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{{Short description|First division of the Christian Bible}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}{{about|a section of the Christian Bible|the related Jewish text|Hebrew Bible}}
{{redirect|The Old Testament|the 2006 Sunz of Man album|The Old Testament (album){{!}}''The Old Testament'' (album)|the 1962 film|The Old Testament (film){{!}}''The Old Testament'' (film)}}
{{Infobox religious text|religion=[[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]|name=Old Testament<br>{{small|{{Small|Part of the [[Bible]]}}}}|language=[[Biblical Hebrew]], [[Biblical Aramaic]]|books=46 (Catholic), up to 49 (Orthodox), 39 (Protestant).|footnotes=It overlaps with the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Septuagint]]}}
{{Bible-related |CB}}
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}

The '''Old Testament''' ('''OT''') is the first division of the [[Biblical canon#Christian canons|Christian biblical canon]]. It is based primarily upon the 24 books of the [[Hebrew Bible]], or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] and occasionally [[Aramaic]] writings by the [[Israelites]], but differs from the Jewish canon in order, textual tradition, and, in some Christian traditions, contents.{{Sfn | Jones | 2000 | p = 215}} The second division of Christian Bibles is the [[New Testament]], written in [[Koine Greek]].

The Old Testament consists of many distinct books [[Authorship of the Bible|by various authors]] produced over a period of centuries.<ref name="Lim 2005 41">{{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|page= 41}}</ref> Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible 101: A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament |url=https://www.simplycatholic.com/bible-101-a-brief-introduction-to-the-old-testament/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=Simply Catholic |date=13 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> the first five books or Pentateuch (which corresponds to the Jewish [[Torah]]); the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their [[conquest of Canaan]] to their [[Babylonian captivity|defeat and exile in Babylon]]; the poetic and [[Poetic Books|wisdom literature]], which explore themes of human experience, morality, and divine justice; and the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.

The Old Testament canon differs among Christian denominations. The [[Catholic Bible|Catholic canon]] contains 46, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches include up to 49 books, and the [[Protestant Bible]] typically has 39.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 3}} Most of these books are shared across all Christian canons, corresponding to the 24 books of the [[Tanakh#Books of the Tanakh|Tanakh]] but with differences in order and text. Some books found in Christian Bibles, but not in the Hebrew canon, are called [[deuterocanonical books]], mostly originating from the [[Septuagint]], an ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. [[Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches include these, while most [[Protestant]] Bibles exclude them, though some [[Anglican]] and [[Lutheran]] versions place them in a separate section called [[biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]].

Because the term "Old Testament" is used within Christianity, the same texts may be interpreted differently in Christian and Jewish traditions. Christian interpretation has often read passages of the Old Testament in light of the New Testament, while Jewish interpretation does not treat these writings as part of an "old" covenant superseded by a New Testament.

While early histories of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|the ancient Israel and Judah]] were largely based on biblical accounts, their reliability has been increasingly questioned over time. Key debates have focused on the historicity of the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Patriarchs]], the [[The Exodus|Exodus]], the Israelite conquest, and the [[United Monarchy]], with archaeological evidence often challenging these narratives. Mainstream scholarship has balanced skepticism with evidence, recognizing that some biblical traditions align with archaeological findings, particularly from the [[9th century BC]] onward.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Ancient Israelite World |last=Faust |first=Avraham |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-77324-8 |page=78-79 |editor-last=Keimer |editor-first=Kyle H. |chapter=Between the Biblical Story and History: Writing an Archaeological History of Ancient Israel |editor-last2=Pierce |editor-first2=George A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78}}</ref>

==Content==
{{Main|Biblical canon|Development of the Old Testament canon}}

The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the [[Torah|Pentateuch (Torah)]], the [[historical books]], the [[Poetic Books|"wisdom" books]] and the prophets.{{Sfn | Boadt | 1984 | pp = 11, 15–16}}

The table reflects Christian canonical arrangements of these texts; the Jewish Tanakh uses a different order and does not include the deuterocanonical books recognized in Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments. The table below uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic [[New American Bible Revised Edition]] and the Protestant [[Revised Standard Version]] and [[English Standard Version]]. The spelling and names in both the 1609–10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 [[Rheims New Testament]]) and the 1749 revision by [[Richard Challoner|Bishop Challoner]] (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew [[Masoretic Text]].{{Efn | Generally due to derivation from transliterations of names used in the Latin [[Vulgate]] in the case of Catholicism, and from transliterations of the Greek Septuagint in the case of the Orthodox (as opposed to the derivation of translations, instead of transliterations, of Hebrew titles) such [[Ecclesiasticus]] (DRC) instead of [[Sirach]] (LXX) or [[Ben Sira]] (Hebrew), [[Paralipomenon]] (Greek, meaning "things omitted") instead of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], Sophonias instead of [[Zephaniah]], Noe instead of [[Noah]], Henoch instead of [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Messias]] instead of [[Messiah]], Sion instead of [[Zion]], etc.}}

For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the [[King James Version]] references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias" (for [[Isaiah]]).

In the spirit of [[ecumenism]], more recent [[Catholic Bible#Catholic English versions|Catholic translations]] (e.g. the [[New American Bible]], [[Jerusalem Bible]], and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]]) use the same "standardized" (King James Version) spellings and names as [[Protestant Bible]]s (e.g. [[1 Chronicles]] as opposed to the [[Douay–Rheims Bible|Douaic]] 1 Paralipomenon, [[1–2 Samuel]] and [[1–2 Kings]] instead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical: the [[protocanonical]]s.

The [[Talmud]] (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in [[Bava Batra]] 14b gives a different order for the books in ''[[Nevi'im]]'' and ''[[Ketuvim]]''. This order is also cited in [[Mishneh Torah]] Hilchot [[Sefer (book)|Sefer]] Torah 7:15.{{Clarify|date=August 2023|reason=I don't understand what this is referring to; is this missing commas/additional info? Is 'Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah' somehow one book and 7:15 a passage?}} The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.

The disputed books, included in most canons but not in others, are often called the [[Biblical apocrypha]], a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern [[Protestant]] Bibles. Catholics, following the [[Canon of Trent]] (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] Christians, following the [[Synod of Jerusalem (1672)]], use the traditional name of {{transliteration|grc|[[anagignoskomena]]}}, meaning "that which is to be read." They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German [[Luther Bible]] included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.{{Efn | The foundational [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of [[Anglicanism]], in [[:s: Thirty-Nine Articles|Article VI]], asserts these disputed books are not used "to establish any doctrine", but "read for example of life." Although the Biblical Apocrypha are still used in [[Christian liturgy#Anglican Communion|Anglican Liturgy]],<ref>{{Citation | publisher = Orthodox Anglican | quote = Two of the hymns used in the American Prayer Book office of Morning Prayer, the [[Benedictus (Song of Zechariah)|Benedictus es]] and [[Benedicite]], are taken from the Apocrypha. One of the offertory sentences in Holy Communion comes from an apocryphal book (Tob. 4: 8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly appointed to be reason Sunday, Sunday, and the special services of Morning and Evening Prayer. There are altogether 111 such lessons in the latest revised American Prayer Book Lectionary [Books used are: II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Three Holy Children, and I Maccabees.] | url = http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | title = The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205074449/http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | archive-date = 2009-02-05 }}</ref> the modern trend is to not even print the Old Testament Apocrypha in editions of Anglican-used Bibles}}

Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.<!--
Per MOS:COLOUR, colour should not be the sole manner of communicating an article's content; as such, this table needs reworking so that it's more than just colour that indicates which group a book of the OT is held to belong to.
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{{legend|#ccf|outline=#A2A9B1|Pentateuch, corresponding to the Hebrew [[Torah]]}}
{{legend|#fc9|outline=#A2A9B1|Historical books, most closely corresponding to the Hebrew [[Nevi'im]] (Prophets)}}
{{legend|#9f9|outline=#A2A9B1|Wisdom books, most closely corresponding to the Hebrew [[Ketuvim]] (Writings)}}
{{legend|#f9f|outline=#A2A9B1|Major Prophets}}
{{legend|#ffc|outline=#A2A9B1|Twelve Minor Prophets}}

{{sticky header}}{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header sort-under" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Christian order<ref group="lower-alpha">The numbering of books is for comparison with the Hebrew order of books. It does not directly represent the order of any specific canon as some books are moved and combined in specific Bibles, as notes detail.</ref>
! [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Old&nbsp;Testament <br />(39&nbsp;books)
! [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Old&nbsp;Testament <br />(46&nbsp;books)
! [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] Old&nbsp;Testament <br />(49&nbsp;books)
! [[Hebrew Bible]] (Tanakh) (24&nbsp;books)
! Hebrew order
! Original language
|-
| 1
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Genesis|Bereshit]]
| 1
| Hebrew
|-
| 2
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Exodus|Shemot]]
| 2
| Hebrew
|-
| 3
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Leviticus|Vayikra]]
| 3
| Hebrew
|-
| 4
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Numbers|Bamidbar]]
| 4
| Hebrew
|-
| 5
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf" | [[Book of Deuteronomy|Devarim]]
| 5
| Hebrew
|-
| 6
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Josue)]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Iesous)]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Joshua|Yehoshua]]
| 6
| Hebrew
|-
| 7
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
| 7
| Hebrew
|-
| 8
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Ruth|Rut (Ruth)]]
| 18
| Hebrew
|-
| 9
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha">The books of Samuel and Kings are often called First through Fourth Kings in the Catholic tradition, much like the Orthodox.</ref>
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha">Names in parentheses are the Septuagint names and are often used by the Orthodox Christians.</ref>
| rowspan=2 style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|Shmuel]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Samuel is considered one book in the Hebrew Bible.</ref>
| rowspan=2 | 8
| Hebrew
|-
| 10
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| Hebrew
|-
| 11
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| rowspan=2 style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Kings is considered one book in the Hebrew Bible.</ref>
| rowspan=2 | 9
| Hebrew
|-
| 12
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| Hebrew
|-
| 13
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| rowspan=2 style="background:#9f9" | [[Books of Chronicles|Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles)]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Chronicles is considered one book in the Hebrew Bible.</ref>
| rowspan=2 | 24
| Hebrew
|-
| 14
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paralipomenon)]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 15
|
|
| style="background:#fc9" | [[1 Esdras]] (Ἔσδρας Aʹ)<ref name="1 Esdras" group="lower-alpha">In Slavic language Bibles ''Ἔσδρας Aʹ'' corresponds to ''1 Esdras''. In the Vulgate it is called ''3 Esdras''.</ref><ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha">One of 11 deuterocanonical books in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
|
|
| Greek
|-
| 16
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ezra]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ezra]]<ref name="Vulgate 1" group="lower-alpha">In the Vulgate the Book of Ezra is called 1 Esdras.</ref>
| rowspan=2 style="background:#fc9" | [[Ezra–Nehemiah]] (Ἔσδρας Βʹ)<ref name="2 Esdras" group="lower-alpha">In Slavic language Bibles ''Ἔσδρας Bʹ'' corresponds to ''Ezra-Nehemiah'' and is called ''2 Esdras''. In the Vulgate ''Ezra'' is called ''1 Esdras'' and ''Nehemiah'' is called ''2 Esdras'' respectively.</ref><ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="ezra" group="lower-alpha">Some Eastern Orthodox churches follow the [[Septuagint]] and Hebrew Bibles by considering the books of [[Ezra and Nehemiah]] as one book.</ref>
| rowspan=2 style="background:#9f9" | [[Ezra–Nehemiah]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Ezra–Nehemiah is considered one book in the Hebrew Bible.</ref>
| rowspan=2 | 23
| Hebrew and Aramaic
|-
| 17
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Nehemiah]]<ref name="Vulgate 2" group="lower-alpha">In the [[Vulgate]] the Book of Nehemiah is called 2 Esdras.</ref>
| Hebrew
|-
| 18
| rowspan=2 |
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit (Tobias)]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 |
| Aramaic and Hebrew
|-
| 19
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| Hebrew
|-
| 20
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha">The Catholic and Orthodox Book of Esther includes 103 verses not in the Protestant Book of Esther.</ref>
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Esther|Ester (Esther)]]
| 21
| Hebrew
|-
| 21
| rowspan=5 |
| style="background:#fc9" | [[1 Maccabees]] (1 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha">The [[Latin Vulgate]], [[Douay–Rheims Bible|Douay–Rheims]], and [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]] place First and Second Maccabees after Malachi; other Catholic translations place them after Esther.</ref>
| style="background:#fc9" | [[1 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| rowspan=5 |
| rowspan=5 |
| Hebrew and Greek{{Efn|1 Maccabees is hypothesized by most scholars to have been originally written in Hebrew; however, if it was, the original Hebrew has been lost. The surviving Septuagint version is in Greek.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Jonathan A. |author-link=Jonathan A. Goldstein |date=1976 |title=I Maccabees |location=Garden City, NY |publisher=Doubleday |series=[[The Anchor Bible Series]] |isbn=0-385-08533-8 |page=14}}</ref>}}
|-
| 22
| style="background:#fc9" | [[2 Maccabees]] (2 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9" | [[2 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek
|-
| 23
| rowspan=3 |
| style="background:#fc9" | [[3 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| Greek
|-
| 24
| [[2 Esdras]]<ref name="3 Esdras" group="lower-alpha">In Slavic language Bibles ''2 Esdras'' is called ''3 Esdras''. In the Vulgate it is called ''4 Esdras''.</ref><ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| Greek
|-
| 25
| [[4 Maccabees]]{{Efn | In Greek Bibles, 4 Maccabees is found in the appendix.}}
| Greek
|-
| 26
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Job|Iyov (Job)]]
| 16
| Hebrew
|-
| 27
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Psalms]]<ref name="psalms" group="lower-alpha">Eastern Orthodox churches include [[Psalm 151]] and the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], not present in all canons.</ref>
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Psalms|Tehillim (Psalms)]]
| 14
| Hebrew
|-
| 28
|
|
| [[Prayer of Manasseh]]<ref name="RSB manasseh" group="lower-alpha">Part of 2 Paralipomenon in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
|
|
| Greek
|-
| 29
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Proverbs|Mishlei (Proverbs)]]
| 15
| Hebrew
|-
| 30
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Ecclesiastes|Qohelet (Ecclesiastes)]]
| 20
| Hebrew
|-
| 31
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Song of Solomon]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Song of Songs]] (Canticle of Canticles)
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Song of Songs]] (Aisma Aismaton)
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Song of Songs|Shir Hashirim (Song of Songs)]]
| 17
| Hebrew
|-
| 32
| rowspan=2 |
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 |
| Greek
|-
|33
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Sirach]] (Ecclesiasticus)
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Sirach]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| Hebrew
|-
| 34
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah (Isaias)]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Isaiah|Yeshayahu]]
| 10
| Hebrew
|-
| 35
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah (Jeremias)]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Jeremiah|Yirmeyahu]]
| 11
| Hebrew
|-
| 36
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Lamentations|Eikhah (Lamentations)]]
| 19
| Hebrew
|-
| 37
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic Bibles, Baruch includes a sixth chapter called the [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. Baruch is not in the Protestant Bible or the Tanakh.</ref>
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 |
| Hebrew<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Bible |volume= 3 |last= Driver |first= Samuel Rolles |author-link= Samuel Rolles Driver | pages= 849–894; see page 853, third para |quote=Jeremiah.....were first written down in 604 B.C. by his friend and amanuensis Baruch, and the roll thus formed must have formed the nucleus of the present book. Some of the reports of Jeremiah's prophecies, and especially the biographical narratives, also probably have Baruch for their author. But the chronological disorder of the book, and other indications, show that Baruch could not have been the compiler of the book}}</ref>
|-
| 38
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Letter of Jeremiah]]{{Efn | Eastern Orthodox Bibles have the books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah separate.}}<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek (majority view){{Efn | Hebrew (minority view); see [[Letter of Jeremiah]] for details.}}
|-
| 39
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel (Ezechiel)]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| style="background:#fc9" | [[Book of Ezekiel|Yekhezqel]]
| 12
| Hebrew
|-
| 40
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, Daniel includes three sections not included in Protestant Bibles. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]] are included between Daniel 3:23–24. [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] is included as Daniel 13. [[Bel and the Dragon]] is included as Daniel 14. These are not in the Protestant Old Testament.</ref>
| style="background:#f9f" | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9" | [[Book of Daniel|Daniyyel (Daniel)]]
| 22
| Aramaic and Hebrew
|-
| 41
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea (Osee)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| rowspan=12 style="background:#fc9" | [[Twelve Minor Prophets|The Twelve]]{{pb}}or{{pb}}{{transliteration|he|Trei Asar}}
| rowspan=12 | 13
| Hebrew
|-
| 42
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 43
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 44
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah (Abdias)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 45
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah (Jonas)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 46
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Micah|Micah (Michaeas)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 47
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 48
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk (Habacuc)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 49
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah (Sophonias)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 50
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai (Aggaeus)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 51
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah (Zacharias)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| Hebrew
|-
| 52
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi (Malachias)]]
| style="background:#ffc" | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| Hebrew
|}<references group=T />

Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the [[Latin Vulgate]], formerly the official Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
| colspan=2 | ''Books in the appendix to the Vulgate Bible''
|-
! Name in Vulgate
! Name in Eastern Orthodox use
|- style="background:#ccf"
| [[1 Esdras|3 Esdras]]
| [[1 Esdras]]
|- style="background:#ccf"
| [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]]
| [[2 Esdras]]
|- style="background:#ccf"
| [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
| [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
|- style="background:#ccf"
| [[Psalm 151|Psalm of David when he slew Goliath (Psalm 151)]]
| [[Psalm 151]]
|}<references group=T />

==Historicity==
{{Further|Historicity of the Bible#Hebrew Bible/Old Testament}}

=== Early scholarship ===
Some of the stories of the Pentateuch may derive from older sources. Scholars such as [[Andrew R. George]] point out the similarity between the [[Genesis flood narrative]] and the [[Gilgamesh flood myth]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=A. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=21xxZ_gUy_wC&pg=PA70 |title=The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-927841-1 |page=70}}</ref>{{efn|The latter [[flood myth]] appears in a Babylonian copy dating to 700&nbsp;BC,<ref>{{cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |year=2007 |title=From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible |publisher=National Geographic |isbn=978-1-4262-0084-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJW-zhffwk4C&pg=PA20|pages=20–27}}</ref> though many scholars believe that this was probably copied from the {{nowrap|{{langx|akk-Latn|[[Atra-Hasis]]}}}}, which dates to the 18th century&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tigay |first=Jeffrey H. |author-link= Jeffrey H. Tigay | title=The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic | publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers |year=2002 |orig-date=1982 |isbn=9780865165465 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxjuHTH6I2sC |pages=23, 218, 224, 238}}</ref> George points out that the modern version of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' was compiled by [[Sîn-lēqi-unninni]], who lived sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|translator=Andrew R. George|year=2003|orig-date=1999|title=The Epic of Gilgamesh|edition=reprinted|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|isbn=0-14-044919-1|pages=ii, xxiv–v}}</ref>}} Similarities between the origin story of [[Moses]] and that of [[Sargon of Akkad]] were noted by psychoanalyst [[Otto Rank]] in 1909<ref>{{cite book |title=The myth of the birth of the hero: a psychological interpretation of mythology |author-first1=Otto |author-last1=Rank |year=1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/mythofbirthofher1914rank |others=English translation by F. Robbins and Smith Ely Jelliffe |publisher=The Journal of nervous and mental disease publishing company |location=New York}}</ref> and popularized by 20th-century writers, such as [[H. G. Wells]] and [[Joseph Campbell]].<ref name="Wells">{{cite book |last=Wells |first=H. G. |title=The Outline of History: Volume&nbsp;1 |year=1961 |orig-date=1937 |publisher=Doubleday |pages=206, 208, 210, 212}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Joseph |title=The Masks of God, Vol. 3: Occidental Mythology |year=1964 |page=127}}</ref> [[Jacob Bronowski]] writes that "the Bible is ... part folklore and part record. History is ... written by the victors, and the [[Israelites|Israelis]], when they burst through <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Jericho]] ({{Circa|1400 BC}})], became the carriers of history."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bronowski|first=Jacob|url=http://archive.org/details/ascentofman0000bron_y1z2|title=The Ascent of Man|publisher=BBC Books|year=1990|isbn=978-0-563-20900-3|location=London|pages=72–73, 77|orig-date=1973}}</ref>

=== Recent scholarship ===
In 2007, a historian of ancient Judaism [[Lester L. Grabbe]] explained that earlier biblical scholars such as [[Julius Wellhausen]] (1844–1918) could be described as 'maximalist', accepting biblical text unless it has been disproven. Continuing in this tradition, both "the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs" and "the unified conquest of the land" were widely accepted in the United States until about the 1970s. Contrarily, Grabbe says that those in his field now "are all minimalists{{snd}}at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. ... [V]ery few are willing to operate [as maximalists]."<ref name="GRABBE p.">{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|title=Understanding the History of Ancient Israel|date=2007-10-25|publisher=British Academy|isbn=978-0-19-726401-0|pages=57–58|chapter=Some Recent Issues in the Study of the History of Israel|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.003.0005}}</ref>

In 2022, archaeologist [[Avraham Faust]] summarized recent scholarship arguing that while early histories of Israel were heavily based on biblical accounts, their reliability has been increasingly questioned over time. He continued that key debates have focused on the historicity of the [[Patriarchs]], the [[The Exodus|Exodus]], the Israelite conquest, and the [[United Monarchy]], with archaeological evidence often challenging these narratives. He concluded that while the minimalist school of the 1990s dismissed the Bible's historical value, mainstream scholarship has balanced skepticism with evidence, recognizing that some biblical traditions align with archaeological findings, particularly from the [[9th century BC]] onward.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Ancient Israelite World |last=Faust |first=Avraham |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-77324-8 |page=78-79 |editor-last=Keimer |editor-first=Kyle H. |chapter=Between the Biblical Story and History: Writing an Archaeological History of Ancient Israel |editor-last2=Pierce |editor-first2=George A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78}}</ref>

==Composition==
{{Further|Composition of the Torah|Dating the Bible|Documentary hypothesis}}
The first five books—[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]]—reached their present form in the [[Yehud Medinata|Persian period (538–332 BC)]], and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the [[Second Temple|Temple]] at that time.{{Sfn | Blenkinsopp | 1998 | p = 184}} The books of [[book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[book of Judges|Judges]], [[book of Ruth|Ruth]], [[books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[books of Kings|Kings]] follow, forming a history of Israel from the [[Conquest of Canaan]] to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem {{circa|587}} BC]]. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called "[[Deuteronomistic History]]") during the [[Babylonian exile]] of the 6th century BC.{{Sfn | Rogerson | 2003 | pp = 153–54}}

The two [[Books of Chronicles]] cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC.{{Sfn | Coggins | 2003 | p = 282}} Chronicles and [[Ezra–Nehemiah]] were probably finished during the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Grabbe | 2003 | pp = 213–14}} Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) [[Books of the Maccabees]], written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.

These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets—[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], and the twelve "[[minor prophets]]"—were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], which were written much later.{{Sfn | Miller | 1987 | pp = 10–11}} The "wisdom" books—[[Book of Job|Job]], [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], [[Psalms]], [[Song of Songs]]—have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic time]] (332–198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job was completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Crenshaw | 2010 | p = 5}}

==Themes==
Throughout the Old Testament, God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as [[monotheism|the only god who exists]], he is always depicted as [[Monolatry|the only God whom Israel is to worship]], or the one "true God", that only [[Yahweh]] (or {{Smallcaps|[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]]}}) is Almighty.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9 |ps=: "4. Covenant and Redemption. It is a central point in many OT texts that the creator God YHWH is also in some sense Israel's special god, who at some point in history entered into a relationship with his people that had something of the nature of a contract. Classically this contract or covenant was entered into at Sinai, and Moses was its mediator."}}

The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his [[chosen people]], Israel, but includes instructions for [[proselyte]]s as well. This relationship is expressed in the [[biblical covenant]] (contract){{Sfn | Coogan | 2008 | p = 106}}{{Sfn | Ferguson | 1996 | p = 2}}{{Sfn | Ska | 2009 | p = 213}}{{Sfn | Berman | 2006 | p = unpaginated |ps=: "At this juncture, however, God is entering into a "treaty" with the Israelites, and hence the formal need within the written contract for the grace of the sovereign to be documented.<sup>30</sup> 30. Mendenhall and Herion, "Covenant," p. 1183."}}{{Sfn | Levine | 2001 | p = 46}}{{Sfn | Hayes | 2006}} between the two, received by [[Moses]]. The law codes in books such as [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] and especially [[Deuteronomy]] are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9 |ps=: "4. Covenant and Redemption. It is a central point in many OT texts that the creator God YHWH is also in some sense Israel's special god, who at some point in history entered into a relationship with his people that had something of the nature of a contract. Classically this contract or covenant was entered into at Sinai, and Moses was its mediator."}} However, ''The Jewish Study Bible'' denies that the word ''covenant'' ({{transliteration|he|brit}} in Hebrew) means "contract"; in the ancient Near East, a covenant would have been sworn before the gods, who would be its enforcers. As God is part of the agreement, and not merely witnessing it, ''The Jewish Study Bible'' instead interprets the term to refer to a pledge.{{Sfn | Berlin | Brettler | 2014 | p = PT194 |ps=: 6.17–22: Further introduction and a pledge. 18: This v. records the first mention of the covenant ("brit") in the Tanakh. In the ancient Near East, a covenant was an agreement that the parties swore before the gods, and expected the gods to enforce. In this case, God is Himself a party to the covenant, which is more like a pledge than an agreement or contract (this was sometimes the case in the ancient Near East as well). The covenant with Noah will receive longer treatment in 9.1–17.}}

Further themes in the Old Testament include [[salvation]], [[Redemption (theology)|redemption]], [[divine judgment]], obedience and disobedience, [[faith]] and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on [[ethics]] and [[ritual purity]], both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands [[social justice]] above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many [[porneia|sexual misdemeanours]]. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}

The [[problem of evil]] plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the [[Babylonian exile]]) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like [[Ezekiel]] and [[Jeremiah]], and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}

==Formation==
{{Main|Biblical canon}}
{{See also|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Development of the Old Testament canon|Septuagint|Books of the Vulgate}}
[[File:Texts of the OT.svg|thumb|upright=2.05|The interrelationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament, according to the ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'' (1903). Some manuscripts are identified by their [[Scribal abbreviation|siglum]]. LXX here denotes the original Septuagint.]]

The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and [[Second Temple Judaism]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]], identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."<ref name="Lim 2005 41"/> He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by [[God in Judaism|God]] and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC, Jews saw the five books of the [[Torah]] (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC, the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah.{{Sfn | Brettler | 2005 | p = 274}}

===Greek===
{{see also|Septuagint}}
Hebrew texts began to be translated into Greek in [[Alexandria]] in about 280 BC and continued until about 130 BC.{{Sfn | Gentry | 2008 | p = 302}} These early Greek translations {{ndash}} supposedly commissioned by [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] {{ndash}} were called the {{langnf|la|[[Septuagint]]|Seventy|links=no}} from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "[[LXX]]"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995}}

It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: [[1 Esdras]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], the books of [[Books of the Maccabees|Maccabees]], the [[Book of Wisdom]], [[Sirach]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]].{{Sfn | Jones | 2000 | p = 216}} Early modern [[biblical criticism]] typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the [[Masoretes]] in their work.

The Septuagint was originally used by [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Jews whose knowledge of [[Koine Greek|Greek]] was better than Hebrew. However, the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the early Church. As a result, Greek renderings of Hebrew terms and passages influenced later Christian interpretation of the Old Testament. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were [[Aquila of Sinope]], [[Symmachus the Ebionite]], and [[Theodotion]]; in his [[Hexapla]], [[Origen]] placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside [[Secunda (Hexapla)|its transcription in Greek letters]] and four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called "fifth" and "sixth editions" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of [[Jericho]] and [[Nicopolis]]: these were added to Origen's Octapla.<ref>Cave, William. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406 A complete history of the lives, acts, and martyrdoms of the holy apostles, and the two evangelists, St. Mark and Luke]'', Vol. II. Wiatt (Philadelphia), 1810. Retrieved 2013-02-06.</ref>

In 331, [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|Constantine I]] commissioned [[Eusebius]] to deliver [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine|fifty Bibles]] for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]]<ref>''Apol. Const. 4''</ref> recorded [[Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandrian]] scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for [[Constans]]. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated{{by whom|date=February 2026}} that this may have provided motivation for canon lists and that [[Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]] are examples of these Bibles{{needcite|date=February 2026}}. Together with the [[Peshitta]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<ref>'' The Canon Debate'', pp. 414–15, for the entire paragraph</ref> There is no evidence among the [[First Council of Nicaea#Promulgation of canon law|canons of the First Council of Nicaea]] of any determination on the canon. However, [[Jerome]] (347–420), in his ''Prologue to Judith'', claims that the [[Book of Judith]] was "found by the [[First Nicene Council|Nicene Council]] to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures".<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Book of Judith}} Canonicity: "..." the Synod of Nicaea is said to have accounted it as Sacred Scripture" (Praef. in Lib.). No such declaration indeed is to be found in the Canons of Nicaea, and it is uncertain whether St. Jerome is referring to the use made of the book in the discussions of the council, or whether he was misled by some spurious canons attributed to that council".</ref>

===Latin===
{{see also|Deuterocanonical books|Vulgate}}
In [[Western Christianity]] or Christianity in the [[Western Roman Empire|Western half of the Roman Empire]], Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD [[Pope Damasus I]] commissioned [[Jerome]], the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin Bible to replace the [[Vetus Latina]], which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome's work, called the [[Vulgate]], was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|the Hebrew texts]] in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rebenich|first1= Stefan|title=Jerome|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|page= 58|ISBN=9781134638444}}</ref> His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard Bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the [[Sixto-Clementine Vulgate]], while the [[Eastern Christianity|Churches in the East]] continued, and continue, to use the Septuagint.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 91–99}}

Jerome, however, in the [[Vulgate#Prologues|Vulgate's prologues]], describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-[[biblical canon|canonical]] (he called them ''[[biblical apocrypha|apocrypha]]'');<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml|title=The Bible|website=www.thelatinlibrary.com}}</ref> for [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], he mentions by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 |title=Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah |author-first1=Kevin P. |author-last1=Edgecomb |date=14 August 2006 |access-date=2015-11-30 |archive-date=2013-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002043/http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 }}</ref> The [[Synod of Hippo]] (in 393), followed by the [[Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Carthage (419)]], may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the [[Hebrew Bible]];<ref>McDonald & Sanders, editors of ''The Canon Debate'', 2002, chapter 5: ''The Septuagint: The Bible of Hellenistic Judaism'' by Albert C. Sundberg Jr., page 72, Appendix D-2, note 19.</ref> the councils were under significant influence of [[Augustine of Hippo]], who regarded the canon as already closed.<ref>Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in ''The Canon Debate''. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, ''The Canon of Scripture'' (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, ''De Civitate Dei'' 22.8</ref>

===Protestant canon===
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, the order is that of the Greek Bible.{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}

Rome then officially adopted a canon, the [[Canon of Trent]], which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councils<ref>{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm |title=History of the Christian Church |chapter=Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy |author-first1=Philip |author-last1=Schaff |publisher=CCEL|author-link=Philip Schaff }}</ref> or the [[Council of Rome]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindberg |title=A Brief History of Christianity |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |page=15}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |edition=2nd |editor-first1=F.L. |editor-last1=Cross|editor-first2= E.A. |editor-last2=Livingstone |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |page=232}}</ref> and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint ([[3 Ezra]] and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded);{{Sfn | Soggin | 1987 | p = 19}} the [[Anglican]]s after the [[English Civil War]] adopted a compromise position, restoring the [[39 Articles]] and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], both for private study and for [[Christian liturgy#Anglican Communion|reading in churches]] but not for establishing any doctrine, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as [[biblical apocrypha]].{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}

===Other versions===
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the [[language of Jesus]]: these are called the Aramaic [[Targum]]s, from a word meaning "translation", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}

For Aramaic Christians, there was a [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation of the Hebrew Bible called the [[Peshitta]], as well as versions in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from [[Ancient Egyptian language|ancient Egyptian]]), [[Geʽez|Ethiopic]] (for use in the [[Ethiopian church]], one of the oldest Christian churches), [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and [[Arabic]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}

==Christian theology==
{{also|Christian views on the Old Covenant}}
Christian interpretation refers to the "Old Testament" as such only because there is a "New Testament" to which it relates; the designation is therefore a Christian theological category rather than a Jewish one. The name "Old Testament" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as the [[Fulfillment theology|fulfillment]] of Jeremiah's prophecy of a [[New Covenant]] (which is similar to "testament" and often conflated) to replace the preceding [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] between God and Israel ([[Jeremiah 31:31]]).<ref>{{bibleverse|Jeremiah|31:31}}</ref>{{Sfn | Jones | 2000 | p = 215}} The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally based pledge between God and the Jewish people, to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ".{{Sfn | Herion | 2000 | pp = 291–92}}

Relating the Old and New Testaments, the [[Second Vatican Council]] outlines a [[Catholic theology]] wherein "God, the inspirer and author of both Testaments, wisely arranged that the New Testament be hidden in the Old and the Old be made manifest in the New".<ref>[[Holy See]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, ''Dei Verbum''], paragraph 16, published on 18 November 1965, accessed on 9 September 2025</ref> Dennis Hamm sees the Council's teaching as a counter to the "perennial temptation ... to dismiss the Old Testament as irrelevant for Christians".<ref>Hamm, Dennis SJ (2014), [http://www.creighton.edu/fileadmin/user/VaticanII/DEI_VERBUM_study_guide_Revised_08302014_01.pdf DEI VERBUM: Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation (Vatican II, 1965): An orientation and quick review by way of questions and answers], [[Creighton University]], page9, accessed on 9 October 2025</ref>

Christianity draws from its belief that the [[historical Jesus]] is also the [[Christ]], as in the [[Confession of Peter]]. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term [[Messiah]], which, like the Greek "Christ", means "anointed". The Hebrew Scriptures describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The {{LORD}}'s anointed" or Yahweh's Anointed.

By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh-and-blood descendant of [[David]] (the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]") would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman province]] of Judaea.{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}} Others stressed the [[Son of Man]], a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as a [[Last Judgment|judge at the end of time]]. Some expounded a synthesised view of both positions, where a messianic kingdom of this world would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age or [[World to Come]].

Some{{who|date=February 2022}} thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; some{{who|date=February 2022}} thought that the Messiah would be announced by a forerunner, probably [[Elijah]] (as promised by the prophet [[Malachi]], whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'s account of [[John the Baptist]]). However, no view of the Messiah as based on the Old Testament predicted a Messiah who would suffer and die for the sins of all people.{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}} The story of Jesus' death, therefore, involved a profound shift in meaning from the Old Testament tradition.{{Sfn | Juel | 2000 | pp = 236–39}}

==See also==
* [[New Testament]]
* [[Biblical and Quranic narratives]]
* [[List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts]]
* [[Expounding of the Law]]
* [[Genealogies of Genesis]]
* [[Law and Gospel]]
* [[List of ancient legal codes]]
* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
* [[Quotations from the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* {{Citation | last= Bandstra| first= Barry L| title= Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible| publisher= Wadsworth| year = 2004 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&q=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible&pg=PA489 |isbn= 978-0-495-39105-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Barton|first=John|title=How the Bible Came to Be|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1997|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&q=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton |isbn= 978-0-664-25785-9}}
* {{Citation | last = Barton | first = John | author-mask = 3 | chapter = Introduction to the Old Testament | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&q=B.+Collecting+the+Hebrew+Scriptures&pg=PA6 | editor1-first = John | editor2-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor-last = Muddiman | title = Bible Commentary | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-19-875500-5 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordbiblecomme0000unse }}
* {{cite book|editor-first1=Adele|editor-last1=Berlin|editor-first2=Marc Zvi|editor-last2=Brettler|title=The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194|date=2014-10-17|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-939387-9|page=PT194}}
* {{cite journal | first=Joshua A. | last=Berman | title=God's Alliance with Man | journal=Azure: Ideas for the Jewish Nation | date=Summer 2006 | issue=25 | url=http://azure.org.il/include/print.php?id=131 | access-date=2019-10-31 | issn=0793-6664}}
* {{Citation |last=Blenkinsopp|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Blenkinsopp|chapter=The Pentateuch|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&q=The+Cambridge+companion+to+biblical+interpretation | editor-first = John | editor-last = Barton| title= The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn= 978-0-521-48593-7}}
* biblicc6. (2021, November 3). Shabbat Lectures on the Torah: SELF ESTEEM. ''Biblical Research Institute''. https://biblicalresearchinstitute.com/shabbat-lectures-on-the-torah-self-esteem/
* {{Citation |last=Boadt|first=Lawrence|author-link=Lawrence Boadt|title=Reading the Old Testament: an introduction|publisher=Paulist Press|year=1984|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&q=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction |isbn = 978-0-8091-2631-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Brettler|first=Marc Zvi|author-link=Marc Zvi Brettler|title=How to read the Bible|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|year=2005|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=39nQafdJ_ssC&q=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible |isbn= 978-0-8276-1001-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Bultman|first=Christoph|chapter=Deuteronomy|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&q=Deuteronomy |editor1-first =John | editor1-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor2-last = Muddiman |title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn= 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Coggins|first=Richard J|author-link=Richard Coggins|chapter=1 and 2 Chronicles|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson&pg=PA153 | editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{cite book|first=Michael David|last=Coogan|title=A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rxBAQAAIAAJ|date=2008-11-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533272-8|page=106}}.
* {{Citation |last=Crenshaw|first=James L|author-link=James L. Crenshaw|title=Old Testament wisdom: an introduction|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2010|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&q=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+James+L.+Crenshaw | isbn = 978-0-664-23459-1}}
* {{Citation|last=Davies|first=GI|chapter=Introduction to the Pentateuch|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&q=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch&pg=PA12|editor-first=John|editor-last=Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-875500-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbiblecomme0000unse}}
* {{Citation |last=Dines|first=Jennifer M|title=The Septuagint|work=Continuum|year=2004|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&q=Dines+Septuagint |isbn= 978-0-567-08464-4}}
* ''Early Judaism, part 1 (video)''. (n.d.). Khan Academy. Retrieved November 20, 2025, from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/judaism/v/overview-of-early-judaism-part-1
* Emerton, J. A. (1984). [Review of ''Review of Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study'', by J. Barton]. ''Vetus Testamentum'', ''34''(3), 370–370. https://doi.org/10.2307/1518027
* {{Citation |last=Farmer|first= Ron|chapter= Messiah/Christ|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570 | editor1-first = Watson E | editor1-last = Mills | editor2-first = Roger Aubrey | editor2-last = Bullard|title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible|publisher= Mercer University Press|year=1991|isbn= 978-0-86554-373-7}}
* {{cite book|first=Everett|last=Ferguson|title=The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVqRaiPlx88C&pg=PA2|year=1996|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4189-6|page=2}}
* {{Citation |last=Gentry|first=Peter R|chapter=Old Greek and Later Revisors|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NoCJKyxEujEC&q=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguish+them&pg=PA301 |editor1-first =Raija | editor1-last = Sollamo | editor2-first = Anssi | editor2-last = Voitila | editor3-first = Jutta | editor3-last = Jokiranta|title=Scripture in transition|publisher=Brill|year=2008|isbn= 978-90-04-16582-3}}
* {{Citation |last=Grabbe|first=Lester L|author-link=Lester L. Grabbe|chapter=Ezra|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson&pg=PA153 |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Hasel|first=Gerhard F|author-link=Gerhard Hasel|title=Old Testament theology: basic issues in the current debate|publisher= Eerdmans|year=1991| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&q=Old+Testament+theology |isbn= 978-0-8028-0537-9}}
* {{cite web | last=Hayes | first=Christine | title=Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible): Lecture 6 Transcript | website=Open Yale Courses | url=http://openmedia.yale.edu/projects/iphone/departments/rlst/rlst145/transcript06.html | access-date=2019-10-31 | year=2006}}
* {{Citation |last=Herion|first= Gary A|chapter= Covenant|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=Old+Testament&pg=PP1 |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* Jeon, J., & Jonker, L. C. (Eds.). (2021). ''Chronicles and the Priestly Literature of the Hebrew Bible''. De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110707014
* {{Citation |last1=Jobes|first1=Karen H|last2=Silva|first2=Moises|author-link2=Moisés Silva|title=Invitation to the Septuagint|publisher=Baker Academic|year= 2005}}
* {{Citation |last=Jones|first= Barry A|chapter= Canon of the Old Testament|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=Old+Testament&pg=PP1 |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{Citation |last=Juel|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Juel|chapter=Christ|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible | editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible | publisher = William B Eerdmans |year=2000|isbn= 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Levine|first=Amy-Jill|title=The Old Testament. Course Guidebook|year=2001|publisher=The Great Courses|page=46|chapter-url=https://www.annapolis-presbyterian.com/library/public/documents/ministries/AdultEd/Old-Testament-Guidebook.pdf|chapter=Covenant and Law, Part I (Exodus 19–40, Leviticus, Deuteronomy). Lecture 10|archive-date=2 March 2021|access-date=31 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302072859/https://www.annapolis-presbyterian.com/library/public/documents/ministries/AdultEd/Old-Testament-Guidebook.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford}}
* {{Citation |last=McLay|first=Tim|title=The use of the Septuagint in New Testament research|publisher=Eerdmans|year= 2003|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=41rx-TDIF9gC&q=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research |isbn = 978-0-8028-6091-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=How the Bible came to be|publisher=Paulist Press|year= 2004|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a4VnOt-jstoC |isbn= 978-0-8091-4183-8}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=Meet the prophets: a beginner's guide to the books of the biblical prophets|publisher=Paulist Press | year = 1987|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mHXM3wjVP-gC&q=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+biblical+prophets |isbn= 978-0-8091-2899-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=Stephen R.|title=Daniel|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year= 1994|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=r3D6niEj9_sC&q=daniel,+steven+r.+miller |isbn= 978-0-8054-0118-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Rogerson|first=John W|chapter=Deuteronomy|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson&pg=PA153 |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last= Sailhamer|first= John H.|title= The Pentateuch As Narrative|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KNb6GwAACAAJ&q=john+sailhamer+the+pentateuch |publisher=Zondervan|year=1992|isbn= 978-0-310-57421-7}}
* {{Citation |last= Schniedewind|first= William M|author-link=William Schniedewind|title= How the Bible Became a Book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&q=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book |publisher=Cambridge|year=2004|isbn= 978-0-521-53622-6}}
* {{cite book|first=Jean Louis|last=Ska|title=The Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7g4yqsv0S0cC&pg=PA213|year=2009|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-149905-0|page=213}}
* {{Citation |last=Soggin|first=J. Alberto|author-link=Alberto Soggin|title=Introduction to the Old Testament|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1987|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&q=Soggin+Hebrew+bible&pg=PA40 |isbn= 978-0-664-22156-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Stuart|first=Douglas|title=Hosea-Jonah|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year= 1987|url = http://smile.amazon.com/Word-Biblical-Commentary-Vol-Hosea-Jonah/dp/0849902304/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460638022&sr=1-2&keywords=hosea-jonah |isbn= 978-0-8499-0230-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Würthwein|first=Ernst|title=The text of the Old Testament: an introduction to the Biblia Hebraica|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 1995 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FSNKSBObCYwC&q=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testament | isbn = 978-0-8028-0788-5}}

==Further reading==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard]]. ''Understanding the Old Testament''. {{ISBN|0-13-948399-3}}
* [[Greg Bahnsen|Bahnsen, Greg]], et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).
* {{Citation | last1 = Berkowitz | first1 = Ariel | last2 = Berkowitz | first2 = D'vorah | title = Torah Rediscovered | edition = 4th | publisher = Shoreshim | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-9752914-0-5}}.
* {{Citation | last = Dever | first = William G. | author-link = William G. Dever | title = Who Were the Early Israelites? | publisher = William B Eerdmans | place = Grand Rapids, Michigan | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-8028-0975-9}}.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Bible |volume= 3 |last= Driver |first= Samuel Rolles |author-link= Samuel Rolles Driver | pages = 849–894 }}
* {{Citation | last1 = Hill | first1 = Andrew | first2 = John | last2 = Walton | title = A Survey of the Old Testament | edition = 2nd | place = Grand Rapids | publisher = Zondervan | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-310-22903-2}}.
* {{Citation | last = Kuntz | first = John Kenneth | title = The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1974 | isbn = 978-0-06-043822-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/peopleofancienti0000kunt }}.
* {{Citation | last = Lancaster | first = D Thomas | title = Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus | place = Littleton \ |publisher=First Fruits of Zion | year = 2005}}.
* {{Citation | last = Papadaki-Oekland | first = Stella | title = Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job | isbn = 978-2-503-53232-5| year = 2009 | publisher = Brepols }}.
* {{Citation | first = Gerhard | last = von Rad | author-link = Gerhard von Rad | title = Theologie des Alten Testaments | language = de |trans-title=Theology of the Old Testament | volume = Band 1–2 | place = Munich | publisher = Auflage | year = 1982–1984}}.
* {{Citation | last = Rouvière | first = Jean-Marc | title = Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde | language = fr |trans-title=Brief meditations on the creation of the World | publisher = L'Harmattan | place = Paris | year = 2006}}.
* {{Citation | last = Salibi | first = Kamal | author-link = Kamal Salibi | title = The Bible Came from Arabia | place = London | publisher = Jonathan Cape | year = 1985 | isbn = 978-0-224-02830-1}}.
* {{Citation | last = Schmid | first = Konrad | title = The Old Testament: A Literary History | publisher = Fortress | place = Minneapolis | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0-8006-9775-4}}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Silberman | first1 = Neil A | author-link1 = Neil Asher Silberman | title = The Bible Unearthed | publisher = Simon & Schuster | place = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-684-86912-4 | display-authors=etal}} (hardback), {{ISBN|0-684-86913-6}} (paperback).
* {{Citation | last = Sprinkle | first = Joseph 'Joe' M | title = Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations | place = Lanham, Maryland | publisher = University Press of America | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-7618-3371-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/biblicallawa_spri_2006_000_10111390 }} (clothbound) and {{ISBN|0-7618-3372-2}} (paperback).

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=yes}}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.biblegateway.com/ | title = Bible gateway}}. Full texts of the Old (and New) Testaments including the full Roman and Orthodox Catholic canons
* {{Citation | url = http://earlyjewishwritings.com/ | title = Early Jewish Writings | access-date = 2018-09-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180924063315/http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/ | archive-date = 2018-09-24 }} – Tanakh
* {{Citation | url = http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | title = Écritures | contribution = Old Testament | publisher = La feuille d'Olivier | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101207051208/http://lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | archive-date = 2010-12-07 }} Protestant Old Testament on a single page
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/oldt | contribution = Old Testament | title = Reading Room | publisher = Tyndale Seminary | place = Canada}}. Extensive online Old Testament resources (including commentaries)
* {{Citation | url = https://oyc.yale.edu/NODE/241 | title = Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) | publisher = Yale University }}
* {{Cite web | title=Old Testament | publisher= The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. | website=[[Encyclopedia.com]] | url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/bible/old-testament/old-testament }}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.bible.x10host.com/ | title = Bible | publisher = X10 host}}: Old Testament stories and commentary
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tanakhml.org/ | title = Tanakh ML | type = parallel Bible}} – [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] and the [[King James Version]]

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