It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.

The history of Old English can be subdivided into:
* Prehistoric Old English ({{Circa|450–650}}); for this period, Old English is mostly a [[reconstructed language]] as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited [[Anglo-Saxon runes|epigraphic evidence]]). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.<ref>{{cite book | last=Stumpf | first=John |title=An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature | year=1970 | publisher=Forum House Publishing Company | place=London | page=7 | quote=We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call Primitive Old English.}}</ref>
* Early Old English ({{circa|650–900|lk=no}}), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as [[Cædmon]], [[Bede]], [[Cynewulf]] and [[Aldhelm]].
* Late Old English ({{circa|900–1150|lk=no}}), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to [[Early Middle English]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Fuster-Márquez | first1=Miguel | last2=Calvo García de Leonardo | first2=Juan José | year=2011 | title=A Practical Introduction to the History of English | edition=1st | publisher=Universitat de València | isbn=978-84-370-8321-6 | page=21}}</ref>

The Old English period is followed by [[Middle English]] (1150–1500), [[Early Modern English]] (1500–1650) and finally [[Modern English]] (after 1650), and in Scotland [[Early Scots]] (before 1450), [[Middle Scots]] ({{circa|1450–1700|lk=no}}) and [[Modern Scots]] (after 1700).

== Dialects ==
[[File:Old English Dialects.png|thumb|The dialects of Old English {{circa|800&nbsp;CE|lk=no}}]]
Just as [[Modern English]] is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a [[Standard language|written standard]] based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent [[English dialects|Modern English dialects]].{{sfnp|Campbell|1959|loc=§§5–22}}

The four main dialectal forms of Old English were [[Mercian dialect|Mercian]], [[Northumbrian Old English|Northumbrian]], [[Kentish Old English|Kentish]], and [[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]].{{sfnp|Campbell|1959|p=4}} Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as ''Anglian''. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the [[Thames]] and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} The term ''West Saxon'' actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named ''Alfredian Saxon'' and ''Æthelwoldian Saxon'', respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.

Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the [[River Tyne|Tyne]], and most of [[Mercia]], were [[Viking invasion of Britain|overrun by the Vikings]] during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]], were then integrated into Wessex under [[Alfred the Great]].
From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.

The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see {{slink||History}}), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/iy/}} tended to become monophthongised to {{IPA|/i/}} in EWS, but to {{IPA|/y/}} in LWS.{{sfnp|Hogg|1992|p=117}}

Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars.{{sfnp|Magennis|2011|pp=56–60}} Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while [[Scots language|Scots]] developed from the Northumbrian dialect.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the [[West Country dialects#History and origins|dialect of Somerset]].<ref>{{citation | last=Baynes | first=Thomas Spencer | year=1861 | orig-date=First published 1855 & 1856 | title=The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation. Two papers read before the Archeological society of Somersetshire |publisher=Strangeways & Walden | location=London | url=https://archive.org/details/somersetshiredi00bayngoog}}</ref>

== Influence of other languages ==
{{further|Celtic influence in English|Latin influence in English|Scandinavian influence in English}}
[[File:Her swutelað seo gecwydrædnes ðe.jpg|thumb|{{lang|ang|Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe}} ('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south [[porticus]] in the 10th&nbsp;century [[Breamore#St Mary's church|St Mary's parish church, Breamore]], Hampshire]]
The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native [[British Celtic languages]] which it [[Celtic language-death in England|largely displaced]]. The number of Celtic [[loanword]]s introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may have had on developments in English [[syntax]] in the post–Old English period, such as the regular [[progressive aspect|progressive]] construction and [[Analytic language|analytic word order]],<ref>{{cite web | last=Vennemann | first=Theo | date=7 November 2005 | title=English - a German dialect? | website=Rotary-munich.de | url=http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327012738/http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009}}</ref> as well as the eventual development of the [[periphrastic]] auxiliary verb ''[[Do-support|do]]''. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorised [[Brittonicisms in English|Brittonicisms]] do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.{{efn|Attributed to multiple sources:<ref>{{citation
|last=Insley | first=John | year=2018 | title=Britons and Anglo-Saxons | journal=Kulturelle Integration und Personennamen Im Mittelalter | location=Berlin, Boston | publisher=De Gruyter | pages=254–276 | doi=10.1515/9783110268850-011 | isbn=978-3-11-026885-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last=Koch | first=Anthony S. | year=1989 | title=Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do | journal=Language Change and Variation | editor-last1=Fasold | editor-first1=Ralph W. | editor-last2=Schiffrin | editor-first2=Deborah | volume=52 | url=https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kroch/papers/function-grammar-do.pdf | location=Amsterdam, Philadelphia | publisher=John Benjamins Publishing}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|last=Culicover | first=Peter W. | year=2008 | title=The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support | journal=Journal of Germanic Linguistics | volume=20 | issue=1 | url=https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/culicover.1/Publications/do.pdf | doi=10.1017/S1470542708000019 | pages=1–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|last=Elsness | first=Johan | year=1997 | title=On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English | journal=ICAME Journal | volume=18 | s2cid=13441465 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806012413/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/455f/5bdb18ddeb74a5c5015c733b4f0691bfe8f3.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{citation
| last=Alexiadou | first=Artemis | year=2008 | title=Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive | journal= | doi= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last=Millar | first=Robert McC. | year=2016  | title=Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English | chapter=English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | isbn=978-1-4744-3190-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last=Hoeksema | first=Jack | year=2003 | title=Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses | editor-last1=Riemsdijk  | editor-first1=H. van | editor-last2=Koster | editor-first2=J. | publisher=Universiteit Groningen | url=http://www.let.rug.nl/~koster/DenBesten/Hoeksema.pdf}}</ref>}}

Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from [[Latin]], which was the scholarly and diplomatic ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] and [[Saxons]] left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were [[Christianization of England|converted to Christianity]] and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the [[Latin alphabet]] was introduced and adapted for the [[#Orthography|writing of Old English]], replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly [[Old French]]) words into English occurred in the [[Middle English]] period.

Another source of loanwords was [[Old Norse]], which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the [[Danelaw]] from the late 9th&nbsp;century, and during the rule of [[Cnut]] and other Danish kings in the early 11th&nbsp;century. Many [[place names]] in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the [[West Saxon dialect]], away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in Middle English texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse influence.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Scott | first=Shay | year=2008 | title=The history of English: a linguistic introduction | publisher=Wardja | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1vj0-f_U1SQC&pg=PA86 | isbn=978-0-615-16817-3 |page=86}}</ref>{{sfnp|Jespersen|1923|pp=58–82}}

The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a [[synthetic language]] along the continuum to a more [[Analytic language|analytic word order]], and [[Old Norse]] most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-OiNxknXdY | title=Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20 | date=27 December 2014 | access-date=4 January 2016 | work=BBC | via=YouTube}}</ref> The eagerness of [[Vikings]] in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings.{{sfnp|Jespersen|1923|pp=58–82}}<ref>{{Cite book | title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language | last=Crystal | first=David | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1995 | page=32}}</ref>{{sfnp|McCrum|1987|pp=70–71}} Simeon Potter notes:
{{blockquote|No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength.<ref>{{Cite book | title=Our Language | last=Potter | first=Simeon | publisher=Penguin | year=1950 | location=Harmondsworth | pages=33}}</ref>}}

The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language{{snd}}[[pronoun]]s, [[English modal verbs|modals]], [[comparison (grammar)|comparatives]], [[pronominal adverb]]s (like ''hence'' and ''together''), [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] and [[English prepositions|prepositions]]{{snd}}show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}{{sfnp|Jespersen|1923|pp=58–82}} Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other;{{sfnp|Jespersen|1923|pp=58–82}} in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged.{{sfnp|McCrum|1987|pp=70–71}}<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adngAZ2iuRc |first=Charlene |last=Lohmeier |title=Evolution of the English Language |time=23:40–25:00; 30:20–30:45; 45:00–46:00 |date=28 October 2012 |via=Youtube}}</ref> It is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian languages differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Old English phonology}}
The inventory of [[Early West Saxon]] surface [[phone (phonetics)|phones]] is as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Consonants
! 
! scope="col" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! scope="col" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! scope="col" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! scope="col" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! scope="col" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! scope="col" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
|
| ({{IPA link|n̥}}) {{IPA link|n}}
|
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}})
|
|-
! scope="row" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
|
| {{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}} ({{IPA link|dʒ}})
| {{IPA link|k}} ({{IPA link|ɡ}})
|
|-
! scope="row" | [[Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}} ({{IPA link|v}})
| {{IPA link|θ}} ({{IPA link|ð}})
| {{IPA link|s}} ({{IPA link|z}})
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} ({{IPA link|ç}})
| {{IPA link|x}} {{IPA link|ɣ}}
| ({{IPA link|h}})
|-
! scope="row" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
| ({{IPA link|l̥}}) {{IPA link|l}}
| 
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | [[Approximant]]
|
|
| ({{IPA link|r̥}}) {{IPA link|r}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| ([[ʍ]]) {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be [[phoneme]]s:
* {{IPA|[dʒ]}} is an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/j/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} and when [[geminated]] (doubled).
* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} occurring before [k] and [ɡ].
* {{IPA|[v, ð, z]}} are voiced allophones of {{IPA|/f, θ, s/}} respectively, occurring between [[vowel]]s or [[voiced consonant]]s when the preceding sound was stressed.
* {{IPA|[h, ç]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/x/}} occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}
* {{IPA|[ɡ]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/ɣ/}} occurring after {{IPA|/n/}} or when doubled.{{sfnp|Campbell|1959|p=21}}{{sfnp|Ringe|Taylor|2014|p=4}} At some point before the Middle English period, {{IPA|[ɡ]}} also became the pronunciation word-initially.
* the [[Sonorant#Voiceless|voiceless sonorants]] {{IPA|[ʍ, l̥, n̥, r̥]}} occur after [h]{{sfnp|Kuhn|1970|pp=42–44}}{{sfnp|Hogg|1992|p=39}} in the sequences {{IPA|/xw, xl, xn, xr/}}.

The above system is largely similar to [[English phonology#Consonants|that of Modern English]], except that {{IPA|[ç, x, ɣ, l̥, n̥, r̥]}} (and {{IPA|[ʍ]}} for [[Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩|most speakers]]) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including {{IPA|/ʒ/}}) have become independent phonemes, as has {{IPA|/ŋ/}}.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Monophthongs
! rowspan="2" |
! scope="colgroup" colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! scope="colgroup" colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! scope="row" | <small>unrounded</small>
! scope="row" | <small>[[roundedness|rounded]]</small>
! scope="row" | <small>unrounded</small>
! scope="row" | <small>rounded</small>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}} || {{IPA link|y}} {{IPA link|yː}} || || {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}} || || || {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|æ}} {{IPA link|æː}} || || {{IPA link|ɑ}} {{IPA link|ɑː}} || ({{IPA link|ɒ}})
|}
The [[open back rounded vowel]] {{IPA|[ɒ]}} was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelt either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.

The Anglian dialects also had the [[mid front rounded vowel]] {{IPA|/ø(ː)/}}, spelled ⟨oe⟩, which had emerged from [[i-umlaut]] of {{IPA|/o(ː)/}}. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)/}} before the first written prose.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Diphthongs
! scope="col" | First<br />element
! scope="col" | Short<br />([[mora (linguistics)|monomoraic]])
! scope="col" | Long<br />(bimoraic)
|-
! scope="row" | Close
| {{IPA|iy̯}}
| {{IPA|iːy̯}}
|-
! scope="row" | Mid
| {{IPA|eo̯}}
| {{IPA|eːo̯}}
|-
! scope="row" | Open
| {{IPA|æɑ̯}}
| {{IPA|æːɑ̯}}
|}

Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}}, which had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in West Saxon.

=== Sound changes ===
{{Main|Phonological history of Old English}}
Some of the principal [[sound change]]s occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:
* Fronting of {{IPA|[ɑ(ː)]}} to {{IPA|[æ(ː)]}} except when [[nasal vowel|nasalised]] or followed by a [[nasal consonant]] ("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction.
* Monophthongisation of the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, and modification of remaining diphthongs to the [[height-harmonic]] type.
* Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").
* Palatalisation of velars {{IPA|[k], [ɡ], [ɣ], [sk]}} to {{IPA|[tʃ], [dʒ], [j], [ʃ]}} in certain front-vowel environments.
* The process known as [[Germanic umlaut#I-mutation in Old English|i-mutation]] (which for example led to modern ''mice'' as the plural of ''mouse'').
* Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.
* Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").
* Loss of {{IPA|/x/}} between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.
* Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.
* "Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as ''six'' (compare German {{lang|de|sechs}}).

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Old English grammar}}

=== Morphology ===
Nouns [[declension|decline]] for five [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]]; three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two [[grammatical number|numbers]]: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the [[dative]]. Only [[pronoun]]s and strong adjectives retain separate [[instrumental case|instrumental]] forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the [[locative]]. The evidence comes from Northumbrian [[Runic]] texts (e.g. {{lang|ang-Runr|ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ}} {{lang|ang|on rodi}} 'on the Cross').{{sfnp|Page|1973|p=230}}

Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak. Pronouns and sometimes [[participle]]s agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-[[grammatical person|person]] pronouns occasionally distinguish [[dual (grammatical number)|dual-number]] forms. The [[definite article]] {{lang|ang|sē}} and its [[inflection]]s serve as a [[definite article]] (''the''), a [[demonstrative adjective]] (''that''), and [[demonstrative pronoun]]. Other demonstratives are {{lang|ang|þēs}} ("this"), and {{lang|ang|ġeon}} ("that over there"). These words inflect for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive [[determiner]] is also present.

Verbs [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugate]] for three [[grammatical person|persons]]: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two [[tenses]]: present, and past; three [[grammatical mood|moods]]: [[grammatical mood#indicative|indicative]], [[subjunctive]], and [[imperative mood|imperative]];<ref name="EncyclopediaofBritishLiterature">{{cite web |title=''Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature'' |url=http://www.credoreference.com/entry/britlit/old_english |publisher=Continuum}}</ref> and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two [[infinitive]] forms: bare and bound; and two [[participle]]s: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with [[subject (grammar)|subjects]] in person and number. The [[future tense]], [[passive voice]], and other [[grammatical aspect|aspects]] are formed with compounds. [[Adpositions]] are mostly before but are often after their object. If the [[object (grammar)|object]] of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.

Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the [[English personal pronouns|forms of a few pronouns]] (such as ''I/me/mine'', ''she/her'', ''[[Who (pronoun)|who/whom/whose]]'') and in the [[English possessive|possessive]] ending ''-'s'', which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending ''-es''. The modern [[English plural]] ending ''-(e)s'' derives from the Old English ''-as'', but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had [[grammatical gender]], while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of the grammatically neuter (but naturally feminine) noun {{lang|ang|ƿīf}} ({{IPA|/wiːf/|wrap=none|lang=ang}}), which meant "woman" (from {{lang|ang|ƿīfmann}}, {{Lit|woman person|female person}}) and became Modern English ''wife''.

In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the [[Uses of English verb forms|compound tenses of Modern English]].{{sfnp|Mitchell|Robinson|2001|pp=109–112}} Old English verbs include [[Germanic strong verb|strong verbs]], which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and [[Germanic weak verb|weak verbs]], which use a suffix such as {{lang|ang|-de}}.<ref name="EncyclopediaofBritishLiterature" /> As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in ''work'' and ''worked''.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}

=== Syntax ===
Old English [[syntax]] is similar to [[English grammar|that of modern English]]. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer [[word order]].
* Default word order is [[verb-second]] in [[independent clause|main clauses]], and verb-final in [[subordinate clause]]s<ref>{{cite journal | last=Heggelund | first=Øystein | year=2007 | title=Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English | journal=English Studies | volume=88 | issue=3 | doi=10.1080/00138380701270572 | pages=351–361}}</ref>
* No [[do-support|''do''-support]] in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by [[inversion (linguistics)|inverting]] [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and [[finite verb]], and negatives by placing ''ne'' before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.
* Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other ([[negative concord]]).
* Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a ''wh-''type conjunction, but rather a ''th-''type [[correlative conjunction]] such as {{lang|ang|þā}}, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. {{lang|ang|þā X, þā Y}} in place of "when X, Y"). The ''wh-''words (or "hw-words" in Old English's case) are used only as [[interrogative]]s and as [[indefinite pronouns]].
* Similarly, ''wh-''forms were not used as [[relative pronoun]]s; instead, the indeclinable word {{lang|ang|þe}} is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative {{lang|ang|se}}.

== Orthography ==
{{Anchor|alphabet}}
{{Main|Anglo-Saxon runes|Old English Latin alphabet}}
[[File:Anglosaxonrunes.svg|upright=1.15|thumb|The [[runic alphabet]] used to write Old English before the introduction of the [[Latin alphabet]]]]

Old English was first written in [[runes]], using the [[futhorc]]{{snd}}a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character [[elder futhark]], extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) [[half-uncial]] script of the [[Latin alphabet]] introduced by [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish Christian]] missionaries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |year=1987 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencycl000crys |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26438-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencycl000crys/page/203 203]}}</ref> This was replaced by [[Insular script]], a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental [[Carolingian minuscule]] (also known as ''Caroline'') replaced the insular.

The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters {{vr|j}} and {{vr|w}}, and there was no {{vr|v}} as distinct from {{vr|u}}; moreover native Old English spellings did not use {{vr|k}}, {{vr|q}} or {{vr|z}}. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by 4 more: {{vr|[[æ]]}} ({{lang|ang|æsc}}, modern ''ash'') and {{vr|ð}} ({{lang|ang|ðæt}}, now called [[eth]] or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] {{vr|þ}} and [[wynn]] {{vr|ƿ}}, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]], representing a single sound. Also used was the [[Tironian note]] {{vr|⁊}} (a character similar to the digit {{vr|7}}) for the [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''and''. A common [[scribal abbreviation]] was a [[thorn with stroke|thorn with a stroke]] {{vr|ꝥ}}, which was used for the pronoun {{lang|ang|þæt}} (''that''). [[Macron (diacritic)|Macrons]] over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following {{vr|m}} or {{vr|n}}.{{sfnp|Millward|Hayes|2011|p=96}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Pollington | first=Stephen | year=1997 | title=First Steps in Old English | publisher=Anglo-Saxon Books | edition=2nd | isbn=978-1-898281-19-1 | page=138 }}</ref>

Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including {{vr|g}} instead of [[insular G|insular ''G'']], {{vr|s}} instead of [[insular S|insular ''S'']] and [[long S|long ''S'']], and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably {{vr|e}}, {{vr|f}} and {{vr|r}}. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an [[acute accent]] mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between [[Velar consonant|velar]] and [[palatal consonant|palatal]] {{vr|c}} and {{vr|g}} by placing dots above the palatals: {{vr|ċ}}, {{vr|ġ}}. The letter wynn {{vr|ƿ}} is usually replaced with {{vr|w}}, but {{vr|æ}}, {{vr|ð}} and {{vr|þ}} are normally retained{{snd}}except when {{vr|ð}} is replaced by {{vr|þ}}.

In contrast with modern [[English orthography]], Old English spelling was reasonably [[regular spelling|regular]], with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and [[phoneme]]s. There were not usually any [[silent letter]]s{{snd}}in the word {{lang|ang|cniht}}, for example, both the {{vr|c}} and {{vr|h}} were pronounced ({{IPA|/knixt ~ kniçt/}}) unlike the {{vr|k}} and {{vr|gh}} in the modern ''knight'' ({{IPA|/naɪt/}}). One exception was the occasional insertion of a silent {{vr|e}} between a palatal consonant and an immediately following back vowel. While most of the sound changes that produced palatal consonants had occurred only before front vowels (and sometimes before {{IPA|/j/}}), later sound changes often deleted the responsible front vowel or {{IPA|/j/}}, resulting in a palatal consonant occurring in a "forbidden" position, i.e. before a back vowel. Additionally, certain cases of {{IPA|/j/}} were inherited directly from Proto-Germanic rather than occurring due to palatalisation of {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, and so could freely occur before back vowels. To avoid ambiguity, scribes occasionally inserted the silent {{vr|e}} to mark the "forbidden" palatal{{snd}}for example, the verb {{lang|ang|smēaġan}} ({{IPA|/ˈsmæ͜ɑː.jɑn/}}), which retains an inherited {{IPA|/j/}}, was sometimes written as {{vr|smeagean}}.

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | OE !! scope="col" | Variants in modern editions !! scope="col" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription !! scope="col" | Notes
|-
! rowspan="2" | a
! scope="row" | a
| {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
| Spelling variations like {{vr|land}} ~ {{vr|lond}} ("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded [[allophone]] {{IPA|[ɒ]}} before {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} when it occurred in stressed syllables.
|-
! scope="row" | ā
| {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ā}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/ɑː/}} from short {{IPA|/ɑ/}}.
|-
! rowspan="3" | æ
! scope="row" | æ
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
| rowspan="2" | Formerly the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|ae}} was used; {{vr|æ}} became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use {{vr|ǣ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æː/}} from short {{IPA|/æ/}}.
|-
! scope="row" | ǣ
| {{IPA|/æː/}}
|-
! scope="row" | ę
| {{IPA|/æ/}}, {{IPA|/æː/}}
| In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of {{vr|æ}} that was missing the upper hook of the {{vr|a}} part was used; it is not clear whether this represented {{IPA|/æ/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}. The symbol {{vr|ę}} is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of {{vr|æ}}. Compare [[e caudata]], {{vr|[[ę]]}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | b
| {{IPA|/b/}} ||
|-
| {{IPA|[v]}} (an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}})
| Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word ''sheaves'' is spelled {{lang|ang|scēabas}} in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as {{lang|ang|scēafas}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | c
! scope="row" | c
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| rowspan="2"| The {{IPA|/tʃ/}} pronunciation is sometimes written with a [[diacritic]] by modern editors: most commonly {{vr|ċ}}, sometimes {{vr|č}} or {{vr|ç}}. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always {{IPA|/k/}}; word-finally after {{vr|i}} it is always {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before [[front vowel]]s (other than {{IPA|[y]}}) and {{IPA|/k/}} elsewhere.
|-
! scope="row" | ċ
| {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | cg
! scope="row" | cg
| {{IPA|[ɡɡ]}} (between vowels; rare), <br />{{IPA|[ɡ]}} (after {{IPA|/n/}})
| rowspan="2" | Proto-Germanic *g was palatalised when it underwent [[West Germanic gemination]], resulting in the voiced palatal geminate {{IPA|[ddʒ]}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/jj/}}). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate {{IPA|[ɡɡ]}} (which can be phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/ɣɣ/}}) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as {{lang|ang|frocga}} 'frog') is unclear.{{sfnp|Minkova|2014|p=79}} Alternative spellings of either geminate included {{vr|gg}}, {{vr|gc}}, {{vr|cgg}}, {{vr|ccg}} and {{vr|gcg}}.{{sfnp|Wełna|1986|p=755}}{{sfnp|Shaw|2012|p=51}} The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written {{vr|ċġ}} to distinguish it from velar {{vr|cg}}.{{sfnp|Hogg|1992|p=91}}

After {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/j/}} was realised as {{IPA|[dʒ]}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} was realised as {{IPA|[ɡ]}}. The spellings {{vr|ncg}}, {{vr|ngc}} and even {{vr|ncgg}} were occasionally used instead of the usual {{vr|ng}}.{{sfnp|Wełna|1986|pp=754–755}} The addition of {{vr|c}} to {{vr|g}} in spellings such as {{vr|cynincg}} and {{vr|cyningc}} for {{vr|cyning}} may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just {{vr|nc}} such as {{vr|cyninc}} are also found.{{sfnp|Fulk|2014|pp=68–69}} To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written {{vr|nċġ}} (or {{vr|nġċ}}) by modern editors.{{sfnp|Fulk|2014|pp=69}}
|-
! scope="row" | ċġ
| {{IPA|[ddʒ]}} (between vowels), <br />{{IPA|[dʒ]}} (after {{IPA|/n/}})
|-
! colspan="2" | d
| {{IPA|/d/}}
| In the earliest texts it also represented {{IPA|/θ/}}. See {{vr|þ}}.
|-
! scope="row" | ð
! scope="row" | ð, þ
| {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[ð]}}
| Called {{lang|ang|ðæt}} in Old English; now called ''[[eth]]'' or ''edh''. Derived from the [[insular script|insular]] form of {{vr|d}} with the addition of a cross-bar. Both {{vr|þ}} and {{vr|ð}} could represent either allophone of {{IPA|/θ/}}, voiceless {{IPA|[θ]}} or voiced {{IPA|[ð]}}, but some texts show a tendency to use {{vr|þ}} at the start of words and {{vr|ð}} in the middle or at the end of a word.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Flom | first=George T. | year=1915 | title=On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway | journal=Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study | volume=2 | issue=2 |page=94 | jstor=40914943 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> Some modern editors replace {{vr|ð}} with {{vr|þ}} as a form of normalisation and means of imposing consistency. See {{vr|þ}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | e
! scope="row" | e
| {{IPA|/e/}}||
|-
! scope="row" | ē
| {{IPA|/eː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ē}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eː/}} from short {{IPA|/e/}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | ea
! scope="row" | ea
| {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}}
| Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑ/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}
|-
! scope="row" | ēa
| {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ēa}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/æːɑ̯/}} from short {{IPA|/æɑ̯/}}. Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/ɑː/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | eo
! eo
| {{IPA|/eo̯/}}
| Sometimes stands for {{IPA|/o/}} after {{vr|ċ}} or {{vr|ġ}}
|-
! scope="row" | ēo
| {{IPA|/eːo̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ēo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/eːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/eo̯/}}.
|-
! colspan="2" | f
| {{IPA|/f/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[v]}}
| See also {{vr|b}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | g
! scope="row" | g
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| rowspan="2" | In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its [[insular G|insular form]] {{vr|ᵹ}}. The {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}} pronunciations are sometimes written {{vr|ġ}} in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}}. Word-finally after {{angle bracket|i}}, it is always palatal {{IPA|[j]}}. Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly {{IPA|/j/}} before and after [[front vowel]]s (other than {{IPA|[y]}}) and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} elsewhere.
|-
! scope="row" | ġ
| {{IPA|/j/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[dʒ]}}, which occurs after {{vr|n}}
|-
! colspan="2" | h
| {{IPA|/x/}}, including its allophones {{IPA|[h, ç]}}
| The combinations {{vr|hl}}, {{vr|hr}}, {{vr|hn}}, {{vr|hw}} may have been realised as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with {{IPA|[h]}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | i
! scope="row" | i
| {{IPA|/i/}}, rarely {{IPA|[j]}} || Although the spelling {{vr|g}} is used for the palatal consonant {{IPA|/j/}} from the earliest Old English texts, the letter {{vr|i}} is also found as a minority spelling of {{IPA|/j/}}. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use {{vr|ri}} rather than {{vr|rg}} to spell the {{IPA|/rj/}} sequence found in verbs like ''herian'' and ''swerian'', whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used {{vr|rg}} in the spelling of these words.{{sfnp|Kuhn|1970|p=45}}
|-
! scope="row" | ī
| {{IPA|/iː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ī}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iː/}} from short {{IPA|/i/}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | ie
! scope="row" | ie
| {{IPA|/iy̯/}}
|
|-
! scope="row" | īe
| {{IPA|/iːy̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|īe}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːy̯/}} from short {{IPA|/iy̯/}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | io
! scope="row" | io
| {{IPA|/io̯/}}
| By the time of the first written prose, {{IPA|/i(ː)o̯/}} had merged with {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon {{IPA|/e(ː)o̯/}} was often written {{vr|io}} instead of {{vr|eo}}, but by Late West Saxon only the {{vr|eo}} spelling remained common.
|-
! scope="row" | īo
| {{IPA|/iːo̯/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|īo}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/iːo̯/}} from short {{IPA|/io̯/}}.
|-
! colspan="2" | k
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by {{vr|c}}.
|-
! colspan="2" | l
| {{IPA|/l/}}
| Probably [[dark l|velarised]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}} (as in Modern English) when in [[Syllable coda|coda]] position.
|-
! colspan="2" | m
| {{IPA|/m/}} ||
|-
! colspan="2" | n
| {{IPA|/n/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| The allophone {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurred before a velar plosive ({{IPA|[k]}} or {{IPA|[ɡ]}}).
|-
! rowspan="2" | o
! scope="row" | o
| {{IPA|/o/}}
| See also {{vr|a}}.
|-
! scope="row" | ō
| {{IPA|/oː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ō}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/oː/}} from short {{IPA|/o/}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | oe
! scope="row" | oe, œ
| {{IPA|/ø/}}
| rowspan="2"| Only occurs in some dialects. Written as {{vr|oe}} in Old English manuscripts, but some modern editions use the ligature {{vr|œ}} to indicate that it is a single vowel sound. Modern editions use {{vr|ōe}} or {{vr|œ̄}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/øː/}} from short {{IPA|/ø/}}.
|-
! scope="row" | ōe, œ̄
| {{IPA|/øː/}}
|-
! colspan="2" | p
| {{IPA|/p/}} ||
|-
! colspan="2" | qu
| {{IPA|/kw/}}
| A rare spelling of {{IPA|/kw/}}, which was usually written as {{vr|cƿ}} ({{vr|cw}} in modern editions).
|-
! colspan="2" | r
| {{IPA|/r/}}
| The exact nature of Old English {{IPA|/r/}} is not known; it may have been an [[alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} as in most modern English, an [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, or an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}.
|-
! colspan="2" | s
| {{IPA|/s/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[z]}} ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | sc
! scope="row" | sc
| {{IPA|/sk/}} (rare){{sfnp|Ringe|Taylor|2014|p=4}}
| rowspan="2" | At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalised {{lang|ang|sċ}} {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalised geminate {{IPA|/ʃː/}}, as in {{lang|ang|fisċere}} {{IPA|/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/}} ('fisherman') and {{lang|ang|wȳsċan}}, {{IPA|/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn}} ('to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence {{IPA|/sk/}}, as in {{lang|ang|āscian}} {{IPA|/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/}} ('to ask'). The pronunciation {{IPA|/sk/}} occurs when {{vr|sc}} had been followed by a back vowel ({{IPA|/ɑ/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) at the time of palatalisation,{{sfnp|Hogg|1992|p=257}} as illustrated by the contrast between {{lang|ang|fisċ}} {{IPA|/fiʃ/}} ('fish') and its plural {{lang|ang|fiscas}} {{IPA|/ˈfis.kɑs/}}. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty.

In word-final position, the pronunciation of {{lang|ang|sċ}} was either {{IPA|/ʃ/}} or possibly {{IPA|/ʃː/}} when the preceding vowel was short.{{sfnp|Ringe|Taylor|2014|p=4}}
|-
! scope="row" | sċ
| {{IPA|/ʃː/}} (between vowels),<br />{{IPA|/ʃ/}} (elsewhere)
|-
! colspan="2" | t
| {{IPA|/t/}} ||
|-
! colspan="2" | th
| {{IPA|/θ/}}
| Represented {{IPA|/θ/}} in the earliest texts (see {{vr|þ}})
|-
! colspan="2" | þ
| {{IPA|/θ/}}, including its allophone {{IPA|[ð]}}
| Called ''[[thorn (letter)|thorn]]'' and derived from [[Thurisaz|a rune of the same name]]. In the earliest texts {{vr|d}} or {{vr|th}} was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth {{vr|ð}} and thorn {{vr|þ}}. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before the time of Alfred. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn.
|-
! rowspan="2" | u
! scope="row" | u
| {{IPA|/u/}}, also sometimes {{IPA|/w/}}. See {{vr|ƿ}}. ||
|-
! scope="row" | ū
| {{IPA|/uː/}} ||Modern editions use {{vr|ū}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/uː/}} from short {{IPA|/u/}}.
|-
! scope="row" | uu
! rowspan="2" | w
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/w/}}
| rowspan="2" | Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound {{IPA|/w/}} with the letter {{vr|ƿ}}, called ''[[wynn]]'' and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north, {{IPA|/w/}} was represented by {{vr|u}} or {{vr|uu}}. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by {{vr|w}}, to prevent confusion with {{vr|p}}.
|-
! scope="row" | ƿ
|-
! colspan="2" | x
| {{IPA|/ks/}} ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | y
! scope="row" | y
| {{IPA|/y/}} ||
|-
! scope="row" | ȳ
| {{IPA|/yː/}}
| Modern editions use {{vr|ȳ}} to distinguish long {{IPA|/yː/}} from short {{IPA|/y/}}.
|-
! colspan="2" | z
| {{IPA|/ts/}}
| A rare spelling for {{IPA|/ts/}}; e.g. {{lang|ang|betst}} ('best') is occasionally spelt {{lang|ang|bezt}}.
|}

Doubled consonants are [[geminated]]; the geminate fricatives {{vr|ff}}, {{vr|ss}} and {{vr|ðð}}/{{vr|þþ}}/{{vr|ðþ}}/{{vr|þð}} are always voiceless {{IPA|[ff]}}, {{IPA|[ss]}}, {{IPA|[θθ]}}.

== Literature ==
{{Main|Old English literature}}
[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|The first page of the ''Beowulf'' manuscript with its opening<br />{{lang|ang|Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...}}<br />"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the nation-kings..."]]

The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts.{{sfnp|Ker|1990}} The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's ''Anglo-Saxon Reader'', James Hulbert writes:

{{blockquote|In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.}}

Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are ''[[Beowulf]]'', an [[epic poem]]; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', a record of early English history; the [[Franks Casket]], an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and [[Cædmon's Hymn]], a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as [[Bede]] and [[Cædmon]]. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}}

=== ''Beowulf'' ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}
The first example is taken from the opening lines of ''Beowulf'', a work with around 3,000 lines.{{sfnp|Baugh|1960|pp=60–83, 110–130}} This passage describes how [[Hrothgar]]'s legendary ancestor [[Scyld]] was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem.

The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. ''What'' is used by the poet where a word like ''lo'' or ''behold'' would be expected. This usage is similar to ''what-ho!'', both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.

English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with {{lang|ang|'''G'''ār-Dena}} and {{lang|ang|'''ġ'''eār-dagum}}. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with {{lang|ang|'''æ'''þelingas}} and {{lang|ang|'''e'''llen}}. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded.

{| cellspacing="10"
! scope="col" | {{numero}}
! scope="col" style="width:35%" | Original
! scope="col" style="width:65%" | Representation with constructed [[cognate]]s
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 1 || {{lang|ang|Hƿæt! ƿē '''G'''ār-Dena in '''ġ'''eār-dagum,}}
| What! We of Gare-Danes''' (lit. Spear-Danes)''' in yore-days,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''þ'''ēod-cyninga, '''þ'''rym ġefrūnon,}}
| of thede''' (nation/people)'''-kings, did thrum''' (glory)''' frain''' (learn about by asking)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|hū ðā '''æ'''þelingas '''e'''llen fremedon.}}
| how those athelings''' (noblemen)''' did ellen '''(fortitude/courage/zeal)''' freme''' (promote)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|Oft '''Sc'''yld '''Sc'''ēfing '''sc'''eaþena þrēatum,}}
| Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats''' (troops)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 5 || {{lang|ang|'''m'''onegum '''m'''ǣġþum, '''m'''eodosetla oftēah,}}
| of many maegths''' (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)''', of meadsettees atee '''(deprive)''',
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''e'''gsode '''eo'''rlas. Syððan '''ǣ'''rest ƿearð}}
| [and] ugg''' (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")''' earls. Sith '''(since, as of when)''' erst''' (first)''' [he] worthed''' (became)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''f'''ēasceaft '''f'''unden, hē þæs '''f'''rōfre ġebād,}}
| [in] fewship''' (destitute)''' found, he of this frover''' (comfort)''' abode,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''ƿ'''ēox under '''ƿ'''olcnum, '''ƿ'''eorðmyndum þāh,}}
| [and] waxed under welkin''' (firmament/clouds)''', [and amid] worthmint''' (honour/worship)''' theed''' (throve/prospered)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''o'''ðþæt him '''ǣ'''ġhƿylc þāra '''y'''mbsittendra}}
| oth that''' (until that)''' him each of those umsitters''' (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)'''
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 10 || {{lang|ang|ofer '''h'''ronrāde '''h'''ȳran scolde,}}
| over whaleroad''' (''[[kenning]]'' for "sea")''' hear should,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| || {{lang|ang|'''g'''omban '''g'''yldan. Þæt ƿæs '''g'''ōd cyning!}}
| [and] yeme '''(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")''' yield. That was [a] good king!
|}

Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:

{{blockquote|What! We Spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the kings of the nation, how the princes performed bravery.

Often, Shield, the son of Sheaf, ripped away the meadbenches
from many tribes' enemy bands — he terrified men!

After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whaleroad, and pay tribute to the man. That was a good king!}}

=== The Lord's Prayer ===
{{original research section|date=December 2024}}
[[File:Faederureaudio2.ogg|thumb|left|A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly]]
{{Clear}}
This text of the [[Lord's Prayer]] is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
! Line || Original || [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] || Word-for-word translation into Modern English || Translation
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 1 ||{{lang|ang|Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,}}
| {{IPA|[ˈfæ.der ˈuː.re <nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈθuː ðe ˌæɑ̯rt on ˈheo̯.vo.num]}}
|Father Ours, thou which art in heavens,
|Our Father, who art in heaven,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 2 || {{lang|ang|Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.}}
| {{IPA|[ˈsiːy̯ ðiːn ˈnɒ.mɑ jeˈhɑːɫ.ɣod]}}
| Be thine name hallowed.
| Hallowed be thy name.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 3 || {{lang|ang|Tōbecume þīn rīċe,}}
| {{IPA|[ˌtoː.beˈku.me ˌθiːn ˈriː.t͡ʃe]}}
|To be come [is] thine kingdom,
|Thy kingdom come,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 4 || {{lang|ang|Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.}}
| {{IPA|[jeˈweo̯rˠ.ðe ˌθiːn ˈwil.lɑ <nowiki>|</nowiki> on ˈeo̯rˠ.ðan ˈswɑː ˌswɑː on ˈheo̯.vo.num]}}
| Let there be thine will, on earth so so in heavens.
| Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 5 || {{lang|ang|Ūrne dæġhwamlīċan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,}}
| {{IPA|[ˌuːrˠ.ne ˈdæj.ʍɑmˌliː.t͡ʃɑn ˈhl̥ɑːf <nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈse.le ˌuːs toːˈdæj]}}
| Our daily loaf sell us today,
| Give us this day our daily bread,
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 6 || {{lang|ang|And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.}}
| {{IPA|[ˌɒnd forˠˈjiy̯v uːs ˌuː.re ˈɣyɫ.tɑs <nowiki>|</nowiki> ˈswɑː ˌswɑː weː forˠˈjiy̯.vɑθ ˌuː.rum ˈɣyɫ.ten.dum]}}
| And forgive us our guilts, so so we forgiveth our guilters.
| And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 7 || {{lang|ang|And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.}}
| {{IPA|[ˌɒnd ne jeˈlæːd ðuː ˌuːz oŋ ˈkost.nuŋ.ɡe <nowiki>|</nowiki> ɑk ɑːˈliːy̯z uːs of ˈy.ve.le]}}
| And not lead thou us in costening, but alease us of evil.
| And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| 8 || {{lang|ang|Sōðlīċe.}}
| {{IPA|[ˈsoːðˌliː.t͡ʃe]}}
| Soothly.
| Amen.
|}

=== Charter of Cnut ===
This is a proclamation from [[Cnut]] to his earl [[Thorkell the Tall]] and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the [[pilcrow]]s represent the original division.

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Original
! scope="col" style="width:50%" | Representation with constructed cognates
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.}}
|    ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede''''(people's)''''-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his '''''people'''''ship, '''''greater''''' '''(having a 1200 [[shilling]] [[weregild]])''' and '''''lesser''''' '''(200 shilling weregild)''', hooded'''(ordained to priesthood)''' and lewd'''(lay)''', in England friendly.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.}}
| And I kithe'''(make known/couth to)''' you, that I will be [a] hold'''(civilised)''' lord and unswiking'''(uncheating)''' to God's rights'''(laws)''' and to [the] rights'''(laws)''' worldly.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan ƿolde.}}
|    ¶ I nam'''(took)''' me to mind the writs and the word that the [[Archbishop Lyfing]] me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere'''(everywhere)''' God's love'''(praise)''' uprear'''(promote)''', and unright'''(outlaw)''' lies, and full frith'''(peace)''' work'''(bring about)''' by the might that me God would'''(wished)''' [to] sell''''(give)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
|    ¶ {{lang|ang|Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.}}
|    ¶ Now, ne went'''(withdrew/changed)''' I not my shot'''(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)''' the while that you stood'''(endured)''' unfrith'''(turmoil)''' on-hand: now I, mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', that [unfrith] totwemed'''(separated/dispelled)''' mid'''(with)''' my shot'''(financial contribution)'''.
|- style="vertical-align: top"
| {{lang|ang|Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.}}
| Tho'''(then)''' [a] man kithed'''(made known/couth to)''' me that us more harm '''''had''''' found'''(come upon)''' than us well liked'''(equalled)''': and tho'''(then)''' fore'''(travelled)''' I, meself, mid'''(with)''' those men that mid'''(with)''' me fore'''(travelled)''', into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of'''(from)''': and that[harm] have [I], mid'''(with)''' God's '''''support''''', afore'''(previously)''' forefangen'''(forestalled)''' that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith'''(breach of peace)''' ne come the while that ye me rightly hold'''(behold as king)''' and my life beeth.
|}

The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:

{{blockquote|King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.

And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.

I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.

I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.

At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard me rightly and my life persists.}}

== Dictionaries ==
=== Early history ===
The earliest history of Old English [[lexicography]] lies in the Anglo-Saxon period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English [[glosses]] on Latin texts. At first, these were often [[marginalia|marginal]] or [[interlinear]] glosses; however, they soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the [[Épinal-Erfurt glossary|Épinal-Erfurt]], [[Leiden Glossary|Leiden]] and [[Corpus Glossary|Corpus]] Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabetised to create extensive Latin–Old English glossaries with some of the character of dictionaries, such as the [[Cleopatra Glossaries]], the [[Harley Glossary]] and the [[Brussels Glossary]].<ref>{{cite book | first=Lendinara | last=Patrizia | year=1999 | chapter=An Introduction | title=Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries |publisher=Variorum | location=Aldershot | series=Variorum Collected Studies | isbn=978-0-86078-672-6 | pages=1–26}}</ref> In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in [[Middle English]] glossaries, such as the [[Durham Plant-Name Glossary]] and the [[Laud Herbal Glossary]].<ref>{{cite journal | year=1941 | title=Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish | language=German | trans-title=The Durham Plant-Name Glossary: Latin and English | editor-first=Bogislav von | editor-last=Lindheim | journal=Beiträge zur englischen Philologie | volume=35 | location=Bochum-Langendreer | publisher=Poppinghaus}}</ref>

Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was [[William Somner]]'s ''Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Somner | first=William | chapter=Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum | title=English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints) | year=1971 | orig-date=1659 | editor-last=Alston | editor-first=R. C. | location=Menston | publisher=The Scholar Press | url=https://archive.org/details/dalgariodidascal0000unse | url-access=registration}}</ref> The next substantial Old English dictionary was [[Joseph Bosworth (scholar)|Joseph Bosworth]]'s ''Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' of 1838.

=== Modern ===
In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:
* [[Angus Cameron (academic)|Cameron, Angus]], et al. (ed.) (1983–). ''[[Dictionary of Old English]]''. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at [https://www.doe.utoronto.ca/ https://www.doe.utoronto.ca]. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.
* [[Joseph Bosworth (scholar)|Bosworth, Joseph]] and [[T. Northcote Toller]]. (1898). ''[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]]''. Oxford: Clarendon. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the ''Dictionary of Old English''. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at [http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/ http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/]. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
** T. Northcote Toller. (1921). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement''. Oxford: Clarendon.
** Alistair Campbell (1972). ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda''. Oxford: Clarendon.
* [[Clark Hall, J. R.]] (1969). ''A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary''. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including [https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/oe_clarkhall_about.html here].
* Roberts, Jane and [[Christian Kay]], with Lynne Grundy, ''A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes'', Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available [https://oldenglishthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/ online]. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of ''[[Roget's Thesaurus]]''.

Though focused on later periods, the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', ''[[Middle English Dictionary]]'', ''[[Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue]]'', and ''[[Historical Thesaurus of English]]'' all also include material relevant to Old English.

== Modern legacy ==
Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include [[Alistair Campbell (academic)|Alistair Campbell]] and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Robinson | first=Fred C. | year=1993 | chapter=The Afterlife of Old English | title=The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | isbn=978-0-631-17328-1 | pages=275–303}}</ref> [[Ransom Riggs]] uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of [[linguistic purism in English]] often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.

A number of websites devoted to [[Modern Paganism]] and [[historical reenactment]] offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an [[:ang:Hēafodtramet|Old English version of Wikipedia]]. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.<ref>{{Cite book | last1=Neuland | first1= Christina | last2=Schleburg | first2=Florian | year=2014 | chapter=A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet | editor-last1=Buschfeld | editor-first1=S. | editor-last2=Kautzsch | editor-first2=A. | editor-last3=Hoffman | editor-first3=Th. | editor-last4=Hubert | editor-first4=M. | display-editors=1 | title=The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond | location=Amsterdam | publisher=John Benjamins | isbn=978-90-272-4909-8 | pages=486–504}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Anglo-Saxon England}}
* [[Anglish]]
* [[Exeter Book]]
* [[Go (verb)]]
* [[History of the Scots language]]
* [[I-mutation]]
* [[Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law]]
* [[List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland]]
* [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist| refs=
}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
{{divcol}}

* {{Cite book | last=McCrum | first=Robert | year=1987 | title=The Story of English | publisher=Faber & Faber | location=London | isbn=978-0-571-14908-7}}
* {{Cite book | last=Jespersen | first=Otto | year=1923 | orig-date=1919 | title=Growth and Structure of the English Language | edition=4th | url=https://ia902909.us.archive.org/18/items/growthstructureo00jesp/growthstructureo00jesp_bw.pdf | publisher=D. Appelton and co. | location=New York}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Whitelock | editor-first=Dorothy | editor-link=Dorothy Whitelock | year=1955 | series=English Historical Documents |url=https://archive.org/details/englishhistorica0000doro |url-access=registration | title=c.500–1042 | volume=I | place=London | publisher=[[Eyre & Spottiswoode]]}}

=== General ===
* {{cite book | last=Baker | first=Peter S. | title=Introduction to Old English | publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] | year=2003 | isbn=0-631-23454-3}}
* {{Cite book |title=A History of the English Language | last=Baugh | first=Albert | year=1960 | publisher=Allied Publishers | edition=2nd | orig-date=1951 | location=New Delhi | url=https://ia801503.us.archive.org/21/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.136525/2015.136525.A-History-Of-The-English-Language_text.pdf}}
* {{cite book | last=Campbell |first=Alistair | author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |year=1959 |title=Old English Grammar | edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishgramma00camp/mode/2up |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press}} {{ISBN|978-0-19-811901-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Earle |first=John |title=A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon |publisher=Evolution |place=Bristol, PA |year=2005 |isbn=1-889758-69-8}} (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
* {{cite book | author-link=Wolfram Euler| last=Euler | first=Wolfram | year=2013 | title=Das Westgermanische: von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion | trans-title=West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction | language=German |publisher=Inspiration Un Limited | location=London/ Berlin | isbn=978-3-9812110-7-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fulk |first1=Robert D. | year=2014 | title=An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings | publisher=ACMRS Press |location=Tempe, Arizona | isbn=978-0-86698-514-7}}
* {{cite book | editor-first1=Richard | editor-last1=Hogg | editor-first2=David | editor-last2=Denison | year=2006 | title=A history of the English language | publisher=Cambridge University Press | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511791154 | isbn=978-0-521-66227-7}}
* {{cite book | author-link=Jespersen, Otto | last=Jespersen | first=Otto | year=1909–1949 | title=[[A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles]] | volume=I—VII | location=Heidelberg/ Cophenhagen | publisher=C. Winter/ Ejnar Munksgaard}}
* {{cite book | last=Lass | first=Roger | year=1987 | title=[[The Shape of English: structure and history]] | location=London | publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons | isbn=978-0-460-04684-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |title=Old English: A historical linguistic companion |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-521-43087-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Magennis |first=Hugh | title=The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature | url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeintrodu0000mage | url-access=subscription |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-73465-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Millward | first1=Celia |last2=Hayes |first2=Mary | title=A Biography of the English Language | edition=3rd | publisher=Cengage learning | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-495-90641-4}}
* {{cite book | last1=Mitchell | first1=Bruce | last2=Robinson | first2=Fred C. | title=A Guide to Old English | edition=6th | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-631-22636-9}}
* {{cite book | last1=Quirk | first1=Randolph |  last2=Wrenn | first2= C. L. | year=1957 | title=An Old English Grammar | url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishgramma0000rand | url-access=subscription | edition=2nd | location=London | publisher=Methuen | series=Methuen's Old English library}}
* {{cite book | last1=Ringe | first1=Donald | author-link1=Donald Ringe | last2=Taylor | first2=Ann | year=2014 | title=The Development of Old English | series=A Linguistic History of English | volume=II | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-920784-8}}
* {{cite book | last=Strang | first=Barbara M. H. | year=1970 | title=A History of English | location=London | publisher=Methuen | doi=10.4324/9781315688695 | isbn=978-1-317-42191-7}}
* The Cambridge History of the English Language.
** {{cite book | editor-last=Hogg | editor-first=Richard M. | year=1992 | title=The Beginnings to 1066 | volume=1 | doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264747 | isbn=978-1-139-05552-9}}
** {{cite book | editor-last=Blake | editor-first=Norman | year=1992 | title=1066–1476 | volume=2 | doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264754 | isbn=978-1-139-05553-6}}

=== External history ===
* {{cite book |last=Robinson | first=Orrin W. |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) | title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives | url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi |url-access=registration | edition=1st | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] | year=1992 | isbn=0-8047-2221-8 |doi=10.4324/9780203393086}}
* {{cite book | last=Bremmer Jr | first= Rolf H. | year=2009 | title=An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary | url=https://dn721601.ca.archive.org/0/items/runik-yazi/Rolf%20H.%2C%20Jr.%20Bremmer%20-%20An%20Introduction%20to%20Old%20Frisian.pdf | location=Amsterdam/ Philadelphia | publisher=John Benjamins | isbn=978-90-272-3256-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Stenton | first=F. M. | year=1971 | title=Anglo-Saxon England | edition=3rd | series=Oxford History of England | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-821716-9}}

=== Orthography and palaeography ===
* {{cite book | last=Bourcier | first=Georges | year=1978 | title=L'orthographe de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle | trans-title=The orthography of English: History and current state | lang=French | location=Paris | publisher=Presses universitaires de France | isbn=978-2-13-035245-7}}
* {{cite book | author-link=Ralph Warren Victor Elliott| last=Elliott | first=Ralph W. V. | year=1980 | orig-date=1959 | title=Runes: An introduction | url=https://archive.org/details/runesintroductio0000elli_o3d7 |url-access=subscription  | edition=2nd | publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=0-7190-0787-9}}
* {{cite book | last=Keller | first= Wolfgang | year=1906 | title=Angelsächsische Paleographie | lang=German | trans-title=Anglo-Saxon Paleography | volume=I–II | location=Berlin | publisher=Mayer & Müller | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oz9KAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book | last=Ker | first=Neil R. | author-link=Neil Ker | year=1990 | orig-date=1957 | title=A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press | isbn=0-19-811251-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Page | first= R. I. | year=1973 | title=An Introduction to English Runes | edition=2nd | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoen0000page | url-access=registration | location=London | publisher=Methuen | isbn=978-0-416-66230-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Scragg | first=Donald G. | year=1974 | title=A History of English Spelling | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish0000scra | url-access=registration | publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=0-7190-0553-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Shaw | first=Philip A. | year= 2012 | chapter=3: Coins As Evidence | title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of English | editor-last1=Nevalainen | editor-first1=Terttu | editor-last2=Traugott | editor-first2=Elisabeth Cl. | doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199922765.001.0001 | pages=50–52 | isbn=978-0-19-992276-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Wełna | first=Jerzy | year=1986 | chapter=The Old English Digraph {{angle bracket|cg}} Again | title=Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics | series=Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries | volume=1 | editor-last1=Kastovsky | editor-first1=Dieter | editor-last2=Szwedek | editor-first2=Aleksander | pages=753–762 | doi=10.1515/9783110856132.753}}

=== Phonology ===
* {{cite book | last1=Anderson | first1=John M. | last2=Jones | first2=Charles | year=1977 | title=Phonological structure and the history of English | editor-last1=Dik | editor-first1=S. C. | editor-last2=Kooij | editor-first2=J. G. |url=https://archive.org/details/phonologicalstru0000ande | url-access=registration | series=North-Holland linguistics series | volume=33 |publisher=Elsevier North-Holland | location=Amsterdam | isbn=0-7204-0697-8}}
* {{cite book | last1=Brunner | first1=Karl | last2=Sievers | first2=Eduard | year=1965 | title=Altenglische Grammatik: Nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers | trans-title=Old English grammar: According to the Old English grammar of Eduard Sievers | lang=German | edition=3rd | location=Tübingen/ Berlin/ Boston | publisher=Max Niemeyer | doi=10.1515/9783110930894 | isbn=978-3-484-40021-4}}
* {{cite journal | author-link=Fausto Cercignani| last=Cercignani | first=Fausto | year=1983 | title=The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English | journal=Journal of English and Germanic Philology | volume=82 | issue=3 | pages=313–323 | jstor=27709191}}
* {{cite book | last=Girvan | first=Ritchie | year=1931 | title=Angelsaksisch Handboek | trans-title=Anglo-Saxon handbook | lang=Dutch | translator-last1=Deuschle | translator-first1=E. L. | series=Oudgermaansche Handboeken | volume=4 | location=Haarlem | publisher=Tjeenk Willink | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDkrAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book | last1=Halle | first1=Morris | last2=Keyser | first2=Samuel J. | year=1971 | title=English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse | location=New York | publisher=Harper & Row | url=https://archive.org/details/englishstressits0000hall |lccn=72-125318}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Hockett |first1=Charles F. |year=1959 |title=The stressed syllabics of Old English |jstor=410597 |journal=Language |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=575–597|doi=10.2307/410597 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |series=A grammar of Old English | volume=1 | title=Phonology |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-3933-8 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |doi=10.1002/9781444341355}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kuhn |first1=Sherman M. |year=1961 |title=On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English |jstor=411354 |journal=Language |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=522–538|doi=10.2307/411354 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Kuhn | first1=Sherman M. |year=1970 |chapter=On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English | title=Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt | editor-last=Rosier |editor-first=J. L. | publisher=Mouton | location='s-Gravenhage | pages=16–49 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynmVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 | doi=10.1515/9783110820263-004 | isbn=978-3-11-082026-3}}
* {{cite book | last1=Lass | first1=Roger | last2=Anderson | first2=John M. | year=1975 | title=Old English Phonology | series=Cambridge studies in linguistics | volume=14 | isbn=978-0-521-20531-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Luick | first=Karl | year=1914–1940 | title=Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache | trans-title=Historical grammar of the English language | lang=German | location=Stuttgart | publisher=[[Bernhard Tauchnitz]] | url=https://archive.org/details/p2historischegra01luicuoft}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Maling |first1=J. |year=1971 |title=Sentence stress in Old English |jstor=4177642 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=379–400}}
* {{Cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0022226700014699 |last1=McCully |first1=C. B. |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M. |year=1990 |title=An account of Old English stress |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=26 |pages=315–339 |issue=2 |s2cid=144915239}}
* {{cite book | last=Minkova | first=Donka | year=2014 | title=A Historical Phonology of English | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | isbn=978-0-7486-3468-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Moulton | first=W. G. | year=1972 | chapter=The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants) | editor-link1=Frans Van Coetsem | editor-first1=F. van | editor-last1=Coetsem | editor-first2=H. L. | editor-last2=Kufner | title=Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic | pages=141–173 |  location=Tübingen | publisher=Max Niemeyer | isbn=978-3-484-10160-9 | url=https://ia802803.us.archive.org/9/items/vancoetsemkufnereds.towardagrammarofprotogermanic1972/Van%20Coetsem%20&%20Kufner%20(eds.)%20-%20Toward%20a%20Grammar%20of%20Proto-Germanic%20(1972)_text.pdf}}
* {{cite book | last=Sievers | first=Eduard | year=1893 | title=Altgermanische Metrik | trans-title=Ancient Germanic metric | lang=German | location=Halle | publisher=Max Niemeyer | series=Kurtzer Grammatiken germanischer Dialekte | editor-last=Braune | editor-first=Wilhelm | volume=2 | url=https://archive.org/details/altgermanischem00sievgoog}}
* {{cite book | last=Wagner | first=Karl H. | year=1969 | title=Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language | location=Heidelberg | publisher=Julius Groos | asin=B001PBPHH4}}

=== Morphology ===
* {{cite book | last1=Brunner | first1=Karl | last2=Sievers | first2=Eduard | year=1965 | title=Altenglische Grammatik: Nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers | trans-title=Old English grammar: According to the Old English grammar of Eduard Sievers | lang=German | edition=3rd | location=Tübingen/ Berlin/ Boston | publisher=Max Niemeyer | doi=10.1515/9783110930894 | isbn=978-3-484-40021-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Wagner | first=Karl H. | year=1969 | title=Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language | location=Heidelberg | publisher=Julius Groos | asin=B001PBPHH4}}

=== Syntax ===
* {{cite book | last=Brunner | first=Karl | year=1962 | title=Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung | trans-title=The English language: its historical development | volume=II | location=Tübingen | publisher=Max Niemeyer}}
* {{cite book | last=Kemenade | first=Ans van | year=1987 | title=Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English | location=Dordrecht | publisher=Foris |isbn=978-90-6765-342-8}}
* {{cite book | last=MacLaughlin | first=John C. | year=1983 | title=Old English Syntax: a handbook | location=Tübingen | publisher=Max Niemeyer | doi=10.1515/9783111411590 | isbn=978-3-484-65004-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Mitchell | first=Bruce | year=1985 | title=Old English Syntax | volume=1–2 | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press}} (no more published)
** Vol. 1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence {{ISBN|0-19-811935-6}}
** Vol. 2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order {{ISBN|0-19-811944-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Mitchell | first=Bruce | year=1990 | title=A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax" | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | isbn=0-631-13275-9}}
* {{cite thesis | last=Timofeeva | first=Olga | year=2010 | title=Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin | type=Ph.D. | journal=Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki | volume=LXXX | location=Helsinki | publisher=Société Néophilologique | jstor=43344710 | hdl=10138/19298}}
* {{cite book | last=Traugott | first=Elizabeth Cl. | year=1972 | title=A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00eliz | url-access=registration | series=Transatlantic series in linguistics | editor-last=Levin | editor-first=Samuel R. | location=New York | publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston | isbn=0-03-079600-8}}
* {{cite book | last=Visser | first=F. Th. | year=1963–1973 | title=An Historical Syntax of the English Language | volume=1–3 | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill}}

=== Lexicons ===
* {{cite book | last1=Bosworth | first1= J. | last2=Toller | first2=T. Northcote | year=1898 | title=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press}} (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
* {{cite book | last=Toller | first=T. Northcote. | year=1921 | title=An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement | url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxondictio00tolluoft | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press}}
* {{cite book | last=Campbell | first=A. | year=1972 | title=An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda | publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press}}
* {{cite book | author-link1=Clark Hall, J. R. | last1=Clark Hall, J. R. | last2=Merritt | first2=H. D. | year=1916 |title=A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/AConciseAnglo-saxonDictionary | edition=2nd | publisher=The Macmillan Company | location=New York}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=Cameron | editor-first1=Angus | display-editors=1 | editor-first2=Ashley Crandell | editor-last2=Amos | editor-first3=Antonette diPaolo | editor-last3=Healey | editor-first4=Haruko | editor-last4=Momma | year=1983–1994 | title=[[Dictionary of Old English]] | location=Toronto | publisher=Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies}} (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the [http://copac.ac.uk/search?rn=11&au=angus+cameron&ti=old+english+dictionary&sort-order=ti%2C%2Ddate World Wide Web].)
{{divcol-end}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{interWiki|code=ang}}
{{Wiktionary category|type=Old English|category=Old English language}}
{{Wikisource|Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader/An Outline of Anglo-Saxon Grammar}}
{{Commons category}}

=== Dictionaries ===
* [https://bosworthtoller.com/ Bosworth and Toller, ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online'']
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050702002228/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/oeme_dictionaries.htm |title=Old English – Modern English dictionary |date=2 July 2005}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222235404/http://victorcauchi.fortunecity.com/EuCmp/o/oldeng.htm |title=Old English Glossary |date=22 February 2012}}
* [http://doe.utoronto.ca/pages/index.html Dictionary of Old English]

=== Lessons ===
* [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/engol Old English Online] by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the [https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc Linguistics Research Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907011523/https://wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html |title=The Electronic Introduction to Old English |date=7 September 2015}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503194009/http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm |title=''Old English Made Easy'' |date=3 May 2009}}

{{History of English}}
{{Germanic languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Anglic languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages|English, Old]]
[[Category:Old English| Old English]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 5th century]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 13th century]]
[[Category:North Sea Germanic]]