View source for Pakistan

{{short description|Country in South Asia}}
{{about|the country|other uses|Pakistan (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Islamic Republic of Pakistan
| common_name            = Pakistan
| native_name            = {{ubl|{{native name|ur|{{Nastaliq|اسلامی جمہوریہ پاكستان}}|italics=off}}|{{transliteration|engvar=in|ur|ALA-LC|''Islāmī Jumhūriyah Pākistān''}}{{sfn|Minahan|2009}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Pakistan.svg
| image_coat             = [[File:State emblem of Pakistan.svg|class=skin-invert-image|85px]]
| symbol_type            = [[State emblem of Pakistan|State emblem]]
| national_motto         = {{plainlist|
* {{Transliteration|engvar=in|ur|[[Īmān, Ittihād, Nazam]]}} ([[Urdu]])
* {{Native name|ur|{{Nastaliq|ایمان، اتحاد، نظم}}|paren=off}}
* "Faith, Unity, Discipline"{{lower|0.2em|{{sfn|Jaffrelot|2015|page=97}}<!--end lower:-->}}
}}
| national_anthem        = {{plainlist|
* {{Transliteration|engvar=in|ur|ALA-LC|[[Qaumi Taranah|Qaumī Tarānah]]}} ([[Urdu]])
* {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|قَومی ترانہ}}}}
* {{center|"The National Anthem"<br />[[File:National anthem of Pakistan, instrumental.oga]]}}
}}
| image_map              = PAK orthographic.svg
| map_width              = 250px
| map_caption            = {{legend|#336830|Territory controlled by Pakistan}}{{legend|#61E760|Territory claimed but not controlled<br />([[Kashmir conflict|Kashmir]], [[Annexation of Junagadh|Junagadh]], and [[Sir Creek#Indo-Pakistani border dispute|Sir Creek]])}}
| capital                = [[Islamabad]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|33|41|30|N|73|3|0|E|type:city_region:PK-IS}}
| largest_city           = [[Karachi]]<br />{{Coord|24|51|36|N|67|0|36|E|type:city(20,000,000)_region:PK-SD}}
| official_languages     = {{hlist |[[Urdu]]|[[Pakistani English|English]]{{efn|Article 251 of the [[Constitution of Pakistan]]{{sfn|Ayres|2009}}}}}}
| languages_type         = Native languages
| languages              = [[Languages of Pakistan|Over 77 languages]]{{sfn|Eberhard|Simons|Fennig|2022}}
| religion               = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
  | 96.3% [[Islam in Pakistan|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]]){{efn|The [[Constitution of Pakistan | Constitution]] designates Islam as the state religion.}}
  | 2.2% [[Hinduism in Pakistan|Hinduism]] <!-- 1.61% Hindu (Jati) 0.56% Hindu (scheduled castes) --> 
  | 1.4% [[Christianity in Pakistan|Christianity]]
  | 0.1% [[Religion in Pakistan|other]]
 }}
| religion_year          = 2023
| demonym                = Pakistani
| government_type        = [[Federal republic|Federal]] parliamentary [[Islamic republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Pakistan|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Asif Ali Zardari]]
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Shehbaz Sharif]]

| legislature            = [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate of Pakistan|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[Pakistan Movement|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note       = from the [[United Kingdom]]
| established_event1     = [[Lahore Resolution|Declaration]]
| established_date1      = 23 March 1940
| established_event2     = [[Dominion of Pakistan|Recognised dominion]]
| established_date2      = 14 August 1947
| established_event3     = [[Monarchy of Pakistan#Abolition|Republic]]
| established_date3      = 23 March 1956
| established_event4     = [[Gwadar Purchase|Last territory's acquisition]]
| established_date4      = 8 December 1958
| established_event5     = [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Eastern territory withdrawn]]
| established_date5      = 16 December 1971
| established_event6     = [[Constitution of Pakistan|Current constitution]]
| established_date6      = 14 August 1973
| established_event7     = 
| established_date7      = 
| established_event8     = 
| established_date8      = 
| area_km2               = 881,913
| area_footnote          = {{efn|"Includes data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; [[Azad Kashmir]] ({{convert|13297|km2|sqmi|disp=or|abbr=on}}) and [[Gilgit–Baltistan]] ({{convert|72520|km2|sqmi|disp=or|abbr=on}}).{{sfn|James|2022}} Excluding these territories would produce an area figure of {{convert|796,095|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}."}}{{sfn|Bhandari|2022}}
| area_rank              = 33rd
| area_sq_mi             = 307,374
| percent_water          = 2.86
| population_density_km2 = 273.8
| population_density_sq_mi = 633
| population_density_rank = 56th
| population_estimate    = 
| population_estimate_year = 
| population_census      = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 241,499,431{{efn|name=fn3|"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, which, according to 2017 Pakistani census, had a population of 4,045,367 and 1,492,924 respectively."}}
| population_census_year = [[2023 Pakistani census|2023]]
| population_census_rank = 5th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $1.8 trillion
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2026
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 27th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $7,330
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 148th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $407.79 billion
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 42nd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,700
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 160th
| Gini_year              = 2018
| Gini_change            = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini                   = 29.6 <!--number only-->
| Gini_ref               = 
| HDI                    = 0.544 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = 
| HDI_rank               = 168th
| currency               = [[Pakistani rupee]] (₨)
| currency_code          = PKR
| time_zone              = [[Pakistan Standard Time|PKT]]
| utc_offset             = +5
| date_format            = {{ubl
  | {{nowrap|{{abbr|dd|day}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|yyyy|year}}}}{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in Pakistan]].}}
}}
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Pakistan|+92]]
| cctld                  = {{unbulleted list |[[.pk]] |[[پاکستان.]]}}
| official_website       = {{URL|http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Urdu|compact=yes}}

'''Pakistan''',{{efn|{{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|پَاکِسْتَان}}}}, {{IPA|ur|ˈpɑːkɪstɑːn|audio=Pakistan pronunciation.ogg}}; Pronounced variably in English as {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Pakistan.ogg|ˈ|p|æ|k|ᵻ|s|t|æ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Pakistan-2.ogg|ˈ|p|ɑː|k|ᵻ|s|t|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|æ|k|ᵻ|ˈ|s|t|æ|n}}, and {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ɑː|k|ᵻ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n}}.}} officially the '''Islamic Republic of Pakistan''',{{efn|[[ISO 15919|ISO]]: {{langx|engvar=in|ur|{{Nastaliq|اِسْلامی
جُمْہُورِیَہ پَاکِسْتَان}}|label=none}}, {{Transliteration|ur|Islāmi Jumhūriyāh Pākistān|engvar=in}}}} is a country in [[South Asia]]. It is the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|fifth-most populous country]], with a population of over 241.5 million,{{efn|name=fn3}} having the [[Islam by country#Countries|second-largest Muslim population]] as of 2023. [[Islamabad]] is the nation's capital, while [[Karachi]] is [[List of cities in Pakistan by population|its largest city]] and [[financial centre]]. Pakistan is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|33rd-largest country by area]]. Bounded by the [[Arabian Sea]] on the south, the [[Gulf of Oman]] on the southwest, and the [[Sir Creek]] on the southeast, it shares land borders with [[India]] to the east; [[Afghanistan]] to the west; [[Iran]] to the southwest; and [[China]] to the northeast. It shares a maritime border with [[Oman]] in the Gulf of Oman, and is separated from [[Tajikistan]] in the northwest by Afghanistan's narrow [[Wakhan Corridor]].

Pakistan is the site of [[History of Pakistan|several ancient cultures]], including the 8,500-year-old [[Neolithic]] site of [[Mehrgarh]] in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]], the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] of the [[Bronze Age]],{{R|Wright-2009}} and the ancient [[Gandhara civilisation]].{{sfn|Badian|1987}} The regions that compose the modern state of Pakistan were the realm of multiple empires and dynasties, including the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]], the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]], the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]], the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]];{{sfn|Wynbrandt|2009}} the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in its southern regions, the [[Hindu Shahis]], the [[Ghaznavids]], the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the [[Samma dynasty|Samma]], the [[Shah Miris]], the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]],{{sfn|Spuler|1969}} and finally, the [[British Raj]] from 1858 to 1947.

Spurred by the [[Pakistan Movement]], which sought a homeland for the Muslims of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]], and election victories in 1946 by the [[All-India Muslim League]], Pakistan gained independence in 1947 after the [[partition of British India]], which awarded separate statehood to its Muslim-majority regions and was accompanied by an unparalleled mass migration and loss of life.{{R|Copland-2001|Metcalf-2006}} Initially [[Dominion of Pakistan|a dominion]] of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], Pakistan [[Constitution of Pakistan (1956–1958)|adopted a republican constitution]] in 1956 and became an [[Islamic republic]] with two geographically separate provinces, [[East Pakistan]] and [[West Pakistan]]. East Pakistan seceded as the new country of [[Bangladesh]] in 1971 after a [[Bangladesh Liberation War|nine-month-long civil war]]. In the following four decades, Pakistan has been ruled by governments that alternated between civilian and military, democratic and authoritarian, relatively [[Secularism in Pakistan|secular]] and Islamist.{{sfn|Talbot|2016}}

Pakistan is considered a [[middle power]] and is a declared [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon state]], with the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|seventh-largest standing armed forces]]. The [[Economy of Pakistan|Pakistani economy]] is ranked amongst the world's emerging and growth-leading economies,{{sfn|Zia|Burton|2023}} with a large and rapidly growing middle class.{{sfn|Rais|2017}}{{sfn|Cornwall|Edwards|2014}} Pakistan's political history since independence has been characterised by periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of political and economic instability. It is an [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan|ethnically]] and [[Languages of Pakistan|linguistically]] diverse country, with similarly diverse [[Geography of Pakistan|geography]] and [[Wildlife of Pakistan|wildlife]]. The country continues to face [[Poverty in Pakistan|poverty]], [[Literate Pakistan Foundation|illiteracy]], [[Corruption in Pakistan|corruption]], and [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism]].{{sfn|Joseph|2016}}{{sfn|Baqir|2018}}{{sfn|SATP|2024}} Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]], and the [[Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition|Islamic Military Counter-Terrorism Coalition]], and is designated as a [[major non-NATO ally]] by the United States.

== Etymology ==
The name ''Pakistan'' was coined by [[Choudhry Rahmat Ali]], a [[Pakistan Movement]] activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as "Pakstan") in a pamphlet ''[[Pakistan Declaration|Now or Never]]'', using it as an [[acronym]].{{sfn|Aziz|1987}}{{sfn|Saqib|Malik|2018}}{{sfn|Lahiri|2023}} Rahmat Ali explained: "It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian, [[Punjab Province (British India)|'''P'''anjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–2010)|'''A'''fghania]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|'''K'''ashmir]], [[Sind Division|'''S'''indh]], and [[Baluchistan Agency|Baluchis'''tan''']]." He added, "Pakistan is both a [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Urdu]] word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean."{{sfn|Tummala|1996}} Etymologists note that {{wikt-lang|fa|پاک}} {{transliteration|fa|pāk|engvar=in}}, is 'pure' in Persian and [[Pashto]] and the Persian suffix {{wikt-lang|fa|ـستان}} {{transliteration|fa|[[-stan]]|engvar=in}} means 'land' or 'place of'.{{sfn|Saqib|Malik|2018}}

Rahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the northwestern area of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He also proposed the name "Banglastan" for the Muslim areas of [[Bengal]] and "Osmanistan" for [[Hyderabad State]], as well as a political federation between the three.{{sfn|Anand|1991}}

== History ==
{{main|History of Pakistan}}
{{see also|Timeline of Pakistani history}}

=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| width1            = 140
| image1            = Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg
| caption1          = ''[[Priest-king (sculpture)|Priest-King]]'' from [[Mohenjo-daro]] ({{circa|2500 BCE}}){{sfn|Parker|2017}}
| width2            = 165
| image2            = Cremation Urn with Lid LACMA AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg
| caption2          = Cremation urn, [[Gandhara grave culture]], Swat Valley, {{circa|1200 BCE}}{{sfn|Burrison|2017}}
}}
Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in [[South Asia]] originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.{{sfn|Allchin|Petraglia|2007}} The earliest known stone tools in the region, dating to the [[Lower Palaeolithic]] (~2 million years ago), were discovered in the [[Soan Valley]] of [[northern Pakistan]].{{sfn|Rendell|Dennell|1985}} The [[Indus River|Indus plain]] region, which covers most of the present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the [[Neolithic]] (7000–4300 [[BCE]]) site of [[Mehrgarh]],{{R|Coningham-Young-2015|Fisher-2018|Dyson-2018}} and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], including [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Harappa]].{{R|Allchin-1982}}{{sfn|Dales|Kenoyer|Alcock|1986}}

Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation, semi-nomadic [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-European Aryans]] migrated into the [[Indian subcontinent]] around 2000 BCE, perhaps by way of the [[Khyber Pass]]. They fused with the indigenous Harappan culture of the Indus Valley, and elements of the pre-Aryan spiritual traditions were assimilated into the developing Vedic tradition.{{sfn|Consiglio|2015}} This cultural milieu shaped the [[Gandhara]] Civilisation, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting [[Silk Road|trade routes]] and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilisations.{{sfn|Behrendt|2007}} By the early Vedic period, parts of the Indus region in present-day Pakistan were populated by numerous tribes that were beginning to coalesce into chieftain-led clans and early kingdoms.{{sfn|Flood|2022}} During this period, the [[Vedas]], the oldest [[scriptures]] of [[Hinduism]], were composed.{{sfn|Oberlies|2023}}{{efn|name="Rigveda"}}

=== Classical period ===
[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|''[[Standing Buddha]]'' from [[Gandhara]] (1st–2nd century CE){{sfn|Stonard|2017}}|upright=0.8]]
The western regions of Pakistan [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|became part]] of [[Achaemenid Empire]] around 517&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Dandamaev|2023}} In 326&nbsp;BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King [[Porus]], at [[Battle of Hydaspes|Jhelum]].{{sfn|Sadasivan|2011}} Among the major powers that ruled the region were the [[Mauryas]] (322–185 BCE), during which [[Ashoka the Great]] extended the empire.{{sfn|Khan|2022|page=114}}{{sfn|Cooke|2017}} The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] founded by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius of Bactria]] (180–165&nbsp;BCE) included [[Gandhara]] and [[Punjab]] and reached its greatest extent under [[Menander I|Menander]] (165–150&nbsp;BCE), prospering the [[Greco-Buddhism|Greco-Buddhist]] culture in the region.{{sfn|Pollitt|1986}}{{sfn|Quintanilla|2007}}{{sfn|Kubica|2023}} [[Taxila]] had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE.{{sfn|Westmoreland|2019}} The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.{{refn|name="Needham-1994"}}{{refn|name="Kulke-Rothermund-2016"}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1989}} At its zenith, the [[Rai dynasty]] (489–632&nbsp;CE) ruled [[Sindh]] and the surrounding territories.{{sfn|Banerjee|2022}}

=== Medieval period ===
[[Makran]] came under Muslim rule in the 7th century CE when it was conquered and a garrison was established under [[Mu'awiya I]] (r. 661–680).{{sfn|Wink|2002}} The Arab general [[Muhammad ibn Qasim]] conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Mufti|2013}} The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid.{{sfn|Hoodbhoy|2023}} The early medieval period (642–1219&nbsp;CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region.{{sfn|Cavendish|2006|page=318}} Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]].{{R|Stubbs-Thomson-2016}}{{sfn|Malik|2006|page=47}} During this period, [[Sufi]] [[Dawah|missionaries]] played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam.{{sfn|Lapidus|2014}} Upon the defeat of the [[Turk Shahis|Turk]] and [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasties which governed the [[Kabul Valley]], [[Gandhara]], and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|several successive Muslim empires]] ruled over the region, including the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] (975–1187&nbsp;CE), the [[Ghorid Empire]], and the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526&nbsp;CE).{{sfn|Samad|2011}} The [[Lodi dynasty]], the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1857&nbsp;CE).{{sfn|Faroqhi|2019}}

[[File:View_of_Makli_by_Usman_Ghani_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Makli Necropolis]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] rose to prominence as a major funerary site during the [[Samma dynasty]].{{sfn|Junejo|2020}}]]
The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of [[Indo-Persian culture]] in the region.{{sfn|Canfield|2002}} In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period were [[Multan]], [[Lahore]], [[Peshawar]] and [[Thatta]],{{sfn|Chandra|2005}} which were chosen as the site of impressive [[Mughal architecture|Mughal buildings]].{{sfn|Malik|2006|page=79}} In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire.{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006}} In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers like the [[Maratha Empire]] and later the [[Sikh Empire]], as well as invasions by [[Nader Shah]] from Iran in 1739,{{sfn|Haleem|2013}}{{sfn|MacDonald|2017}} and the [[Durrani Empire]] of Afghanistan in 1748.{{sfn|Qassem|2016}} The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.{{sfn|Simpson|2007}}

=== Colonial rule ===
{{main|British India|British Raj|Aligarh Movement|Two-nation theory}}
{{multiple image
| align          = right
| width1         = 146
| image1         = Sir Syed1.jpg
| caption1       = Sir [[Syed Ahmad Khan]] (1817–1898), whose [[Two-nation theory|vision]] formed the basis of Pakistan{{R|Wolpert-1984|Sengupta-2023}}{{sfn|Holt|Curta|2016}}
| alt1           = Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), whose vision (Two-nation theory) formed the basis of Pakistan
| width2         = 170
| image2         = Jinnah1945b.jpg
| caption2       = [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] (1876–1948), Pakistan's first Governor-General and the leader of the [[Pakistan Movement]]{{sfn|Wolpert|1984}}
| alt2           = Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) served as Pakistan's first Governor-General and the leader of the Pakistan Movement
}}
None of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when [[Karachi]], a small fishing village governed by [[Talpur dynasty|Talpurs]] of [[Sindh]] with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was [[History of Karachi#Company rule|taken]],{{sfn|Rustomji|1952}}{{sfn|Walbridge|2012}} and used as an enclave with a port and [[Karachi Cantonment|military base]] for the [[First Afghan War]] that ensued.{{sfn|Gayer|2014}} The remainder of [[Sindh]] was acquired in 1843,{{sfn|Sharma|D'Angelo|Giri|2020}} and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], and later, after the post-[[Sepoy Mutiny]] (1857–1858), direct rule by [[Queen Victoria]] of the [[British Empire]], acquired most of the region.{{sfn|Pirbhai|2009}} Key conflicts included those against the [[Baloch people|Baloch]] [[Talpur dynasty]], resolved by the [[Battle of Miani]] (1843) in Sindh,{{sfn|Harjani|2018}} the [[Anglo-Sikh War (disambiguation)|Anglo-Sikh Wars]] (1845–1849),{{sfn|Cook|1975}} and the [[Anglo-Afghan Wars]] (1839–1919).{{sfn|Khan|2022|page=119}} By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the [[British Indian Empire]], and remained so until independence in 1947.{{sfn|Cavendish|2006|page=365}}

Under British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the [[Sind Division]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], and the [[Baluchistan Agency]]. The region also included various [[princely state]]s, with the largest being [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]].{{sfn|Law|1999}}{{sfn|Hussain|2015}}

An important uprising against the British in the region was the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], known at the time as the [[Sepoy Mutiny]].{{sfn|Nyrop|1975|page=371}} Divergence in the [[Hindu–Islamic relations|relationship]] between [[Hinduism]] and Islam resulted in significant tension in [[British Raj|British India]], leading to religious violence. The [[Hindi–Urdu controversy|language controversy]] further exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims.{{sfn|Holt|Curta|2016}}{{sfn|Hali|Akhtar|1993}} A [[Aligarh Movement|Muslim intellectual movement]], led by Sir [[Syed Ahmed Khan]] to counter the [[Bengali Renaissance|Hindu renaissance]], advocated for the [[two-nation theory]] and led to the establishment of the [[All-India Muslim League]] in 1906.{{R|Wolpert-1984|Sengupta-2023}}{{sfn|Holt|Curta|2016}}

In March 1929, in response to the [[Nehru Report]], [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the founder of Pakistan, issued his [[Fourteen Points of Jinnah|fourteen points]], which included proposals to safeguard the interests of the Muslim minority in a united India. These proposals were rejected.{{R|Hardy-1972|Wuthnow-2013|Singh-Shani-2021}} In his 29 December 1930 address, [[Muhammad Iqbal|Allama Iqbal]] advocated the amalgamation of Muslim-majority states in [[Northwest India (pre-1947)|North-West]] India, including [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–55)|North-West Frontier Province]], [[Sind Province (1936–55)|Sind]], and [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)|Baluchistan]].{{R|Singh-Shani-2021}}{{refn|name="Iqbal"}} The perception that Congress-led British [[1937 Indian provincial elections|provincial governments]] neglected the Muslim League from 1937 to 1939 motivated Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders to embrace the two-nation theory.{{sfn|Pandeya|2003}}{{sfn|Basu|Miroshnik|2017}} This led to the adoption of the [[Lahore Resolution]] of 1940, presented by [[Sher-e-Bangla]] [[A.K. Fazlul Haque]], also known as the Pakistan Resolution.{{sfn|M. H. Khan|2016}}

By 1942, Britain faced considerable strain during [[World War II]], with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under the leadership of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] launched the [[Quit India Movement]], demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support the [[United Kingdom in World War II|UK's war efforts]], thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation.{{R|Tucker-2020}}{{sfn|Chandra|2008}}

=== Independence ===
{{main|Pakistan Movement}}
{{further|Indian independence movement|Partition of India}}
[[File:Partition of India 1947 en.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[partition of India]]: green regions were all part of Pakistan by 1948, and orange ones part of India. The darker-shaded regions represent the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] provinces partitioned by the [[Radcliffe Line]]. The grey areas represent some of the key [[princely state]]s that were eventually integrated into India or Pakistan.]]
The [[1946 Indian provincial elections|1946 elections]] saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance.{{R|Mohiuddin-2007-1}} Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims,{{sfn|Hoodbhoy|2023}} compelled the British to consider their stance, despite their [[Opposition to the partition of India|reluctance to partition India]]. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the [[Cabinet Mission Plan]].{{R|Mohiuddin-2007-2}}

As the Cabinet Mission failed, the British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948.{{sfn|Wolpert|1984|page=309}}{{sfn|Markovits|2012}} Following rigorous discussions involving [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy of India]], [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten of Burma]], [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] of the [[All-India Muslim League]], and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions—namely Pakistan and India—was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office, the prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M., [[All India Radio]] transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of Pakistan [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] concluded his address with the slogan ''Pakistan Zindabad'' (Long Live Pakistan).{{sfn|Wolpert|1984|pages=328–329}}

As the United Kingdom agreed to the [[Partition of India|partitioning of India]],{{sfn|Wolpert|1984|pages=328–329}} the modern state of Pakistan was established on [[Independence Day (Pakistan)|14 August 1947]] {{small|(27th of [[Ramadan]] in 1366 of the [[Islamic calendar]], [[Night of Power|a holy time regarded as auspicious and noted for its religious importance]])}}.{{sfn|Hakeem|2014}}{{sfn|NDTV|2025}} This new nation amalgamated the [[Islam in India|Muslim-majority]] eastern and [[Northwest India (pre-1947)|northwestern regions]] of [[British India]], comprising the provinces of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], [[East Bengal]], the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]], and Sindh.{{sfn|Cohen|2004|page=6}}

In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions.{{refn|name="Riots-1"}} Around 50,000 Muslim women were [[Violence against women during the partition of India|abducted and raped]] by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.{{refn|name="Riots-2"}} Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.{{R|Hasan-Raza-2009}} It was the largest mass migration in human history.{{sfn|Riggs|2024}} A subsequent dispute over the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] eventually sparked the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948]].{{sfn|Bhaumik|1996}}

=== Post-independence ===
{{Main|History of Pakistan (1947–present)|Dominion of Pakistan}}
[[File:Liaquat Ali Khan 1945.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Liaquat Ali Khan]] was elected the first Prime Minister of Pakistan.{{sfn|Kazmi|2003}}{{sfn|Tucker|2017}}]]
After [[Creation of Pakistan|independence]] in 1947, Jinnah, the [[Party chair|President]] of the Muslim League, became Pakistan's first [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor-General]] and the first [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan|President-Speaker]] of the [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]], but he died of tuberculosis on 11 September 1948.{{sfn|Tucker|2017}}{{sfn|Akbar|2018}} Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed to appoint [[Liaquat Ali Khan]], the [[Secretary General|secretary-general]] of the [[All-India Muslim League|party]], the nation's [[List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan|first Prime Minister]].{{sfn|Kazmi|2003}}{{sfn|Tucker|2017}} From 1947 to 1956, [[Monarchy of Pakistan|Pakistan was a monarchy]] within the Commonwealth of Nations, and had two monarchs before it became a republic.{{R|Kumarasingham-2013}}

The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders including [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]].{{R|McGrath-1996}} Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.{{R|Ahmed-1997}} Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.{{R|Wolpert-2009}} When Mountbatten was asked by [[Larry Collins (writer)|Collins]] and [[Dominique Lapierre|Lapierre]] if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.{{R|Lapierre-Collins-2015}}
[[File:Pakistan.ogv|thumb|The American [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] film on Pakistan, made in 1950, examines the history and geography of Pakistan.]]
{{quote box
|quote   = "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed&nbsp;– that has nothing to do with the business of the State."
|source  = —[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]'s first speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.{{sfn|Wilson|2009}}
|align   = right
|width   = 25em
|border  = 1px
|bgcolor = #c6dbf7
|halign  = left
}}
Maulana [[Shabbir Ahmad Usmani]], a respected Deobandi ''alim'' (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and [[Abul A'la Maududi|Maulana Mawdudi]] of [[Jamaat-e-Islami|Jamaat-i-Islami]] played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the ''shariah'' in Pakistan.{{R|Hussain-2008-1}}

The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ''[[ulama]]'' led to the passage of the [[Objectives Resolution]] in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.{{R|Hussain-2008-2}}

[[Democracy in Pakistan|Democracy]] faced setbacks due to the [[1958 Pakistani coup d'état|martial law]] imposed by President [[Iskander Mirza]], who was succeeded by General [[Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan)|Ayub Khan]]. After adopting a [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1962|presidential system]] in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|second war]] with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967.{{sfn|Wynbrandt|2009|p=190–197}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|Mahmud|2008}} In 1969, President [[Yahya Khan]] consolidated control, but faced a devastating [[1970 Bhola cyclone|cyclone]] in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths.{{sfn|Kathpalia|1986}}

In 1970, Pakistan conducted its [[1970 Pakistani general election|first democratic elections]] since independence, intending to transition from [[Legal Framework Order, 1970|military rule]] to democracy. However, after the East Pakistani [[Awami League]] emerged victorious over the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military refused to transfer power.{{sfn|Koumar|2023}} This led to [[Operation Searchlight]], a military crackdown, and eventually sparked the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war of liberation]] by Bengali [[Mukti Bahini]] forces in East Pakistan,{{sfn|Lewis|2011}} described in West Pakistan as a civil war rather than a liberation struggle.{{sfn|Bose|2005}}

[[File:Ayubkhanandbhutto.jpg|thumb|upright|Signing of the [[Tashkent Declaration]] to end [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|hostilities]] with India in 1965 in [[Tashkent]], [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)|USSR]], by President [[Field Marshal Ayub Khan|Ayub]] alongside [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Bhutto]] (centre) and [[Aziz Ahmed (civil servant)|Aziz Ahmed]] (left){{sfn|Khan|2008}}]]

Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million,{{sfn|Sunkara|Walter|Rojas|2024}} a figure now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.{{sfn|Hiro|2015}} Some academics such as [[Rudolph Rummel]] and [[Rounaq Jahan]] say both sides committed genocide;{{sfn|Rummel|1998}} others such as [[John Richard Sisson|Richard Sisson]] and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.{{sfn|Beachler|2011}} In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, [[preemptive strikes]] on India by Pakistan's [[Pakistan Air Force|air force]], [[Pakistan Navy|navy]], and [[Pakistan Marines|marines]] sparked [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|a conventional war]] in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining [[Independence of Bangladesh|independence]] as [[Bangladesh]].{{sfn|Totten|2000}}

Yahya Khan was replaced by [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] as president; the country worked towards promulgating [[Constitution of Pakistan|its constitution]] and putting the country on the road to democracy.{{sfn|Paxton|2016}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|2010}} In 1972 Pakistan embarked on an ambitious plan to develop its [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|nuclear deterrence]] capability with [[Mutually assured destruction|the goal of preventing]] any [[Foreign interventionism|foreign invasion]]; the country's [[KANUPP|first]] [[nuclear power plant]] was inaugurated in that same year.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|2007}}{{sfn|Hoodbhoy|2011}} India's [[Operation Smiling Buddha|first nuclear test]] in 1974 gave Pakistan additional justification to accelerate its [[Pakistan and Nuclear Weapons|nuclear program]].{{sfn|Hoodbhoy|2011}}

Democracy ended with a [[Operation Fair Play|military coup]] in 1977 against the [[Socialism in Pakistan|leftist]] PPP, which saw [[General Zia-ul-Haq]] become the president in 1978.{{sfn|Krasno|LaPides|2015}} From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's [[Corporate sector of Pakistan|corporatisation]] and [[Islamization of Economy|economic Islamisation]] initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia.{{sfn|Khanna|2002}} While building up the country's [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|nuclear program]], increasing [[Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization|Islamisation]], and the rise of a homegrown [[Conservatism in Pakistan|conservative]] philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidise and distribute US [[Operation Cyclone|resources to factions]] of the [[Afghan mujahideen|mujahideen]] against the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]'s [[Soviet–Afghan War|intervention]] in [[communist Afghanistan]].{{sfn|Hajari|2015}}{{sfn|Coll|2004}}{{sfn|Westad|2005}} Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] became a base for the anti-Soviet Afghan fighters, with the province's influential [[Deobandi]] ulama playing a significant role in encouraging and organising the 'jihad'.{{sfn|Haroon|2008}}

[[Death of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq|President Zia died]] in a plane crash in 1988, and [[Benazir Bhutto]], daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the country's [[Women in Muslim societies|first female]] Prime Minister. The PPP was followed by conservative [[Pakistan Muslim League (N)]] (PML (N)), and over the next decade the leaders of the two parties fought for power, alternating in office.{{sfn|Tucker|2015}} This period is marked by prolonged [[Periods of stagflation in Pakistan|stagflation]], political instability, [[Corruption in Pakistan|corruption]], misgovernment, [[Geostrategy|geopolitical]] rivalry with India, and the clash between [[Socialism in Pakistan|left-wing]] and [[Conservatism in Pakistan|right-wing]] ideologies.{{sfn|Chapman|2018}}{{sfn|Husain|2010}} As PML (N) secured a [[supermajority]] in [[1997 Pakistani general election|elections]] in 1997,{{sfn|Yap|Abeyratne|2023|page=68}} [[Nawaz Sharif]] authorised [[List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan|nuclear testings]], as a [[Tit-for-tat|retaliation]] to the [[Pokhran-II|second nuclear tests]] conducted by India in May 1998.{{sfn|Khan|2012}}

[[File:The Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee meets the President of Pakistan Mr. Pervez Musharraf on the sidline of 12th SAARC Summit in Islmabad on January 5, 2003.jpg|left|thumb|President [[Pervez Musharraf|Musharraf]] meets with Indian Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]] in [[Islamabad]] at the sidelines of the 12th [[SAARC]] summit in 2004.{{sfn|Ahmad|2023}}]]

Military tension between the two countries in the [[Kargil district]] led to the [[Kargil War]] of 1999,{{sfn|Mazari|2003}}{{sfn|Chakma|2014}} and turmoil in [[civil-military relations]] allowed General [[Pervez Musharraf]] to take over through a [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état|bloodless coup d'état]].{{sfn|Yarbakhsh|2019}} Musharraf governed Pakistan as [[head of government|chief executive]] from 1999 to 2002 and as president from 2001 to 2008{{sfn|Khoja-Moolji|2021}}—a period of [[Enlightened moderation|enlightenment]],{{sfn|Fair|2014}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2021}} social [[Liberal islam|liberalism]],{{sfn|Abid|2023}} extensive [[Economic reforms in Pakistan|economic reforms]],{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2007|page=219}} and [[Pakistan's role in the War on Terror|direct involvement in the US-led war on terrorism]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2021}} By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's [[Pakistan's role in the War on Terror|involvement in the war on terrorism]] has cost up to $118&nbsp;billion, over [[List of terrorist incidents in Pakistan since 2001|eighty one thousand casualties]],{{sfn|Martini|Ford|Jackson|2020}} and more than 1.8&nbsp;million displaced civilians.{{sfn|Mansbach|Pirro|Taylor|2017}}

The [[National Assembly (Pakistan)|National Assembly]] historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007.{{sfn|United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|2008}} After the [[assassination of Benazir Bhutto]] in 2007, the PPP secured the [[Majority|most votes]] in the [[2008 Pakistani general election|elections]] of 2008, appointing party member [[Yusuf Raza Gilani]] as Prime Minister.{{sfn|Jaffrelot|2015|page=261}} Threatened with [[Movement to impeach Pervez Musharraf|impeachment]], President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by [[Asif Ali Zardari]].{{sfn|Kapoor|2009}} Clashes with the [[Judiciary of Pakistan|judicature]] prompted Gilani's disqualification from the [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] and as the Prime Minister in June 2012.{{sfn|Waseem|2022}} The [[2013 Pakistani general election|general election]] held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory,{{sfn|Dede|Sadioglu|2016}} following which Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister for the third time.{{sfn|Ruhland|2019}} In 2018, [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf|PTI]] won the [[2018 Pakistan general election|general election]] and [[Imran Khan]] became the 22nd Prime Minister.{{sfn|Burnett|2020}} In April 2022, [[Shehbaz Sharif]] was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote.{{sfn|Central Intelligence Agency|2023}} During [[2024 Pakistani general election|2024 general election]], PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc,{{sfn|Afzal|2024}} but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as a result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP.{{sfn|Tariq|Stenson|2024}}
{{Clear}}

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Pakistan|Environment of Pakistan|Climate of Pakistan|List of extreme weather records in Pakistan|l4=Extreme weather records in Pakistan|List of tropical cyclones in Pakistan|List of beaches in Pakistan}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_PAK_present.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Pakistan]]
Pakistan's diverse [[Geography of Pakistan|geography]] and [[Climate of Pakistan|climate]] host a wide array of [[Wildlife of Pakistan|wildlife]].{{sfn|Cheng et al.|2022}} Covering {{convert|881913|km2|abbr=on}},{{sfn|Agarwal|Ahmad|2021}} Pakistan ranks as the [[List of countries by area|33rd-largest nation by total area]],{{sfn|Mordi|Adisa|2022}} but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a {{convert|1046|km|abbr=on}} coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman,{{sfn|Haque|2002}}{{sfn|Britannica (Gulf of Oman)|2024}} and shares land borders totalling {{convert|6774|km|abbr=on}}, including {{convert|2430|km|abbr=on}} [[Durand Line|with Afghanistan]], {{convert|523|km|abbr=on}} [[China–Pakistan border|with China]], {{convert|2912|km|abbr=on}} [[India–Pakistan border|with India]], and {{convert|909|km|abbr=on}} [[Iran–Pakistan border|with Iran]].{{sfn|Dawn|2009a}} It has a [[Oman–Pakistan maritime boundary|maritime border with Oman]]{{sfn|Karaman|2012}} and is separated from Tajikistan via the narrow strip of the [[Wakhan Corridor]].{{sfn|Banerjee|2019}} Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia,{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2007|page=3, 317, 323–324}} Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant.{{sfn|Kreft|2007}} Geologically, Pakistan lies at the interaction of the [[Indian Plate|Indian]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian tectonic plates]] within the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone, a region of high seismic activity. The collision between these two plates occurs in [[northwest Pakistan]], particularly in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. Sindh and Punjab are located on the north-western corner of the Indian Plate, while Balochistan and much of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie along its north-western margin. [[Northern Pakistan|Northern areas of Pakistan]], including Azad Kashmir, lie along the northern edge of the Indian Plate and are [[List of earthquakes in Pakistan|prone to powerful earthquakes]].{{refn|name="Geology"}}

[[File:Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A satellite image showing the topography of Pakistan{{sfn|Descloitres|2002}}]]
Pakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus.{{sfn|Cavendish|2006|page=297}} Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.{{sfn|Blood|1996|page=82}} The northern highlands feature the [[Karakoram]], [[Hindu Kush]], and [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen [[eight-thousanders]] (mountain peaks over {{convert|8000|m|ft|-1||disp=or}}), notably [[K2]] ({{convert|8611|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}) and [[Nanga Parbat]] ({{convert|8126|m|abbr=on|disp=or}}).{{sfn|Jiwani|2021}}{{sfn|Bright|2017}} The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the [[Thar Desert]] in the east.{{sfn|Blood|1996|page=83}}{{sfn|Ahmad|2009}}{{sfn|Hasan|Raza|2009|page=10}} The {{convert|1609|km|abbr=on}} Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions.{{sfn|Samuel|2016}}

The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all.{{sfn|Chandrappa|Gupta|Kulshrestha|2011}} Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.{{sfn|Blood|1996|page=87}} Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common.{{sfn|Lane|Norton|Ryan|2017}}

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Pakistan|Flora of Pakistan|Fauna of Pakistan}}
The diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants.{{sfn|El-Esawi|2019}} From coniferous [[alpine plant|alpine]] and [[subalpine]] trees like [[spruce]], [[pine]], and [[deodar cedar]] in the northern mountains to [[deciduous trees]] like [[shisham]] in the [[Sulaiman Mountains]],{{sfn|Chandrappa|Gupta|Kulshrestha|2011}} and palms such as [[coconut]] and [[Phoenix dactylifera|date]] in the southern regions.{{sfn|Abul-Soad|2011}}{{sfn|Descals et al.|2023}} The western hills boast [[juniper]], [[tamarisk]], coarse grasses, and scrub plants.{{sfn|Spate|Learmonth|2017}} [[Mangrove]] forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south.{{sfn|Sandhu|2010}} Coniferous forests span altitudes from {{convert|1,000|to|4000|m|abbr=off}} in most northern and northwestern highlands.{{sfn|UNEP-WCMC|2024}} In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms and ''[[Ephedra (genus)|Ephedra]]'' are prevalent.{{sfn|Abul-Soad|2011}}{{sfn|Akhtar|Mirza|2006}} In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive.{{sfn|PEPA|2016}} Approximately 4.8% or {{convert|36,845.6|km2|ha}} of Pakistan was forested in 2021.{{sfn|World Bank|2024}}{{efn|The World Bank data lists the total area of Pakistan as 770,880 km², excluding Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, and water areas.}}

[[File:Markhor_Horns_(5779055412).jpg|thumb|[[Markhor]] is the national animal of Pakistan.{{sfn|Fatima|2020}}]]

Pakistan's fauna mirrors its diverse climate. The country boasts around 668 bird species,{{sfn|Faridah-Hanum|Hakeem|Öztürk|Efe|2015}} including [[crow]]s, [[Old World sparrow|sparrow]]s, [[Acridotheres|mynas]], [[hawk]]s, [[falcon]]s, and [[eagle]]s. [[Palas, Kohistan]], is home to the [[western tragopan]], with many migratory birds visiting from Europe, Central Asia, and India.{{sfn|Grimmett|Inskipp|2021}} The southern plains harbor [[mongoose]]s,{{sfn|Hunter|2018}} [[small Indian civet]],{{sfn|San|Belant|Sato|Somers|2021}} hares,{{sfn|Flux|Chapman|1990}} the [[Asiatic jackal]],{{sfn|Srinivasulu|Srinivasulu|2012}} the [[Indian pangolin]],{{sfn|Waseem et al.|2020}} the [[jungle cat]],{{sfn|Sunquist|Sunquist|2014}} and the [[sand cat]].{{sfn|Sunquist|Sunquist|2017}} Indus is home to [[mugger crocodile]]s,{{sfn|Stoneman|2021}} while surrounding areas host [[wild boar]]s,{{sfn|Tisdell|2013}} deer,{{sfn|Srinivasulu|2018}} and [[Indian porcupine|porcupines]].{{sfn|Roze|2012}} Central Pakistan's sandy scrublands shelter Asiatic jackals,{{sfn|Srinivasulu|Srinivasulu|2012}} [[striped hyena]]s,{{sfn|Somerville|2021}} wildcats, and [[leopard]]s. The mountainous north hosts a variety of animals like the [[Marco Polo sheep]],{{sfn|Nyrop|1975|page=74}} [[urial]], [[markhor]] goat, [[ibex]] goat, [[Asian black bear]], and [[Himalayan brown bear]].{{sfn|Chandrappa|Gupta|Kulshrestha|2011}}

The lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals.{{sfn|CBD Report|2009}} The [[chinkara]] is the only animal found in significant numbers in [[Cholistan]],{{sfn|Mallon|Kingswood|2001}} with a few [[nilgai]] along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan.{{sfn|Woods|Mufti|Hasan|1997}} Rare animals include the [[snow leopard]] and the blind [[Indus river dolphin]],{{sfn|Chandrappa|Gupta|Kulshrestha|2011}} of which there are believed to be about 1,816 remaining, protected at the [[Indus Dolphin Reserve]] in Sindh.{{sfn|WWF|2024}} In total, 174 species of mammals, 177 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphibians, 198 species of freshwater fish, 668 species of birds, over 5,000 species of insects, and over 5,700 species of plants have been recorded in Pakistan.{{sfn|Faridah-Hanum|Hakeem|Öztürk|Efe|2015}} Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries.{{sfn|Grantham et al.|2020}}

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Pakistan|Politics of Pakistan|Elections in Pakistan}}
[[File:Parliament House, Islamabad by Usman Ghani.jpg|thumb|right|[[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament House]]]]
Pakistan operates as a democratic [[Parliamentary republic|parliamentary]] [[federal republic]], with Islam designated as the [[state religion]].{{sfn|Inter-Parliamentary Union|1973}}{{sfn|Munir|1975}} The military's influence in mainstream politics has been significant throughout Pakistan's history.{{sfn|Cohen|2004}} Initially adopting a [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|constitution in 1956]], Pakistan saw it suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958, replaced by a [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1962|second constitution]] in 1962.{{sfn|Cohen|2004|page=65}} Under the leadership of [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], the [[Constitution of Pakistan|1973 constitution]] established a parliamentary system, but it was suspended under [[Zia-ul-Haq]]'s martial law in 1977 and restored, with amendments, in 1985.{{sfn|DeVotta|2015}} The eras of 1958–1971, [[1977 Pakistani coup d'état|1977–1988]], and 1999–2008 witnessed [[Military coups in Pakistan|military coups]], leading to [[Martial law in Pakistan|martial law]] and military leaders governing de facto as presidents.{{sfn|Tertrais|Sokolski|2013}} Presently, Pakistan operates a [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[parliamentary system]],{{sfn|He|Breen|Allison-Reumann|2023}} with distinct [[Check and balance|checks and balances]] among government branches.{{sfn|Bloor|2023}} The first successful [[2013 Pakistani general election|democratic transition]] occurred in May 2013.{{sfn|B. Chakma|2014}} Pakistani politics revolves around a blend of [[Socialism in Pakistan|socialism]], [[Conservatism in Pakistan|conservatism]], and the [[third way]],{{sfn|Chengappa|2002}} with the three main political parties being the conservative [[Pakistan Muslim League (N)]], socialist [[Pakistani People's Party]], and centrist [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]].{{sfn|CRS|2023}} Constitutional amendments in 2010 curtailed presidential powers, enhancing the role of the prime minister.{{sfn|Rafiq|Ahmad|2016}}
* [[Head of State]]: The ceremonial head of the state and civilian [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]] is the [[President of Pakistan|President]], elected by an [[Electoral College of Pakistan|Electoral College]].{{sfn|CRS|2023}} The [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] advises the President on key appointments, including military and judicial positions, and the President is constitutionally bound to act on this advice.{{sfn|Aziz|2018}}{{sfn|F. Hussain|2015}} The President also holds powers to pardon and grant clemency.{{sfn|Mahmood|1965}}
* [[Legislative]]: The [[bicameral]] legislature includes a 96-member [[Senate of Pakistan|Senate]] ([[Upper House|upper house]]) and a 336-member [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] ([[Lower House|lower house]]). [[Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly members]] are elected via [[first-past-the-post]] under [[universal adult suffrage]], representing National Assembly [[Constituencies of Pakistan|constituencies]]. The constitution reserves 70 seats for women and religious minorities, allocated to political parties based on proportional representation. Senate members are elected by provincial legislators, ensuring equal representation across all provinces.{{sfn|Yap|Abeyratne|2023|page=272}}

[[File:A night side view of Prime Minister's Secretariat Building.jpg|thumb|left|[[Prime Minister's Office (Pakistan)|Prime Minister's Office]]]]

* Executive: The Prime Minister, typically the leader of the [[majority rule]] party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house),{{sfn|Dowding|Dumont|2014}} serves as the country's chief executive and head of government. Responsibilities include forming a [[Cabinet of Pakistan|cabinet]],{{sfn|Zierke|Stockmann|Meyer|2023}} making executive decisions,{{sfn|Aziz|2018}} and appointing senior civil servants, subject to executive confirmation.{{sfn|Establishment Division|2013}}
* [[List of provincial governments of Pakistan|Provincial governments]]: Each of the [[Four Provinces (Pakistan)|four provinces]] follows a similar governance system, with a directly elected [[:Category:Provincial Assemblies of Pakistan|Provincial Assembly]] choosing the [[Chief Minister (Pakistan)|Chief Minister]], usually from the largest party or coalition. Chief Ministers lead the provincial cabinet and oversee provincial governance.{{sfn|Mahmood|2007}}{{sfn|IFES|2013}} The [[Chief Secretary (Pakistan)|Chief Secretary]], appointed by the Prime Minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy.{{sfn|Establishment Division|2021}} Provincial assemblies legislate and approve the provincial budget, typically presented by the provincial finance minister annually.{{sfn|IFES|2013}}{{sfn|Ahmad|Asif|2007}} Ceremonial heads of provinces, the Provincial Governors, are appointed by the President based on the binding advice of the Prime Minister.{{sfn|Mahmood|2007}}{{sfn|Senate of Pakistan|2018}}

[[File:Supreme Court of Pakistan, Islamabad by Usman Ghani.jpg|thumb|right|[[Supreme Court of Pakistan]]]]

* [[Judiciary of Pakistan|Judicature]]: The judiciary in Pakistan has two classes: the superior and subordinate judiciary. The superior judiciary includes the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]],{{sfn|Wu|Bandyopadhyay|Lee|2021}} [[Federal Shariat Court]], and five [[High courts of Pakistan|high courts]],{{sfn|Jha|2016}} with the Supreme Court at the top. It's responsible for safeguarding the constitution.{{sfn|Wu|Bandyopadhyay|Lee|2021}} Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own court systems.{{sfn|Oberst|2018}}{{sfn|Ejaz|2022}}

=== Role of Islam ===
{{See also|Islam in Pakistan}}
Pakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam,{{sfn|Esposito|2003}} had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like the [[United Provinces (1937–50)|United Provinces]], where Muslims were a minority.{{R|Dhulipala-2015-1}} This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, the [[ulama|Islamic clergy]], and Jinnah, envisioned an [[Islamic state]].{{R|Dhulipala-2015-2}} Jinnah, closely associated with the ''ulama'', was described upon his death by [[Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani]] as the greatest Muslim after [[Aurangzeb]], aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam.{{R|Dhulipala-2015-3}}

The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked the initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign.{{R|Hussain-2008-2|Haqqani-2010-1}} Muslim League leader [[Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman]] asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.{{R|Dhulipala-2015-4}} Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide.{{R|Haqqani-2010-2}}

[[File:Eid prayers at the Badshahi Mosque.JPG|thumb|327x327px|[[Eid prayers]] at the [[Badshahi Mosque]] in Lahore]]

Pakistan's desire for a united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments,{{R|Haqqani-2010-3}} though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine, [[Amin al-Husseini|Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini]], and leaders of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organisation of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organisation of Islamic Conference]] (OIC) was formed.{{R|Haqqani-2010-4}} In East Pakistan, Bengali Muslims increasingly prioritised Bengali ethno-nationalism over religious nationalism.{{sfn|Nazrul Islam|Saidul Islam|2018}} The Islamist party [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] backed an Islamic state and opposed [[Bengali nationalism]].{{sfn|Lintner|2002}}

After the 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the [[Constitution of Pakistan|1973 Constitution]].{{R|Diamantides-Gearey-2011-1}} It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in the [[Quran]] and [[Sunnah]] and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.{{sfn|Iqbal|2009}} Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and the [[Council of Islamic Ideology]] to interpret and apply Islam.{{R|Diamantides-Gearey-2011-2}}

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under the banner of ''Nizam-e-Mustafa'' ("Rule of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]"),{{sfn|Nasr|1996}} advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup.{{sfn|Kepel|2006}}

General Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing ''[[sharia]]'' law.{{sfn|Kepel|2006}} He instituted Shariat judicial courts,{{R|Diamantides-Gearey-2011-3}} and court benches,{{sfn|Haqqani|2010|page=400}}{{sfn|Asia Watch Committee (U.S.)|1992}} to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine.{{R|Wynbrandt-2009}} Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions,{{R|Syed-Pio-Kamran-Zaidi-2016-1}} exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies.{{R|Syed-Pio-Kamran-Zaidi-2016-2}}

Most Pakistanis, according to a [[Pew Research Center]] (PEW) poll, favour Sharia law as the official law,{{sfn|Ziegfeld|2016}} and 94 percent of them identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations.{{sfn|PRC|2011}}

=== Administrative units ===
{{Main|Administrative units of Pakistan}}
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! style="width:200px;"| {{nobr|Administrative unit}}{{sfn|Nee|2013}}
! style="width:100px;"| {{nobr|Capital{{sfn|Wasti|2009}}{{sfn|Schuurmans|2023|page=63}}{{sfn|Fischer-Tahir|Naumann|2013}}}}
! style="width:100px; text-align:right;"| {{nobr|Population{{sfn|PBS|2023}}{{sfn|Hussain|2020}}{{sfn|Davis|2023}}}}
|-
||{{Flag|Balochistan}}|| [[Quetta]] || style="text-align:right;" | 14,894,402
|-
||{{flagcountry|Punjab, Pakistan}} || [[Lahore]] || style="text-align:right;" | 127,688,922
|-
||{{Flag|Sindh}}|| [[Karachi]] || style="text-align:right;" | 55,696,147
|-
||{{Flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}} || [[Peshawar]] || style="text-align:right;" | 40,856,097
|-
|| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] || [[Gilgit]] || style="text-align:right;" | 1,492,924
|-
||{{Flag|Azad Kashmir}} || [[Muzaffarabad]] || style="text-align:right;" | 4,179,428
|-
||[[Islamabad Capital Territory]] ||[[Islamabad]] || style="text-align:right;" | 2,363,863
|}

Pakistan, a [[Federal republic|federal]] [[parliamentary republic]], consists of [[Four Provinces (Pakistan)|four provinces]]: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan, along with three [[Administrative units of Pakistan|territories]]: [[Islamabad Capital Territory]], [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], and [[Azad Kashmir]].{{sfn|Adibelli et al.|2022}} The Government of Pakistan governs the [[Western Kashmir|western parts]] of the [[Kashmir Region]], organised into separate political entities, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.{{sfn|Jan|2015}} In 2009, the [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitutional assignment]] ({{small|the ''Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order''}}) granted Gilgit-Baltistan [[Provinces of Pakistan|semi-provincial status]], providing it with self-government.{{sfn|Lansford|Muller|2012}}

The [[Local government in Pakistan|local government]] system consists of [[Districts of Pakistan|districts]], [[tehsil]]s, and [[Union Councils of Pakistan|union councils]], with an elected body at each tier.{{sfn|Berman|Sabharwal|2017}}

{{Pakistan Administrative Units Image Map}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Pakistan}}

Since independence, Pakistan has aimed to maintain an independent foreign policy.{{sfn|Lodhi|2022}} Pakistan's [[Foreign policy of Pakistan|foreign policy]] and [[Pakistani geostrategy|geostrategy]] focus on the economy, security, [[Nationalism in Pakistan|national identity]], and territorial integrity, as well as building close ties with other Muslim nations.{{sfn|Hamid et al.|2023}} According to [[Hasan Askari Rizvi]], a foreign policy expert, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."{{sfn|Rizvi|2004}}
[[File:President John F. Kennedy Meets with Mohammad Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan (02).jpg|thumb|President [[Ayub Khan]] meeting with U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1961{{sfn|Picone|2020}}]]
The [[Kashmir conflict]] remains a major issue between Pakistan and India, with three of their [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|four wars]] fought over it.{{sfn|Stewart-Ingersoll|Frazier|2012}} Due partly to strained relations with India, Pakistan has close ties with Turkey and Iran, both focal points in its foreign policy.{{sfn|Anwar|2006}} Saudi Arabia also holds importance in Pakistan's foreign relations.{{sfn|Pande|2011|page=167}}

As a non-signatory of the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Treaty on Nuclear Non-Proliferation]], Pakistan holds influence in the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]].{{sfn|Chakma|2012}} For years, Pakistan has blocked an [[Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty|international treaty]] to limit [[fissile material]], arguing that its stockpile does not meet its long-term needs.{{sfn|Kmentt|2021}} Pakistan's nuclear program in the 20th century aimed to counter India's nuclear ambitions in the [[South Asia|region]], and [[Pakistan's nuclear testing series|reciprocal nuclear tests]] ensued after India's [[Pokhran-II|nuclear tests]], solidifying Pakistan as a [[Nuclear power in Pakistan|nuclear power]].{{sfn|Izuyama|Ogawa|2003}} Pakistan maintains a policy of [[N-deterrence|Full spectrum deterrence]], considering its nuclear program vital for [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|deterring]] foreign aggression.{{sfn|Noor|2023}}

[[File:SCO meeting (2022-09-16).jpg|thumb|Prime Minister [[Shehbaz Sharif]] at the 2022 [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] summit{{sfn|Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Malta|2022}}]]

Located strategically in the world's major maritime oil supply lines and communication [[Optical fiber|fiber optic corridors]], Pakistan also enjoys proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.{{sfn|Shah|1997}} Pakistan actively participates in the United Nations with a [[Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United Nations|Permanent Representative]] representing its positions in international politics.{{sfn|Wasi|2005}} It has advocated for the concept of "[[enlightened moderation]]" in the Muslim world.{{sfn|Zahra|Bouckaert|Jadoon|Jabeen|2022}} Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]],{{sfn|Turner|2016}}{{sfn|Kemal|2004}} and the [[G20 developing nations]].{{sfn|Hoekman|Kostecki|2009}}

Pakistan is designated as an "Iron Brother" by China, emphasising the significance of their close and supportive [[China–Pakistan relations|relationship]].{{sfn|Qingyan|2021}} In the 1950s, Pakistan opposed the [[Soviet Union]] for geopolitical reasons. During the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] in the 1980s, it was a close ally of the United States.{{sfn|Rizvi|2004}} Relations with Russia have improved since the end of the [[Cold War]],{{sfn|Clary|2022}} but Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been "on-and-off".{{sfn|Rizvi|2004}} Initially a close ally during the Cold War,{{sfn|Karat|2007}} Pakistan's relations with the US soured in the 1990s due to [[Pressler amendment|sanctions]] over its secretive nuclear program.{{sfn|Mazzetti|2013}} Since [[September 11 attacks|9/11]], Pakistan has been a US ally on [[counterterrorism]], but their relationship has been strained due to diverging interests and mistrust during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|20-year war]] and terrorism issues. Although Pakistan was granted [[major non-NATO ally]] status by the U.S. in 2004,{{sfn|Zaidi|Ahmad|2021}} it faced accusations of supporting the [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban insurgents]] in Afghanistan.{{sfn|Yousafzai|2021}}

Pakistan does not have formal [[Pakistan-Israel relations|diplomatic relations]] with [[Israel]]; nonetheless, an exchange occurred between the two countries in 2005, with Turkey acting as an intermediary.{{sfn|Zelnick|2013}}

==== Relations with China ====
{{Main|China–Pakistan relations}}
[[File:Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|Pakistani Prime Minister [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]] with Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan.{{sfn|van Tonder|2018}} Pakistan is host to China's largest embassy.{{sfn|Schuurmans|2023|page=73}}]]

Pakistan was among the first nations to establish formal diplomatic ties with China,{{sfn|Cohen|2011}} forging a strong relationship since China's [[Sino-Indian War|1962 conflict]] with India, culminating in a special bond.{{sfn|Schwinghammer|2018}} During the 1970s, Pakistan acted as an intermediary in U.S.-China rapprochement,{{sfn|Afridi|Bajoria|2010}} facilitating US President [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[1972 Nixon visit to China|historic visit]] to China.{{sfn|Roos|2024}}{{sfn|Lord|Mastro|Naftali|Brinkley|2022}} Despite changes in Pakistani governance and regional/global dynamics, China's influence in Pakistan remains paramount.{{sfn|Afridi|Bajoria|2010}} In reciprocation, China stands as Pakistan's largest trading partner, with substantial investment in Pakistani infrastructure, notably the [[Gwadar port]].{{sfn|Raju|2021}} In 2015 alone, they inked 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for cooperative efforts.{{sfn|Rimmer|2020}} Both nations signed a [[China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement|Free Trade Agreement]] in 2006,{{sfn|Zreik|2024}} with China making its largest investment in Pakistan's history through [[CPEC]].{{sfn|Dorsey|2018}} Pakistan acts as China's liaison to the Muslim world,{{sfn|Shih|2022}} and both nations support each other on sensitive issues like Kashmir, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and more.{{sfn|Pant|2011}}

==== Relations with the Muslim world ====
[[File:OIC Leaders in Shalimar Gardens, Lahore.jpg|thumb|Pakistani Prime Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] with leaders from [[Algeria]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] in [[Lahore]], February 1974. That year, Pakistan hosted 36 Muslim countries at the [[Islamic Summit of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation#List of summits|Second Islamic Summit]] of the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].]]
After Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries.{{R|Pasha-2005-1}} The [[Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar|Ali]] brothers sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, partly due to its significant manpower and military strength.{{R|Pasha-2005-2}} [[Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman|Khaliquzzaman]], a prominent [[All India Muslim League|Muslim League]] leader, declared Pakistan's ambition to unite all Muslim countries into [[Islamistan]], a pan-Islamic entity.{{R|Dhulipala-2015-5}}

These developments, alongside Pakistan's creation, didn't receive approval from the United States, with British Prime Minister [[Clement Attlee]] expressing a hope for India and Pakistan to reunite.{{R|Haqqani-2013-1}} However, due to a nationalist awakening in the Arab world at that time, there was little interest in Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.{{R|Haqqani-2013-2}} Some Arab countries perceived the 'Islamistan' project as Pakistan's bid to dominate other Muslim states.{{R|Roberts-2003}}

Pakistan's founder, [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], consistently advocated for the [[Palestinian nationalism|Palestinian cause]], shaping Pakistan's foreign policy to support Palestinian rights within the broader framework of Muslim solidarity.{{sfn|Jafri|Sultana|Ijaz|2021}} During the [[Six-Day War|1967 Arab-Israel war]], Pakistan supported the Arab states and played a key role in securing Iran's backing for the Arab cause both within the U.N. and beyond.{{sfn|Arora|Grover|1995}}

Pakistan's relations with Iran have been strained by sectarian tensions,{{R|Hunter-2010}} with both Iran and Saudi Arabia using Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war.{{R|Pande-2011-2}} Since the early days of the [[Iran–Iraq war]], President [[Zia-ul-Haq]] played an important mediatory role, with Pakistan actively engaging in efforts to end the conflict.{{sfn|Talbot|2020}}{{sfn|Rose|Husain|1985}} Pakistan provided support to Saudi Arabia during the [[Gulf War]].{{sfn|Halladay|Matei|Bruneau|2021}} Pakistan chose to remain neutral during [[Operation Decisive Storm]], refraining from sending military support to Saudi Arabia in its offensive against [[Yemen]]. Instead, Pakistan aimed to play a proactive diplomatic role in resolving the crisis,{{sfn|Panda|2019}} which led to tensions between the two countries.{{sfn|Halladay|Matei|Bruneau|2021}} In 2016, Pakistan mediated between Saudi Arabia and Iran following the execution of Shia cleric [[Nimr al-Nimr]], with visits to both countries by then Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] and the Chief of Army Staff, [[Raheel Sharif]].{{sfn|Basharat|2023}}

Pakistan provided refuge to millions of displaced Afghans after the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet invasion]] and supported the [[Afghan mujahideen]] in their efforts to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan.{{sfn|Riedel|2010}} After the Soviets withdrew, [[Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)|infighting erupted among Mujahideen factions]] over control of Afghanistan. Pakistan facilitated [[Peshawar Accord|peace talks]] to help end the conflict.{{sfn|Visoka|Richmond|2022}} After four years of unresolved conflict between rival Mujahideen groups, Pakistan helped establish the Taliban as a stabilising force.{{sfn|Maizland|2023}} Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban in Afghanistan challenged Shia-led Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.{{R|Pande-2011-2}}

Pakistan vigorously advocated for self-determination among Muslims globally. Its efforts in supporting independence movements in countries like Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and [[Eritrea]] fostered strong ties.{{R|Pande-2011-1}} Due to its support for [[Azerbaijan]] in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]], Pakistan has not established [[Armenia–Pakistan relations|diplomatic relations]] with [[Armenia]].{{sfn|Berg|Kursani|2021}}{{sfn|Babayev|Schoch|Spanger|2019}}

Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced strained relations, particularly under the [[Awami League]] governments led by [[Sheikh Hasina]], driven by her pro-India stance and historical grievances.{{sfn|Ahmed|Zahoor|2019}}

Pakistan, a prominent member of the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), prioritises maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with Arab and other Muslim-majority nations in its foreign policy.{{sfn|Pande|2011}}

In September 2025, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia signed a [[Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement]] under which any aggression against one country is considered an aggression against both, formalising a defensive commitment that also extends Pakistan's nuclear umbrella to Saudi Arabia.{{sfn|Kahwaji|2025}}

=== Kashmir conflict ===
{{Main|Kashmir conflict}}
[[File:Kashmir map.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The areas shown in green are the Pakistani-controlled areas.{{sfn|CIA|1988}}]]
[[Kashmir]], a Himalayan region at the northern tip of the [[Indian subcontinent]], was governed as the autonomous [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] during the [[British Raj]] before the [[Partition of India]] in August 1947. This sparked a [[Kashmir conflict|major territorial dispute]] between India and Pakistan, resulting in [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|several conflicts]] over the region. India controls about 45.1% of Kashmir, including [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]], while Pakistan controls roughly 38.2%, comprising [[Azad Kashmir|Azad Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan|Gilgit−Baltistan]]. Additionally, about 20% of the region, known as [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract|Shaksgam Valley]], is under Chinese control.{{sfn|Kudaisya|Yong|2004}} India claims the entire Kashmir region based on the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]] signed by the princely state's ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh,{{sfn|Zahoor|Rumi|2020}} while Pakistan argues for its Muslim-majority population,{{sfn|Bhattacharyya|2023}} and geographical proximity to Pakistan.{{sfn|Raghavan|2012}} The United Nations was involved in resolving the conflict, leading to a ceasefire in 1949 and the establishment of the [[Line of Control]] (LoC) as a ''de facto'' border.{{sfn|Stone|2017}} India, fearing Kashmir's secession, did not hold the promised plebiscite, as it believed Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan.{{R|Endrst-1965}}

Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri people]] to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations, while India has stated that Kashmir is an "[[Akhand Bharat|integral part]]" of India, referring to the [[Simla Agreement|1972 Simla Agreement]] and to the fact that [[Elections in Jammu and Kashmir|regional elections]] take place regularly.{{sfn|Khurshid|2016}} Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.{{sfn|Oldenburg|2019}}
{{Clear}}

=== Military ===
{{Main|Pakistan Armed Forces}}
<!--THIS SECTION IS A SUMMARY—PLEASE ADD NEW MATERIAL TO THE MAIN ARTICLE-->[[File:Pakistan Air Force JF-17 Thunder flies in front of the 26,660 ft high Nanga Parbat.jpg|thumb|[[Pakistan Air Force]]'s [[JF-17 Thunder]] flying in front of the {{convert|26660|ft|m|adj=mid|abbr=off|-high|order=flip}} [[Nanga Parbat]]]]

Pakistan is considered a [[middle power]] nation,{{refn|name="Middle power nation"}}{{efn|name="RSCT"}} with the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|seventh-largest standing armed forces]] in terms of personnel size, comprising approximately 660,000 active-duty troops and 291,000 paramilitary personnel as of 2024.{{sfn|IISS|2024}} [[Military history of Pakistan|Established in 1947]], the [[armed forces of Pakistan]] wielded significant influence over [[Politics of Pakistan|national politics]].{{sfn|Bartholomees|2008}} The main branches include the [[Pakistan Army|Army]], [[Pakistan Navy|Navy]], and [[Pakistan Air Force|Air Force]], supported by numerous [[Civil Armed Forces|paramilitaries]].{{sfn|DeRouen|Heo|2005}}

The [[Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee]] (CJCSC) is the highest-ranking military officer, advising the civilian government. However, they lack direct command over the branches and serve as intermediaries, ensuring communication between the military and civilian leadership. Overseeing the [[Joint Staff Headquarters (Pakistan)|Joint Staff Headquarters]], they coordinate inter-service cooperation and joint military missions.{{sfn|Blood|1996|page=287}}

[[Nuclear command and control|Command and control]] over Pakistan's [[Pakistan's nuclear testing series|strategic arsenal]] development and employment is vested in the [[National Command Authority (Pakistan)|National Command Authority]], overseeing work on [[Nuclear Doctrine of Pakistan|nuclear doctrine]] to maintain [[Full spectrum deterrence]].{{sfn|Khan|2012}}

The United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations with [[Pakistan Armed Forces]], regularly exporting military equipment and [[technology transfer]].{{refn|name="Military relations"}} Pakistan was the 5th-largest recipient and importer of arms between 2019 and 2023.{{sfn|Wezeman et al.|2024}}

==== Military history ====
{{Main|Military history of Pakistan}}
Since 1947, Pakistan has been involved in [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|four]] [[conventional warfare|conventional wars]] with India.{{sfn|Gates|Roy|2016}} The [[Indo-Pak war of 1947|first conflict]] took place in Kashmir and ended in a United Nations-mediated ceasefire, with Pakistan gaining control of one-third of the region.{{sfn|Oetzel|Ting-Toomey|2006}} Territorial disputes led to [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|another war in 1965]]. In 1971, India and Pakistan fought [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|another war]] over [[East Pakistan]], with Indian forces aiding its independence, leading to the creation of [[Bangladesh]].{{sfn|Center for Preventive Action|2024}} Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries to the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1999|brink of war]].{{sfn|Busch|2014}}

Pakistan's primary intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), was established within a year of Pakistan's independence in 1947.{{sfn|Sprague|2020}} During the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], Pakistan's intelligence community, mostly the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]], [[Operation Cyclone|coordinated]] [[United States involvement in regime change|US resources]] to support [[Afghan mujahideen]] and [[Afghan Arabs|foreign fighters]] against Soviet presence.{{sfn|Rupert|1989}} The [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]] engaged with [[Soviet Air Forces|Soviet]] and [[Afghan Air Force]]s during the [[Russian war in afghanistan|conflict]].{{sfn|Withington|2005}} Pakistan has been an active [[United Nations peacekeeping missions involving Pakistan|participant in UN peacekeeping missions]],{{sfn|de Coning|Aoi|Karlsrud|2017}} playing a major role in operations like the rescue mission in [[Mogadishu]], Somalia, in 1993.{{sfn|Stewart|2002}} According to a 2023 UN report, the Pakistani military was the fifth largest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.{{sfn|UN|2023}}

Pakistan has [[Pakistan Armed Forces deployments|deployed its military]] in some Arab countries, providing defense, training, and advisory roles.{{sfn|Cordesman|1987}}{{sfn|Chengappa|2004}} The [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]]'s fighter pilots participated in missions against Israel during the [[Six-Day War]] and the [[Yom Kippur War]].{{sfn|Faruqui|2019}} Pakistani [[Special Service Group|special forces]] assisted [[Saudi forces]] in [[Mecca]] during the [[Grand Mosque Seizure]].{{refn|name="Miller-2015"}} Pakistan also sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition for the defense of Saudi Arabia during the [[Gulf War]].{{sfn|Rizvi|1993}}

Despite the UN arms embargo on [[Bosnia]], the ISI under General [[Javed Nasir]] airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen, shifting the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims. ISI, under Nasir's leadership, supported Chinese Muslims in [[Xinjiang]], rebel groups in the [[Philippines]], and religious groups in Central Asia.{{R|Wiebes-2003|Abbas-2015}}

Since 2001, the Pakistan military has been engaged in [[War in North-West Pakistan|counterinsurgency and internal security operations]] in the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] province, primarily targeting [[Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan]] and associated militant groups. Major military operations conducted during this period include [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], [[Operation al-Mizan]], [[Operation Zalzala]], [[Operation Sherdil]], [[Operation Rah-e-Haq]], [[Operation Rah-e-Rast]], and [[Operation Rah-e-Nijat]].{{sfn|ZA Khan|2012}}

=== Law enforcement ===
{{Main|Law enforcement in Pakistan}}
{{See also|Pakistani Intelligence Community}}
[[Law enforcement in Pakistan]] consists of federal and provincial police agencies. Each of the [[Administrative units of Pakistan|four provinces]] ([[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]) has its own police force, while the [[Islamabad Capital Territory|Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)]] has the Islamabad Police.{{sfn|Jaishankar|2019}} Provincial police forces are led by an Inspector-General of Police (IGP), who is appointed from the federally recruited and trained [[Police Service of Pakistan]] (PSP) through a consultative process between the federal and provincial governments. All positions above the Assistant Superintendent level are filled from the PSP, ensuring national standards across provincial forces.{{sfn|Kureshi|Waseem|2024}}

'''Specialised Units:'''

* [[National Highways & Motorway Police]] (NHMP): Enforces traffic laws and ensures safety on Pakistan's inter-provincial motorway network.{{sfn|Imam|Fatima|2021}}
* Specialised Rapid Response Units: Specialised counter-terrorism units, such as the [[Elite Police|Punjab Elite Police Force]], have been trained by army commandos and exist in every province to respond to hostage situations and neutralise armed groups.{{sfn|Perito|Parvez|2024}}

The [[Civil Armed Forces]] (CAF) assist local law enforcement agencies and participate in border security and internal security operations, particularly in conflict-affected regions.{{sfn|Wolf|2019}}

In 2021, the [[National Intelligence Coordination Committee (Pakistan)|National Intelligence Coordination Committee]] was established to improve coordination among Pakistan's intelligence agencies. The inaugural meeting was attended by the heads of the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]], [[Intelligence Bureau (Pakistan)|IB]], and [[Federal Investigation Agency|FIA]].{{sfn|Saeed|2021}}

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Pakistan|LGBT rights in Pakistan}}
Pakistan scored 27 out of 100 on the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] in 2024, ranking 135th out of 180 countries in the assessment of perceived public-sector corruption.{{sfn|CPI|2025}} In 2025, Pakistan ranked 158 out of 180 countries in the [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]], highlighting restrictions on [[freedom of the press]].{{sfn|Marès|2025}} According to the journalist [[Raza Rumi]], in 2023, TV channels in Pakistan faced suspensions and legal threats for airing content critical of the government or military, while online platforms also experienced temporary takedowns.{{sfn|Kumar|2023}} According to a 2025 report, some newspapers have faced financial pressure—such as withdrawal of government advertisements—for publishing content critical of government policies. Both military and civilian governments have historically used such tactics.{{sfn|Gabol|Ali|2025}}

In Pakistan, all sexual activity outside of marriage is illegal.{{sfn|Gerber|2021}} The punishment for sex outside marriage (''[[zina]]'') ranges from up to five years' imprisonment for minors to 100 lashes for unmarried adults and [[stoning to death]] for married adults, depending on marital status, age, sanity, and whether strict evidentiary requirements for a ''[[hadd]]'' punishment—such as four adult male Muslim witnesses or a confession—are met; however, no one has been stoned to death under the law to date.{{sfn|Baderin|2017}} Male [[homosexuality]] is illegal in Pakistan and is punishable by up to ten years in prison, [[corporal punishment]] such as [[whipping]], and, under [[Islamic law]] since 1990, potentially even stoning.{{sfn|Tin|2008}}

[[Honour killings]], locally referred to as ''[[karo-kari]]'' in parts of Pakistan, involve the killing of women and, less frequently, men by family or community members over alleged extramarital relationships or perceived violations of honour. Human rights organisations report that hundreds of women are killed each year, with many cases unreported.{{sfn|Singh et al.|2024}} Pakistan also has a high number of reported [[acid attacks]], with about 200 incidents annually as of 2023, most victims being women. According to [[Masarrat Misbah]], founder of the [[Depilex Smileagain Foundation]], women have been targeted for rejecting marriage proposals, giving birth to daughters instead of sons, or insufficient dowry. The 2011 Acid and Burn Crime Bill criminalised acid attacks, making them punishable by lengthy imprisonment and fines.{{sfn|Mubashar|Mir|2023}}

In parts of Pakistan, girls are given in marriage to settle disputes or crimes between families in a customary practice called ''[[Vani (custom)|Vani]]''. Girls married through this practice are often treated as compensation for a dispute, which places them in a vulnerable social position within the family they marry into. In 2021, the [[Federal Shariat Court]] declared the practice un-Islamic and unconstitutional, reaffirming earlier Supreme Court jurisprudence.{{sfn|Aftab|2022}}

[[UN Women]] reported in 2024 that around one in six girls in Pakistan are married during childhood, with the country home to nearly 19 million child brides.{{sfn|UN Women|2024}} In 2025, Pakistan enacted a law setting the minimum legal age for marriage at 18 and introducing penalties for arranging underage marriages; the law is limited to the [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] and does not apply nationwide.{{sfn|Walk Free|2025}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Pakistan|Economic history of Pakistan}}
{{Further|Real estate in Pakistan|Information technology in Pakistan|Banking in Pakistan}}
{{See also|Pakistan and the International Monetary Fund}}
{| class="floatright" style="font-size: 90%; border: 1px solid #999; float: right; margin-left: 1em; width:325px"
|- style="background:#f5f5f5"
! colspan="3" | Economic indicators
|-
| [[gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]) || $1.8&nbsp;trillion <small>(2026)</small> || style="text-align:right;"|{{sfn|IMF (PPP)|2026}}
|-
| [[gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]) per capita || $7,330 <small>(2026)</small> || style="text-align:right;"| {{sfn|IMF (PPP per capita)|2026}}
|-
| [[gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) || $407.79&nbsp;billion <small>(2025)</small> || style="text-align:right;"|{{sfn|IMF (nom)|2025}}
|-
| [[gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) per capita || $1,700 <small>(2025)</small> || style="text-align:right;"|{{sfn|IMF (nom per capita)|2025}}
|-
| Real GDP growth || 3.6% <small>(2026)</small> || style="text-align:right;"|{{sfn|IMF (datasets)|2026}}
|-
| [[Consumer price index|CPI]] inflation || 4.5% <small>(2025)</small> || style="text-align:right;" |{{sfn|IMF (datasets)|2025}}
|-
| [[Unemployment in Pakistan|Unemployment]] || 8% <small>(2025)</small>|| style="text-align:right;" |{{sfn|IMF (datasets)|2025}}
|-
| [[Labour force participation rate]] || 53% <small>(2024)</small> ||{{sfn|World Bank (LFPR)|2025}}
|-
| [[Gini coefficient|Gini]] || 29.6 <small>(2018)</small> ||{{sfn|IMF|2023}}
|-
| [[Human Development Index|HDI]] || 0.544 <small>(2023)</small> ||{{sfn|UNDP|2025}}
|-
| [[National debt of Pakistan|Total external debt]] || $131&nbsp;billion <small>(2023)</small> || style="text-align:right;" |{{sfn|World Bank (TED)|2024}}
|-
| [[National wealth]] || $678&nbsp;billion <small>(2022)</small> || style="text-align:right;" |{{sfn|Shorrocks|Davies|Lluberas|Waldenström|2023}}
|}
Pakistan's economy [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|ranks 27th]] globally by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) and [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|42nd by nominal GDP]].{{sfn|IMF (PPP)|2026}}{{sfn|IMF (nom)|2025}} Historically, Pakistan was part of the wealthiest [[Indian subcontinent|region]] in the first millennium CE, but lost ground to regions like China and Western Europe by the 18th century.{{sfn|Maddison|2006}} Pakistan is a [[developing country]],{{sfn|Pasillas|Brundin|Markowska|2017}} and part of the [[Next Eleven]], poised to become one of the world's largest economies in the 21st century, alongside the [[BRIC (economics term)|BRIC]] countries.{{sfn|Comim|Anand|Fennell|2021}} The semi-industrialised economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, and industrial growth in Pakistan benefits significantly from agricultural expansion.{{sfn|Henneberry|Khan|Piewthongngam|2000}} Pakistan's economy has shifted from [[Agriculture in Pakistan|agriculture]] to trade and services, with agriculture contributing about one-fifth of GDP and manufacturing one-sixth, while trade and services form the largest share.{{sfn|Burki|Teekah|Ziring|2026}} In 2023, Pakistan was the 66th-largest export economy,{{sfn|OEC|2023}} with a trade deficit of US$21.3 billion.{{sfn|World Bank (WITS)|2025}}

[[File:KHIURBANSKYLINE.jpg|thumb|Rising skyline of [[Karachi]], with several under construction skyscrapers|upright=1.3]]

{{as of|2025}}, Pakistan's [[nominal GDP]] stood at US$407.79&nbsp;billion,{{sfn|IMF (nom)|2025}} while GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) was US$1.8 trillion in 2026.{{sfn|IMF (PPP)|2026}} The nominal per capita GDP was US$1,700,{{sfn|IMF (nom per capita)|2025}} and the [[GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP)/capita]] amounted to US$6,950 ([[international dollar]]s).{{sfn|IMF (PPP per capita)|2026}} Around 44.7% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$4.20 a day, 16.5% live in extreme poverty on less than US$3 a day,{{sfn|Iqbal|2025}} 8% of the total labour force is unemployed, and [[Consumer price index|CPI]] inflation in 2025 was 4.5%.{{sfn|IMF (datasets)|2026}} Pakistan ranks near the bottom globally on the [[Global Gender Gap Index]]'s economic participation and opportunity sub-index for women, reflecting very low female labour force participation and limited representation of women in senior economic roles.{{sfn|WEF|2025}} Pakistan's middle class is estimated to be around 40–50 million people, representing 15–20 per cent of the population.{{sfn|Ahmad|2024}} Among [[South Asia]]n countries, Pakistan's GDP growth rate of 2.5% in 2024 was the second lowest after Afghanistan.{{sfn|ADB|2025a}}

Pakistan has strong potential to produce diverse food commodities due to its vast natural resource base across varied ecological and climatic zones.{{sfn|Sharif|Javed|Abbas|Hassan|2008}} It has the world's 7th-largest [[Labour in Pakistan|labour force]],{{sfn|Conte|2025}} and its [[Pakistani diaspora|diaspora]] of around 10 million,{{sfn|Abbas|2026}} sent US$38.3 billion in remittances in fiscal year 2024–25, as reported by the [[Special Investment Facilitation Council]].{{sfn|SIFC|2025}} Pakistan's share of global exports averaged 0.14% between 1990 and 2023 and was 0.12% in 2023.{{sfn|The Global Economy|2023}}

=== Agriculture ===
{{main|Agriculture in Pakistan}}
The agriculture sector employs 43.5% of the labour force and is a major source of foreign exchange.<ref name="DSEC">{{cite web |title=Pakistan Economic Survey 2014–15 |url=http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_15/Highlights.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Finance |access-date=4 April 2017 |archive-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517015406/http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_15/Highlights.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/agriculture-statistics |title=Agriculture Statistics {{!}} Pakistan Bureau of Statistics|website=www.pbs.gov.pk|access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

Manufactured exports, heavily reliant on agricultural raw materials like cotton and hides, face inflationary pressures due to supply shortages and market disruptions. Pakistan produced 28.98 million metric tons of wheat in 2025/2026 (3% of global output), ranking 7th globally.{{sfn|USDA|2026}} Pakistan ranks fifth in cotton production, self-sufficient in sugarcane, and the fourth-largest milk producer globally. Though land and water resources haven't increased proportionately, productivity gains, especially from the [[Green Revolution]] in the late 1960s and 1970s, significantly boosted wheat and rice yields. Private tube wells and High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) further augmented crop yields.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ishrathusain.iba.edu.pk/speeches/New/AgricultureSector_Issues_n_Prospects.docx |title=AGRICULTURE SECTOR: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS|access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_10/03_Manufacturing.pdf |title=Manufacturing in Pakistan |publisher=Government of Pakistan |access-date=4 March 2016 |archive-date=19 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419064503/http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_10/03_Manufacturing.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Industry ===
{{Main|Industry of Pakistan}}
{{See also|Textile industry in Pakistan}}
[[File:Tv Assembly Line 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Television assembly factory in [[Lahore]]. Pakistan's industrial sector accounts for about 20% of the GDP, and is dominated by [[small and medium-sized enterprises]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/industry |title=Industry |publisher= Pakistan Bureau of Statistics|website=www.pbs.gov.pk|access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref>]]

Industry, constituting 19.74% of GDP and 24% of total employment, is the second-largest sector. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM) dominates, representing 12.2% of GDP, with cement production thriving due to demand from Afghanistan and the domestic real estate sector.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apcma.com/data_export.html |title=All Pakistan Cement Manufacturers Association Export Data |website=apcma.com |access-date=15 October 2013 |archive-date=3 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203231542/http://www.apcma.com/data_export.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2013, Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement, with an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhutta |first=Zafar |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/552042/cant-get-enough-soaring-profits-not-enough-for-cement-industry/ |title=Can't get enough: Soaring profits not enough for cement industry |work=The Express Tribune |date=21 May 2013|access-date=15 October 2013}}</ref> The [[Textile industry in Pakistan|textile industry]], a key player in Pakistan's manufacturing, contributes 9.5% to GDP and employs around 15 million people. As of 2022, Pakistan ranks seventh globally in cotton production,<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries by commodity |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity |website=fao.org |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=8 April 2025}}</ref> with substantial spinning capacity, making it a major exporter of textile products in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |title=World Trade Statistics 2023 |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/statistics2023_e.htm |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] |access-date=8 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> China has been a significant buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion worth of textiles in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=Baig |first=Khurram |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/522293/anatomy-of-an-indispensable-sector-why-the-pakistan-textile-industry-cannot-die/ |title=Why the Pakistan textile industry cannot die |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |date=18 March 2013|access-date=15 October 2013}}</ref>

=== Services ===
As of 2014–15, the services sector contributes 58.8% to GDP,<ref name="DSEC" /> serving as the main driver of economic growth in Pakistan,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/483436/the-unparalleled-growth-of-the-services-sector/ |title=The unparalleled growth of the services sector |work=[[Express Tribune]]|access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> with a consumption-oriented society. The sector's growth rate surpasses that of agriculture and industry, accounting for 54% of GDP and over one-third of total employment. It has strong linkages with other sectors, providing essential inputs to agriculture and manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pide.org.pk/pdf/Working%20Paper/WorkingPaper-79.pdf |title=Contribution of Services Sector in the Economy of Pakistan |access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Pakistan's IT sector is one of the fastest-growing, ranked 110th for ICT development by the [[World Economic Forum]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan most affordable country in world for telecom, ICT services: WEF |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1219605/pakistan-affordable-country-world-telecom-ict-services-wef/|access-date=5 March 2017 |work=[[Express Tribune]] |date=4 November 2016}}</ref> With around 82 million internet users as of May 2020, Pakistan [[List of countries by number of Internet users|ranks]] among top ten globally,<ref name="PTD">{{cite web |url=https://www.pta.gov.pk/en/telecom-indicators|title=Telecom Indicators |website=PTA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803183309/https://www.pta.gov.pk/en/telecom-indicators |archive-date=3 August 2020}}</ref> and its ICT industry is projected to exceed $10 billion by 2020.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/738036/upward-move-pakistans-ict-sector-to-cross-10b-mark-says-psha/ |title=Upward move: Pakistan's ICT sector to cross $10b mark, says P@SHA |website=The Express Tribune |access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> With 12,000 employees, Pakistan is among the top five freelancing nations,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Runde |first1=Daniel |title=Pakistan: The Next Colombia Success Story? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrunde/2015/08/03/pakistan-the-next-colombia-success-story/#2720446a3b60 |access-date=4 March 2016 |website=Forbes}}</ref> and its export performance in telecom, computer, and information services has notably improved.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhatti |first=Muhammad Umer Saleem |date=22 June 2015 |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1189624 |title=Services sector: domestic and outward growth |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{main|Tourism in Pakistan}}

[[File:Shangrila, Lower Kachura Lake.jpg|thumb|right|[[Shangrila Lake]] and adjoining resort in [[Skardu]], [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]]]

With its diverse cultures, landscapes, and attractions, Pakistan drew around 6.6 million foreign tourists in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last=Junaidi |first=Ikram |title=Tourist traffic witnesses sharp increase in five years |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1508132 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |date=30 September 2019}}</ref> However, this was a decline from the peak of tourism in the 1970s driven by the popular [[Hippie trail]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard Gregory |website=www.richardgregory.org.uk |url=http://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm |access-date=17 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045152/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm |archive-date=28 July 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Pakistan boasts attractions from [[Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves|mangroves]] in the south to Himalayan [[List of hill stations of Pakistan|hill stations]] in the northeast, including ancient Buddhist ruins of [[Takht-i-Bahi]] and [[Taxila]], the 5,000-year-old [[Indus Valley civilisation]] sites such as [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Harappa]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/76d57272-6764-11de-925f-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/76d57272-6764-11de-925f-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=The road between China and Pakistan |website=[[Financial Times]] |date=4 July 2009|access-date=27 September 2010}}</ref> and numerous [[List of mountains in Pakistan|mountain peaks]] over {{convert|7,000|m|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=5 Pakistani peaks that are among world's highest |url=http://nation.com.pk/entertainment/11-Dec-2015/5-pakistani-peaks-that-are-among-world-s-highest|access-date=9 January 2017 |magazine=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]] |date=11 December 2015 |quote=Pakistan is home to 108 peaks above 7,000 metres and probably as many peaks above 6,000&nbsp;m.}}</ref> The northern part of Pakistan boasts numerous old fortresses, showcasing ancient architecture. It encompasses the [[Hunza Valley|Hunza]] and [[Chitral valley]]s, where the small pre-Islamic [[Kalash people|Kalasha]] community resides, claiming descent from Alexander the Great.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/28439107.html|title=Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due|last=Bezhan|first=Frud|date=19 April 2017|website=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|access-date=11 July 2017|quote=About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.}}</ref> Lahore, Pakistan's cultural capital, showcases numerous examples of [[Mughal architecture]], including the [[Badshahi Masjid]], the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]], the [[Tomb of Jahangir]], and the [[Lahore Fort]]. Following the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]], ''[[The Guardian]]'' highlighted "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" to boost tourism, featuring destinations like [[Taxila]], [[Lahore]], the [[Karakoram Highway]], [[Karimabad (Hunza)|Karimabad]], and [[Lake Saiful Muluk]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/oct/17/pakistan?page=all |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Out of the rubble |first=Antonia |last=Windsor |date=17 October 2006|access-date=25 May 2010}}</ref> Festivals and government initiatives aim to promote Pakistan's cultural heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism.gov.pk/fairs_festivals.html |title=Tourism Events in Pakistan in 2010 |publisher=tourism.gov.pk |access-date=27 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209103944/http://www.tourism.gov.pk/fairs_festivals.html |archive-date=9 February 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, the [[World Economic Forum]] ranked Pakistan 125th out of 141 countries in its Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf |publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|access-date=24 February 2017}}</ref>

=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Fuel extraction in Pakistan|Mining in Pakistan}}
[[File:Pakistan Chrome Mines20120126 16100237 0003.jpg|thumb|left|[[Surface mining]] in [[Sindh]]]]
Pakistan's untapped coal reserves have been estimated as the fifth largest in the world and equivalent to about 400 billion barrels of oil, exceeding the combined oil reserves of Saudi Arabia and Iran.{{sfn|Dawn|2009b}} [[Daniel Fitzgerald Runde]] wrote in [[Forbes]] in 2016 that Pakistan "could be the 'Saudi Arabia of Coal'."{{sfn|Runde|2016}}

The [[Reko Diq Mine]] has one of the world's largest undeveloped [[copper]] deposits, with an estimated 15 million tonnes in reserves,{{sfn|Mining.com|2026}} and is expected to become the world’s fifth largest copper mine upon completion;{{sfn|ADB|2025b}} a feasibility study also estimates that it could produce approximately 17.9 million ounces of gold over its projected 37-year mine life, with total copper and gold reserves valued at over $60 billion at prevailing prices.{{sfn|Kiani|2025}}

== Infrastructure ==
{{See also|Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan}}
[[File:Water_stress,_top_countries_(2022).svg|thumb|Pakistan was the sixteenth most water-stressed country in the world in 2022.]]
Pakistan was lauded as the top nation for infrastructure development in South Asia during the 2016 annual meetings of the IMF and World Bank.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://embassyofpakistanusa.org/press-releases-10-09-2016/|title=Pakistan has been recognized as Best Country for Infrastructure Development in South Asia by the Emerging Markets, the newspaper of the IMF/World Bank Annual Meeting – Embassy of Pakistan, Washington D.C}}</ref>

=== Power and energy ===
{{Main|Nuclear power in Pakistan|Energy in Pakistan|Electricity sector in Pakistan}}
[[File:Tarbela Dam during the 2010 floods.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tarbela Dam]], the largest earth filled dam in the world, was constructed in 1968.]]

As of May 2021, Pakistan operates six licensed commercial [[nuclear power plants]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan's largest Chinese-built nuclear plant to start operating|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/pakistans-largest-chinese-built-nuclear-plant-start-operating-2021-05-21/|access-date=18 June 2021 |newspaper=[[Reuters]]|date=21 May 2021}}</ref> The [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) oversees these plants, while the [[Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority]] ensures their safe operation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paec.gov.pk/paec-np.htm |title=Nuclear Power Generation Programme |last=(PAEC) |first=Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission |author-link=Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission |publisher=PAEC |website=Government of Pakistan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050209020648/http://www.paec.gov.pk/paec-np.htm |archive-date=9 February 2005|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> These plants contribute approximately 5.8% to Pakistan's electricity supply, while fossil fuels (crude oil and natural gas) provide 64.2%, [[hydroelectric power]] provides 29.9%, and [[Coal power plant|coal]] contributes 0.1%.<ref name="Express Tribune, 2014">{{cite news |last1=Kazmi |first1=Zahir |title=Pakistan's energy security |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/655573/pakistans-energy-security/|access-date=23 February 2015 |quote=Special report on Energy security efforts in Pakistan |work=Express Tribune |date=7 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Syed Yousaf |first=Raza |title=Current Picture of Electrical Energy In Pakistan |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:T4QW3douApsJ:www.iaea.org/INPRO/4th_Dialogue_Forum/DAY_3_01_August-ready/2._-_DG-C3-4-31-07-2012.pdf+pakistan+nuclear+power+program+2050&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjUcYBzrkzBdSSwbflDwBpLkLAkFaFROisP_jK3E3S97aqHY9tMS-It6gaYDd-q4lZP8BEuD6e4C5E91EnlkiSKIw-JbWuYsNwjNNC1f1Nxyw9D0Ib_V424k5ghsCazU80qDKfF&sig=AHIEtbRAsJSVdJ36dVxzvdggw_Xz16RLGg |website=Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission |publisher=Directorate-General for Nuclear Power Generation|access-date=28 November 2012 |date=31 July 2012}}<br />- {{cite news |last=Zulfikar |first=Saman |title=Pak-China energy cooperation |url=http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=109910 |access-date=23 April 2012 |newspaper=Pakistan Observer |date=23 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927072914/http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=109910 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> The [[Karachi Nuclear Power Plant|KANUPP-I]], Pakistan's first commercial nuclear power plant, was supplied by Canada in 1971. Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s, leading to the establishment of CHASNUPP-I. In 2005, both countries proposed a joint energy security plan, aiming for a generation capacity exceeding 160,000 [[Megawatt|MWe]] by 2030. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 targets a capacity of 40,000 MWe,<ref>{{cite news |title=PAEC plans 40,000MW by 2050 using environment-friendly nuclear power |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/14698-paec-plans-40000mw-by-2050-using-environment-friendly-nuclear-power|access-date=30 April 2017 |work=[[The News International]] |date=17 September 2015}}</ref> with 8,900 MWe expected by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |last=Syed |first=Baqir Sajjad |title=8,900MW nuclear power generation planned |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1077816|access-date=30 April 2017 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |date=2 January 2014}}<br />- {{cite journal |last=Ijaz |first=Muhammad, Director of Scientific Information and Public Relation (SIPR) |title=PAEC assigned 8,800 MWe nuclear power target by 2030:PAEC contributing to socio-economic uplift of the country |journal=PakAtom Newsletter |volume=49 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–8 |date=December 2010 |url=http://www.paec.gov.pk/newsletters/pkatm-n/p-nd10.pdf}} {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

In June 2008, the nuclear complex at [[Chashma Nuclear Power Plant|Chashma]] in Punjab Province expanded with the installation of [[Chashma Nuclear Power Plant|Chashma-III]] and [[Chashma Nuclear Power Plant|Chashma–IV]] reactors, each with 325–340 MWe, costing [[Pakistani rupee|₨]]129 billion, with ₨80 billion from international sources, mainly China. Another agreement for China's assistance was signed in October 2008, seen as a response to the [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement|US–India agreement]]. The project's cost was then US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan of US$1.07 billion. In 2013, Pakistan established a second [[Karachi Nuclear Power Complex|nuclear complex]] in Karachi with plans for additional reactors, similar to Chashma.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhutta |first1=Zafar |title=Govt to kick off work on 1,100MW nuclear power plant |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/559885/govt-to-kick-off-work-on-1100mw-nuclear-power-plant/|access-date=19 January 2015 |agency=Express Tribune |date=7 June 2013}}</ref> [[Electricity in Pakistan|Electrical energy in Pakistan]] is generated by [[Electricity distribution companies of Pakistan|various corporations]] and distributed evenly among the [[Four Provinces (Pakistan)|four provinces]] by the [[National Electric Power Regulatory Authority]] (NEPRA). However, Karachi-based [[K-Electric]] and [[Water and Power Development Authority]] (WAPDA) generate much of the electricity used in Pakistan and collect revenue nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Power Sector Situation in Pakistan |url=http://www.rural-electrification.com/cms/upload/pdf/Pakistan-GTZ-power-sector-overview.pdf|access-date=26 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124180708/http://www.rural-electrification.com/cms/upload/pdf/Pakistan-GTZ-power-sector-overview.pdf |archive-date=24 January 2011 |website=Alternate Energy Development Board and GTZ |year=2005 |page=1}}</ref> In 2023, Pakistan's installed [[electricity generation]] capacity was ~45,885 MWt.<ref>{{cite web |title=State of Industry Report 2023 |url=https://nepra.org.pk/publications/State%20of%20Industry%20Reports/State%20of%20Industry%20Report%202023.pdf |access-date=19 April 2024 |website=nepra.org.pk |archive-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418211926/https://nepra.org.pk/publications/State%20of%20Industry%20Reports/State%20of%20Industry%20Report%202023.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pakistan produced 1,135&nbsp;megawatts of [[renewable energy]] for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expects to produce 10,000&nbsp;megawatts of renewable energy by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1218970/exclusive-club-nations-pakistan-producing-1000mw-clean-energy/ |title=Pakistan producing more than 1,000MW of clean energy |date=3 November 2016 |newspaper=The Express Tribune|access-date=3 November 2016}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{main|Transport in Pakistan}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| width1            = 168
| image1            = M2-Motorway.jpg
| caption1          = The motorway passes through the [[Salt Range]] mountains.
| width2            = 200
| image2            = PK Karachi asv2020-02 img54 Cantonment Railway Station.jpg
| caption2          = [[Karachi Cantonment railway station]]
}}

Pakistan boasts 2567&nbsp;km of motorways and approximately 263,942&nbsp;km of highways, which handle 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic. Despite constituting only 4.6% of the total road length, these north–south links manage 85% of the nation's traffic. They connect southern seaports such as [[Port of Karachi|Karachi port]] and [[Port Qasim]] in Sindh, along with [[Gwadar port|Gwadar Port]] and [[Port of Pasni]] in Balochistan, to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa domestically, and neighbouring countries like Afghanistan, [[Central Asia]], and China through the [[China Pakistan Economic Corridor]].<ref name="nation"/><ref name="pc">{{cite web |author=Ahmed Jamal Pirzada |title=Draft: Role of Connectivity in Growth Strategy of Pakistan |url=http://www.pc.gov.pk/feg/PDFs/role%20of%20connectivity%20in%20growth%20strategy%20of%20pakistan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421064636/http://www.pc.gov.pk/feg/PDFs/role%20of%20connectivity%20in%20growth%20strategy%20of%20pakistan.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2012 |year=2011 |publisher=Planning Commission, Pakistan |pages=4, 7, 9 |access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Highway Development Sector Investment Program |url=http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/PAK/37559-PAK-RRP.pdf |publisher=Asian Development Bank |year=2005 |pages=11, 12 |access-date=31 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007150953/http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/PAK/37559-PAK-RRP.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-document/81261/40075-pak-seia-0.pdf|title=Proposed Multitranche Financing Facility Pakistan: National Trade Corridor Highway Investment Program|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank|ADB]]|date=April 2007|access-date=11 January 2021}}</ref> According to the [[World Economic Forum|WEF]]'s Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quality of port infrastructure, WEF |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IQ.WEF.PORT.XQ|access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref> The railway's share of inland traffic is reduced to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.<ref name="DSEC" /> This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from {{convert|8,775|km|abbr=off}} in 1990–91 to {{convert|7,791|km|abbr=off}} in 2011.<ref name="pc" /><ref name="nation">{{cite web |title=PAKISTAN |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Pakistan.html |website=Encyclopedia Nation|access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref>

[[File:KKH.png|thumb|[[Karakoram Highway]], connecting Pakistan to China, is one of the highest paved roads in the world.]]

The transport landscape of Pakistan features various [[rapid transit|modern transit]] systems. The [[Orange Line (Lahore Metro)|Orange Line Metro Train]] in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,<ref>{{cite web|date=23 May 2014|title=Good news on track: Lahore to get Pakistan's first metro train|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/711864/good-news-on-track-lahore-to-get-pakistans-first-metro-train|access-date=12 April 2022|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref> spans {{convert|27.1|km|mi|1|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Norinco Technical Proposal|url=http://www.lahoremetroauraap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Norinco-Technical-Proposal.pdf|access-date=25 January 2017|date=January 2016|page=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202022759/http://www.lahoremetroauraap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Norinco-Technical-Proposal.pdf|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=usurped}}</ref> and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/25-Oct-2020/punjab-cm-inaugurates-lahore-s-much-delayed-orange-line-metro-train|title=Punjab CM inaugurates Lahore's much-delayed Orange Line Metro Train|date=25 October 2020|work=Daily Pakistan|access-date=25 October 2020}}</ref> Lahore also boasts the [[Lahore Metrobus]], the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pakvisit.com/pakistan/metrobus.html|title=Metro Bus Lahore Pakistan -Rapid Bus Transport|website=pakvisit.com|access-date=9 June 2018|archive-date=9 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609002127/http://www.pakvisit.com/pakistan/metrobus.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus]], stretching 48.1&nbsp;km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.<ref name="Orange line trial run">{{Cite news|url=https://www.incpak.com/national/islamabad-starts-trial-of-orange-line-metro-bus-service/|title=Islamabad Starts Trial of Orange Line Metro Bus Service|date=16 April 2022|work=INCPAK|access-date=18 April 2022|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="PM Shehbaz Sharif inaugurates metrobus service">{{Cite news|url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/412136-pm-shehbaz-sharif-inaugurates-metrobus-service-from-peshawar-mor-to-islamabad|title=PM Shehbaz Sharif confident his 'speedy work' will frighten ex-premier Imran Khan|date=18 April 2022|work=GEO News|access-date=18 April 2022|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Multan Metrobus]], inaugurated in January 2017, serves [[Multan]] with its rapid transit services.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/national/06-Jun-2014/work-on-multan-metro-bus-to-begin-on-august-14 |title= Work on Multan Metro Bus to Begin on August 14|newspaper= The Nation|access-date= 30 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1310439/this-is-naya-pakistan-pm-inaugurates-rs29bn-metro-bus-project-in-multan|title= Prime Minister inaugurates Multan Metrobus|newspaper= Dawn News|date= 24 January 2017|access-date= 24 January 2018}}</ref> [[Peshawar Metrobus|Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit]], inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi's [[Green Line - Karachi Metrobus|Green Line Metrobus]], operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.<ref>{{cite news |title=PM Imran inaugurates Karachi's much-awaited Green Line bus service |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1663004/pm-imran-inaugurates-karachis-much-awaited-green-line-bus-service |work=Dawn |date=10 December 2021|access-date=12 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1055243/ground-breaking-ceremony-green-line-brt-finally-gets-go-ahead/|title=Ground-breaking ceremony: Green Line BRT finally gets go-ahead – The Express Tribune|date=26 February 2016|website=The Express Tribune|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1241849|title=Karachi's Green Line bus will be more beautiful than Lahore metro: PM Nawaz|last=Dawn.com|date=26 February 2016|website=www.dawn.com|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Faisalabad]] awaits its proposed rapid transit project, the [[Faisalabad Metrobus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/542890/special-shuttle-train-service-to-be-launched-for-workers-of-cpec-sez/|title=Special shuttle train service to be launched for workers of CPEC SEZ|date=20 January 2020|website=Daily Times|access-date=18 June 2020|archive-date=17 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517115358/https://dailytimes.com.pk/542890/special-shuttle-train-service-to-be-launched-for-workers-of-cpec-sez/|url-status=dead}}<br />- {{Cite news|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/17091/cm-to-take-metro-bus-to-faisalabad/|title=CM to take metro bus to Faisalabad – Daily Times|date=15 April 2017|work=Daily Times|access-date=9 June 2018}}</ref> [[Karachi Circular Railway]], partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://nation.com.pk/10-Aug-2020/chairman-railways-visits-kcr-track |title=Chairman Railways visits KCR track |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |date=10 August 2020 |work=[[The Nation (Pakistani newspaper)|The Nation]] |access-date=12 January 2021}}<br />- {{cite news |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2260409/supreme-court-gives-four-more-months-to-overhaul-railways |title=Supreme Court gives four more months to overhaul railways |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |date=20 August 2020 |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1591237/karachi-circular-railway-begins-partial-operations-today |title=Karachi Circular Railway begins partial operations |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |date=19 November 2020 |work=[[Dawn News]] |access-date=12 January 2021}}</ref> Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi's [[Mohamedali Tramways Company|tramway service]], which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.<ref>{{cite news|title=OLMT project to face further delay|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1941286/1-olmt-project-face-delay/|access-date=2 April 2019|work=[[The Express Tribune]]|author=Adnan, Imran|date=1 April 2019|quote=As per the direction of the apex court, he said, the civil works of the project will be completed by end of July 2019. But the project will not enter into commercial operations by August or November 2019.}}<br />- {{cite news|title=Manufacturing of orange trains starts, says Kh Hassan|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/122738-Manufacturing-of-orange-trains-starts-says-Kh-Hassan|access-date=24 January 2017|agency=The News|date=26 May 2016|quote=Latest technology will be employed for fabricating these trains and the rolling-stock will be fully computerised, automatic and driverless.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://propakistani.pk/2019/01/02/karachi-is-planning-to-restart-tram-services/amp/|title=Karachi is Planning to Restart Tram Services|website=propakistani.pk|date=2 January 2019}}</ref>

As of 2013, Pakistan boasts approximately 151 airports and airfields, encompassing both military and [[Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority|civilian]] installations.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Pakistan|section=Airports|access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> Despite [[Jinnah International Airport]] serving as the primary international gateway, significant international traffic also flows through [[Allama Iqbal International Airport|Lahore]], [[Islamabad International Airport|Islamabad]], [[Peshawar International Airport|Peshawar]], [[Quetta International Airport|Quetta]], [[Faisalabad International Airport|Faisalabad]], [[Sialkot International Airport|Sialkot]], and [[Multan International Airport|Multan]] airports. The civil aviation industry, deregulated in 1993, operates with a blend of [[Nationalisation in Pakistan|public]] and [[Privatisation in Pakistan|private]] entities while [[State owned enterprises|state-owned]] [[Pakistan International Airlines]] (PIA) dominates, carrying 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight.

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Pakistan|List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries}}
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 300
| align             = right
| image1            = Abdus Salam 1987.jpg
| caption1          = [[Abdus Salam]] won the 1979 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his contribution to [[electroweak interaction]]. He was the first Muslim to win a Nobel prize in science.
| caption2          = [[Atta ur Rahman (scientist)|Atta-ur-Rahman]] won the [[UNESCO Science Prize]] for pioneering contributions in chemistry in 1999, the first Muslim to win it.
| image2            = Atta-Ur-Rahman (cropped).jpg
| caption3          = [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] was a Pakistani organic chemist who pioneered research on pharmacology use of various domestic plants. He was a member of the [[Royal Society]].
| image3            = <!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: Salimuzzaman.jpg -->
| width4            = 120
| caption4          = [[Mahbub ul Haq]] was a Pakistani game theorist whose work led to the [[Human Development Index]]. He had a profound effect on the field of [[international development]].
| image4            = 
}}

Developments in [[Science and technology in Pakistan|science and technology]] have played a significant role in Pakistan's infrastructure, linking the nation to the global community.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ministry of Science and Technology |title=National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2012 |url=http://most.comsatshosting.com/%5CPolicies%5CNational%20Science,%20Technology%20and%20Innovation%20Policy%202012.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Science and Technology|access-date=3 February 2015}}</ref> Each year, the [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]] and the government invite scientists worldwide to the [[International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Address by Prime Minister |website=Press Information Department (Government of Pakistan) |format=DOC |url=http://www.pid.gov.pk/pm%20address%20on%2027-6-2011.doc |access-date=24 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112161844/http://www.pid.gov.pk/pm%20address%20on%2027-6-2011.doc |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2005, Pakistan hosted an international seminar on "Physics in Developing Countries" for the International Year of Physics.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Hameed A. Khan |editor2=M. M. Qurashi |editor3=Tajammul Hussain |editor4=Irfan Hayee |date=April 2006 |title=Physics in Developing Countries&nbsp;– Past, Present & Future |series=COMSATS' Series of Publications on Science and Technology |volume=8 |publisher=Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South |url=http://www.comsats.org/Publications/Books_SnT_Series/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Past,%20Present%20and%20Future%20(April%202006).pdf |page=9 |access-date=1 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524011938/http://www.comsats.org/Publications/Books_SnT_Series/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Past,%20Present%20and%20Future%20(April%202006).pdf |archive-date=24 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistani theoretical physicist [[Abdus Salam]] won a [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his work on the [[electroweak interaction]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=1979 Nobel Prize in Physics |journal=Science |volume=206 |issue=4424 |pages=1290–1292 |bibcode=1979Sci...206.1290C |last1=Coleman |first1=Sidney |year=1979 |doi=10.1126/science.206.4424.1290 |pmid=17799637}}</ref> Pakistani scientists have made notable contributions in mathematics, biology, economics, [[computer science]], and [[genetics]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Mian |editor-first1=Zia |editor-last2=Kothari |editor-first2=Smitu |title=Out of the nuclear shadow |date=2001 |publisher=Zed |location=London |isbn=978-1-84277-059-7}}</ref>

In [[chemistry]], [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] identified the medicinal properties of the [[neem]] tree's components.{{sfn|Muniapan|Shaikh|2007}}<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://technologytimes.pk/documents/mag/PDF_Old/Vol02-Issue11.pdf |title=The scientist who painted: Dr. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui |magazine=Technology Times |publisher=Mediaventures |location=Islamabad |date=14 March 2011 |volume=II |issue=11 |page=3 |access-date=18 March 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710192902/http://technologytimes.pk/documents/mag/PDF_Old/Vol02-Issue11.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ayub K. Ommaya]] developed the [[Ommaya reservoir]] for treating brain conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leonidas C. Goudas |display-authors=etal |year=1999 |title=Decreases in Cerebrospinal Fluid Glutathione Levels after Intracerebroventricular Morphine for Cancer Pain |journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia |volume=89 |issue=5 |page=1209 |publisher=International Anesthesia Research Society |doi=10.1213/00000539-199911000-00023 |url=http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/cgi/content/full/89/5/1209 |access-date=1 January 2012 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Scientific research is integral to [[Pakistani universities]], national laboratories, [[science park]]s, and the [[Industry of Pakistan|industry]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osama |first1=Athar |last2=Najam |first2=Adil |last3=Kassim-Lakha |first3=Shamsh |last4=Zulfiqar Gilani |first4=Syed |last5=King |first5=Christopher |title=Pakistan's reform experiment |journal=Nature |date=3 September 2009 |volume=461 |issue=7260 |pages=38–39 |doi=10.1038/461038a |pmid=19727184 |s2cid=205048760 |bibcode=2009Natur.461...38O}}</ref> [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] spearheaded Pakistan's [[Enriched uranium|HEU]]-based [[Zippe-type centrifuge|gas-centrifuge]] [[uranium enrichment]] program for its [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|atomic bomb project]].<ref>{{cite web |last=(IISS) |first=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=Bhutto was father of Pakistan's Atom Bomb Program |publisher=International Institute for Strategic Studies |year=2006 |url=http://www.iiss.org/whats-new/iiss-in-the-press/press-coverage-2007/may-2007/bhutto-was-father-of-pakistani-bomb/?locale=en |access-date=24 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314025504/http://www.iiss.org/whats-new/iiss-in-the-press/press-coverage-2007/may-2007/bhutto-was-father-of-pakistani-bomb/?locale=en |archive-date=14 March 2012}}</ref> He established the [[Kahuta Research Laboratories]] (KRL) in 1976, serving as both its senior scientist and the Director-General until his retirement in 2001. Besides atomic bomb project, he made significant contributions in [[Morphology (biology)|molecular morphology]], physical [[martensite]], and their applications in [[Condensed matter physics|condensed]] and [[material physics]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/world/asia/16chron-khan.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=24 July 2015 |title=Chronology: A.Q. Khan |newspaper=The New York Times |date=16 April 2006}}</ref>

In 2023, Pakistan ranked 26th globally in published scientific papers.<ref>{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date= |title=SJR - International Science Ranking |url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?order=itp&ord=desc&year=2023 |access-date=26 March 2025 |work=}}</ref> The influential [[Pakistan Academy of Sciences]] guides the government on science policies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paspk.org/Introduction-to-the-Academy-19 |title=Introduction to the Academy |publisher=Introduction of the Academy |access-date=16 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219233435/http://www.paspk.org/Introduction-to-the-Academy-19 |archive-date=19 February 2015}}</ref> Pakistan was ranked 99th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] by 2025.<ref>{{cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/pakistan |access-date=16 October 2025 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=17 October 2025}}</ref>

The 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led by [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|SUPARCO]], yielding advancements in [[rocket]]ry, [[Electronics Engineering|electronics]], and [[aeronomy]]. Notably, Pakistan launched its [[Rehbar-I|first rocket]] into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of SUPARCO |url=http://www.suparco.gov.pk/pages/history.asp |publisher=SUPARCO |access-date=24 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417192331/http://www.suparco.gov.pk/pages/history.asp |archive-date=17 April 2008}}</ref> In 1990, it successfully launched its [[Badr-1|first satellite]], becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chtAqyOp9OEC&pg=PA46|title=Asian Space Race: Rhetoric or Reality? |last=Lele |first=Ajey |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-322-0733-7|page=46|quote=Headquartered in SUPARCO headquarters, Karachi, it has been responsible directly and indirectly for the fabrication, processing and launch of the Muslim Ummah's first experimental satellite, Badr-1. It was a historical event not only for the people of Pakistan but also for the entire Muslim Ummah as it was the first satellite built by any Islamic country based on indigenous resources and manpower.}}<br />- {{cite web |title=The Launching of Badr-I |website=Aero Space Guide |url=http://www.aerospaceguide.net/worldspace/pakistan.html |access-date=24 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202005559/http://www.aerospaceguide.net/worldspace/pakistan.html |archive-date=2 February 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{quote box
| quote = Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than the [[BRIC (economics term)|BRIC]] countries put together.
| source = —[[Thomson Reuters]]'s Another BRIC in the Wall 2016 report<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1183999/notch-pakistani-articles-cited-brics-put-together-says-report/ |title=Pakistani articles 'cited more than BRICs put together', says report |website=Tribune|access-date=September 19, 2016|date=2016-09-19 }}</ref>
| align = left
| width = 25em
| border = 1px
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| halign = left
}}

Following the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war with India]], Pakistan hastily developed [[nuclear weapon|atomic weapons]] to deter foreign intervention and entered the [[atomic age]].<ref name="United Book Press.">{{cite book |title=Pakistan : between mosque and military |date=2005 |last1=Haqqani |first1=Husain |publisher=United Book Press. |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87003-214-1 |edition=1. print. |chapter=§Chapter 3 |quote=The trauma was extremely severe in Pakistan when the news of secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh arrived—a psychological setback, complete and humiliating defeat that shattered the prestige of Pakistan Armed Forces. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/pakistanbetweenm00haqq }}</ref> Tensions with India led to Pakistan's [[List of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan|1998 underground]] [[Chagai-I|nuclear tests]], making it the [[Nuclear club|seventh country]] to possess such weapons.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/index.html |title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=22 February 2007 |archive-date=20 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220102255/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Pakistan is the sole Muslim nation active in Antarctica research, maintaining its [[Pakistan Antarctic Programme|Jinnah Antarctic Research Station]] since 1992.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sayar |first=M.A. |date=April–June 1995 |title=Should We Exploit The Last Wilderness? |url=http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/Should-We-Exploit-The-Last-Wilderness |journal=The Fountain Magazine |access-date=9 February 2016 |quote=Pakistan became the first Muslim country to send an official expedition to Antarctica. Pakistan in 1992, established its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station. |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215200726/http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/Should-We-Exploit-The-Last-Wilderness}}<br />- {{Cite journal |year=1991 |title=Huge Oil Deposits Located Near Coast |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMjsAAAAMAAJ|journal=Economic Review |volume=22|quote=To a question Dr. Farah said, Pakistan was the first country to carry out research and establish its station at the same time in Antarctica.}}<br />- {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kx1AAAAAIAAJ |title=Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica |last1=Farah |first1=Abul |last2=Rizvi |first2=S.H. Niaz |publisher=National Institute of Oceanography |year=1995|page=15 |quote=Pakistan's presence in Antarctica also appears imperative as none of the Muslim countries seem to be in a position to undertake research there.}}<br />- {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kx1AAAAAIAAJ |title=Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica |last1=Farah |first1=Abul |last2=Rizvi |first2=S.H. Niaz |publisher=National Institute of Oceanography |year=1995|page=17 |quote=We have already taken the lead amongst the Muslim countries by launching our first expedition in 1990–1991 with an investment of large funds and national talent towards Antarctic research.}}<br />- {{Cite journal |year=1992 |title=News Bulletin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vK0eAQAAIAAJ |journal=National Institute of Oceanography (Pakistan) |volume=7 |page=1 |quote=This makes Pakistan the first Muslim country to undertake Antarctic Expedition and to establish a research station in Antarctica.}}</ref> The government invests heavily in [[Information technology in Pakistan|information technology]] projects, focusing on e-government and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/432124/govt-to-spend-rs4-6b-on-it-projects/ |title=Govt to spend Rs4.6b on IT projects |work=Express Tribune |date=6 September 2012|access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Pakistan}}
{{further|Overseas Pakistani}}
{{multiple image 
| caption_align = center
| direction    =vertical
|image1=Population Density by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg
|caption1=Population Density per square kilometre of each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
|image2=Population by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg
|caption2=Population of each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
}}

{{Excerpt|Demographics of Pakistan|files=0}}

=== Urbanisation ===
{{Main|Urbanisation in Pakistan}}

Since [[Independence of Pakistan|independence]] due to the [[partition of India]], [[Urbanisation in Pakistan|urbanisation]] has surged for various reasons. In the south, [[Karachi]] stands as the most populous commercial hub along the [[Indus River]].<ref name="The Urban Frontier—Karachi">{{cite news |title=The Urban Frontier—Karachi |newspaper = NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=91009748 |publisher=National Public Radio |date=2 June 2008|access-date=2 July 2008}}</ref> In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities like [[Lahore]], [[Faisalabad]], [[Rawalpindi]], [[Islamabad]], [[Sargodha]], [[Gujranwala]], [[Sialkot]], [[Gujrat city|Gujrat]], [[Jhelum]], [[Sheikhupura]], [[Nowshera, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]], [[Mardan]], and [[Peshawar]]. By 1990–2008, city dwellers constituted 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanised nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.<ref name="Jason Burke">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/17/pakistan |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Pakistan looks to life without the general |author=Jason Burke |date=17 August 2008|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> [[Immigration to Pakistan|Immigration]], both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanisation, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.<ref name="Clark">{{cite book |last=Clark |first=David |title=The Elgar Companion to Development Studies |year=2006 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-84376-475-5 |page=668}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| name        = Largest cities of Pakistan
| country     = Pakistan
| stat_ref    = According to the 2023 Census<ref>{{cite web |title=7th Population and Housing Census – 2023 {{!}} Key Findings Report |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/Key_Findings_Report.pdf |website=pbs.gov.pk |publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]] – [[Ministry of Planning Development and Special Initiatives]] |location=Islamabad |page=59}}</ref>
| div_name    = Province
| div_link    =

| city_1 = Karachi | div_1 = Sindh | pop_1 = 18,868,021
| city_2 = Lahore | div_2 = Punjab | pop_2 = 13,004,135
| city_3 = Faisalabad | div_3 = Punjab | pop_3 = 3,691,999
| city_4 = Rawalpindi | div_4 = Punjab | pop_4 = 3,357,612
| city_5 = Gujranwala | div_5 = Punjab | pop_5 = 2,668,047

| city_6 = Multan | div_6 = Punjab | pop_6 = 2,215,381

| city_7 = Hyderabad, Sindh{{!}}Hyderabad | div_7 = Sindh | pop_7 = 1,921,275

| city_8 = Peshawar | div_8 = Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | pop_8 = 1,905,975

| city_9 = Quetta | div_9 = Balochistan | pop_9 = 1,565,546

| city_10 = Islamabad | div_10 = Islamabad Capital Territory{{!}}Capital Territory | pop_10 = 1,108,872

| city_11 = Sargodha | div_11 = Punjab | pop_11 = 975,886

| city_12 = Sialkot | div_12 = Punjab | pop_12 = 911,817

| city_13 = Bahawalpur | div_13 = Punjab | pop_13 = 903,795

| city_14 = Jhang | div_14 = Punjab | pop_14 = 606,533

| city_15 = Sheikhupura | div_15 = Punjab | pop_15 = 591,424

| city_16 = Gujrat, Pakistan{{!}}Gujrat | div_16 = Punjab | pop_16 = 574,240

| city_17 = Sukkur | div_17 = Sindh | pop_17 = 563,851

| city_18 = Larkana | div_18 = Sindh | pop_18 = 551,716

| city_19 = Sahiwal | div_19 = Punjab | pop_19 = 538,344

| city_20 = Okara, Pakistan{{!}}Okara | div_20 = Punjab | pop_20 = 533,693
}}

=== Ethnicity and languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Pakistan|Ethnic groups of Pakistan}}
{{See also|Pakistanis}}
Pakistan is a diverse society with estimates suggesting it has between 75 and 85 languages.<ref>{{cite web |year=2017 |title=Pakistan – Languages |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PK/languages |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902143126/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/pk/languages |archive-date=2 September 2017 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |edition=20th |editor-last1=Simons |editor-first1=Gary F. |editor-last2=Fennig |editor-first2=Charles D.}}</ref><ref name="GlottologPK">{{cite web |title=Languages of Pakistan |url=https://glottolog.org/glottolog/language.map.html?country=PK#4/33.01/73.28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512205543/https://glottolog.org/glottolog/language.map.html?country=PK#4/33.01/73.28 |archive-date=12 May 2022 |access-date=12 May 2022 |website=Glottolog 4.5 – Languages |publisher=Glottolog}}</ref> Urdu and English serve as the official languages, with Urdu being the country's [[lingua franca]] and a unifying force among over 75% of Pakistanis.<ref>{{cite book |author=Braj B. Kachru |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA138 |title=Language in South Asia |author2=Yamuna Kachru |author3=S.N. Sridhar |date=27 March 2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46550-2 |pages=36, 138}}- <br />{{cite web |date=31 December 2015 |title=Urdu In Contempt |url=http://nation.com.pk/editorials/31-Dec-2015/urdu-in-contempt |access-date=12 January 2016 |website=The Nation}}</ref><ref name="2017 Census">{{cite news |title=CCI defers approval of census results until elections |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1410447 |access-date=26 April 2020 |work=Dawn}}</ref> According to the [[2023 Pakistani census|2023 national census]], the largest [[ethnolinguistic group]]s include the [[Punjabis]] (36.98%), [[Pashtuns]] (18.15%), [[Sindhis]] (14.31%), [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]] (12%), [[Urdu speaking people]] (9.25%), [[Baloch people|Balochs]] (3.38%), [[Hindkowans]]/[[Hazarewal]]s (2.32%), and [[Brahuis]] (1.16%).<ref>{{cite web |last=Rana |first=Shahbaz |date=19 July 2024 |title=Pakistan 27th in global population growth |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2480881/pakistan-27th-in-global-population-growth |access-date=23 July 2024 |website=The Express Tribune |quote=One of the questions in the population census was about the mother-tongue. The number of Urdu speaking people have increased to 9.3% by 2023. But Punjabi-origin people have reduced to 37%. There is also a reduction in the Sindh language speaking people from 14.6% to 14.3%. the Pashto speaking people reduced from 18.3% to 18.2% but Balochi-language people increased from 3% to 3.4%. The number of Saraiki-language people was reduced from 12.2% to 12%.}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=POPULATION BY MOTHER TONGUE, SEX AND RURAL/URBAN, CENSUS–2023
|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_11.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220005033/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_11.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2024}}</ref> The remaining population consists of various ethnic minorities such as [[Kashmiris]], [[Pahari people (Kashmir)|Paharis]], [[Chitralis]], various peoples of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Indus Kohistani people|Kohistanis]], [[Torwali people|Torwalis]], [[Meo (ethnic group)|Meos]], [[Hazaras]], [[Kalash people|Kalash]] and [[Siddi]]s.<ref name="EB-Online">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Brahui |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahui}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Abbas |first=Zaffar |date=13 March 2002 |title=Pakistan's Sidi keep heritage alive |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1869876.stm |access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> The Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million, is the sixth largest in the world.<ref name="ribune-2016">{{cite web |date=15 January 2016 |title=India has largest diaspora population in world: UN |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/india-has-largest-diaspora-population-in-world-un/183731.html |access-date=3 March 2016 |website=The Tribune}}</ref>

=== Immigration ===
{{Main|Immigration to Pakistan}}
[[File:Refugees from Afghanistan in Pakistan, near Islamabad.jpg|thumb|left|Afghan children near [[Islamabad]] fetching water from water pump. (Pakistan once held the second largest refugee population globally after [[Turkey]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rafi |first=Yumna |date=17 June 2015 |title=Pakistan hosts second largest refugee population globally |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1188585 |access-date=29 October 2016 |newspaper=[[Dawn Newspaper|Dawn]]}}</ref>)]]

Even post-1947 partition, the Muslims from India kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khalidi |first=Omar |date=1 January 1998 |title=From torrent to trickle: Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, 1947–97 |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=339–352 |jstor=20837002}}</ref> Wars in neighbouring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions of [[Afghan refugees]] into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|tribal areas]], with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ten countries host half of world's refugees: report |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/10/ten-countries-host-world-refugees-report-161004042014076.html|access-date=30 April 2017 |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |date=4 October 2016}}</ref> Additionally, around 2&nbsp;million [[Bengalis in Pakistan|Bengalis]] and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly from [[Myanmar]], reside in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/322325/five-million-illegal-immigrants-residing-in-pakistan/ |title=Five million illegal immigrants residing in Pakistan |date=16 January 2012 |newspaper=Express Tribune|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> Pakistan ordered the [[Deportation of undocumented Afghans from Pakistan|mass expulsion of undocumented Afghans]] in October 2023, citing national security risks.<ref>{{cite news |title='What's wrong?': The silence of Pakistanis on expulsion of Afghan refugees |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/22/whats-wrong-the-silence-of-pakistanis-on-expulsion-of-afghan-refugees |work=Al Jazeera |date=22 November 2023}}</ref>

Migration of Bengalis and [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1165299 |title=Identity issue haunts Karachi's Rohingya population |last=Rehman |first=Zia Ur |date=23 February 2015 |work=Dawn |quote=Their large-scale migration had made Karachi one of the largest Rohingya population centres outside Myanmar but afterwards the situation started turning against them.|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> Karachi's [[Burmese people|Burmese]] community resides in various slums across the city.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-rohingyas-of-karachi/ |title=The Rohingyas of Karachi |last=Khan |first=Naimat |date=12 June 2015}}</ref>

According to [[BBC World Service|BBC]], thousands of [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] Muslims live in Gilgit-Baltistan, some left Xinjiang, China and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals, claiming to escape political oppression.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How the Uighurs keep their culture alive in Pakistan |last=Jaffrey |first=Shumaila |date=12 August 2015 |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33775646 |quote=Insa is one of a few thousand Uighur Muslims who live in Gilgit. The community is a mix of generations. Some left Xinjiang and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals. All say they were forced to leave as they were the victims of cultural and religious oppression in China.|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> Since 1989, thousands of [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Istvan |first=Zoltan |date=13 March 2003 |work=National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0313_030313_tvpakirefugees_2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305173913/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0313_030313_tvpakirefugees_2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 March 2010 |title=Refugee Crisis Worsening In Western Kashmir |quote=The refugees claim that Indian soldiers forced them out of their homes&nbsp;... For Kashmiri Muslims, Pakistan appeared safer than Indian-held Kashmir&nbsp;... "She was also raped by the soldiers," Ahmad said. "Many of the other female refugees were also raped."|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref>

=== Diaspora ===
{{Main|Overseas Pakistani}}
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.<ref name="ribune-2016" /> Approximately 7&nbsp;million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 February 2009 |title=Pride and the Pakistani Diaspora |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/955861/pride-and-the-pakistani-diaspora |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015142319/http://archives.dawn.com/archives/142435 |archive-date=15 October 2013 |access-date=15 October 2013 |publisher=Archives.dawn.com}}</ref> Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.<ref name="overseaspakistanis1">{{cite web |url=http://www.overseaspakistanis.net/category/op-news/page/2/ |title=OP News Discussions Archives |publisher=Overseaspakistanis.net |access-date=15 October 2013 |archive-date=11 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211070343/https://www.overseaspakistanis.net/category/op-news/page/2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="worldbank1">{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Migration and Remittances: Top Countries |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPROSPECTS/Resources/334934-1199807908806/Top10.pdf |access-date=19 December 2013 |publisher=Siteresources.worldbank.org}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9&nbsp;billion {{as of|2016|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 July 2016 |title=Saudi Arabia remains largest source of remittances for Pakistan |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1142758/saudi-arabia-remains-largest-source-remittances/ |access-date=24 December 2016 |newspaper=The Express Tribune}}</ref> The term ''[[Overseas Pakistani]]'' is officially recognised by the Government of Pakistan, with the [[Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis|Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development]] addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9&nbsp;billion in 2009–10 to US$19.9&nbsp;billion in 2015–16.<ref name="remit">{{cite news |last1=Iqbal |first1=Shahid |title=$20 billion remittances received in FY16 |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1271081|access-date=20 February 2017 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |date=16 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="worldbank1" />

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Pakistan}}
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Pakistan (2023 census)<ref name="2023 Census">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf|title=Religious Demographics of Pakistan 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212115052/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2024}}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Religions
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Pakistan|Islam]]|green|96.3}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Pakistan|Hinduism]]|orange|2.2}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Pakistan|Christianity]]|blue|1.4}}
{{bar percent|[[Religion in Pakistan#Demographics of religion in Pakistan|others]]|purple|0.1}}
}}

[[Islam in Pakistan|Islam]] is the state religion,{{sfn|Munir|1975}} with freedom of religion guaranteed by the [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitution]].<ref name="CoP">{{cite web |title=Constitution of Pakistan |url=http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/ |website=Story of Pakistan|date=June 2003|publisher=Nazaria-e-Pakistan, Part IV|access-date=6 October 2020|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002225754/http://storyofpakistan.com/the-constitution-of-1973/|archive-date=2 October 2013}}<br />- {{cite web |title=Religions in Pakistan {{!}} PEW-GRF |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/pakistan#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2020 |access-date=14 July 2021 |website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org |archive-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123090234/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/pakistan#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2020|url-status=dead}}<br />- {{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Pakistan: Christians |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/5ba0ae0e7.html|access-date=14 July 2021|website=Refworld}}<br />- {{cite web|date=26 May 2018|title=Headcount finalised sans third-party audit|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1719994/headcount-finalised-sans-third-party-audit?amp=1|access-date=14 July 2021|website=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part2.ch1.html |title=The Constitution of Pakistan, Part II: Chapter 1: Fundamental Rights|publisher=Pakistani.org|access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref> The majority are Muslims (96.35%), followed by [[Hinduism in Pakistan|Hindus]] (2.17%) and [[Christianity in Pakistan|Christians]] (1.37%). Other minorities include [[Sikhism in Pakistan|Sikhs]], [[Buddhism in Pakistan|Buddhists]], [[Jainism in Pakistan|Jains]], [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] ([[Parsis|Parsi]]), and the unique [[Kalash people]] who practice [[animism]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/28439107.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=19 April 2017}}</ref> In 2012, 2% of the population identified as atheist in a [[Gallup Pakistan|Gallup]] survey.<ref>{{cite news |last=Husain |first=Irfan |title=Faith in decline |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/744896/faith-in-decline|access-date=16 December 2012 |newspaper=Dawn, Irfan |date=27 August 2012 |quote=Interestingly, and somewhat intriguingly, 2 per cent of the Pakistanis surveyed see themselves as atheists, up from 1pc in 2005. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204113125/http://dawn.com/2012/08/27/faith-in-decline/ |archive-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>

==== Islam ====
{{Main|Islam in Pakistan}}
[[File:Faisal Masjid.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|[[Faisal Mosque]], built in 1986 by Turkish architect [[Vedat Dalokay]] on behalf of [[House of Saud|King]] [[Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz]] of Saudi Arabia]]

Islam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.35% of the population being Muslim.<ref>Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ''Islam in Pakistan: A History'' (Princeton University Press, 2018) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=53232 online review]</ref> Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbqfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|title=Islam in India and Pakistan{{Snd}} A Religious History |last=Singh |first=Dr. Y.P. |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |year=2016 |isbn=978-93-85505-63-8 |quote=Pakistan has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia.}}<br />- see: [[Islam by country]]</ref> and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape |date=December 2012 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref> Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cityscapes of Violence in Karachi: Publics and Counterpublics |first=Nichola |last=Khan |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-086978-6 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote= ... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ... }}</ref>

The majority follow [[Sunni Islam]], with a significant presence of [[Sufism in Pakistan|Sufism]], while Shia Muslims constitute a minority.<ref name="LoC2">{{cite web |title=Country Profile: Pakistan |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Pakistan.pdf |date=February 2005 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |quote=Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.4 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 95 percent are Sunni follows [[Sufism]] and 5 percent Shia. |website=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Pakistan |access-date=1 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Religions: Muslim 96.4% (Sunni 75%, Shia 20%), other |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |year=2010 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] |department=Pakistan (includes Christian and Hindu) 5% |access-date=28 August 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226143549/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |url-status=dead}}<br />- {{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=7 October 2009 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327201319/http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx |archive-date=27 March 2010 |editor-first=Tracy |editor-last=Miller |access-date=9 June 2010}}<br />- {{cite book |url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=October 2009 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Tracy |access-date=28 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113140829/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 January 2010}}<br />- {{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |title=Pakistan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=19 September 2008 |access-date=28 August 2010}}</ref> Shias represent between 5–25%.<ref name="LoC2"/><ref name="ciafactbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Pakistan |access-date=13 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/ |title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity |date=9 August 2012 |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=26 December 2016 |quote=On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.}}<br />- {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |title=Field Listing : Religions |year=2010 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=24 August 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226143549/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Shia population in Pakistan was estimated at 42 million in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ammar Ali |last=Qureshi |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1515823 |title=Non-fiction: Pakistan's Shia dynamics |date=10 November 2019 |website=Dawn}}</ref> {{As of|2012}}, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as [[non-denominational Muslims]].<ref>{{cite web |date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/ |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Ahmadiyya in Pakistan|Ahmadis]] are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.<ref>The 1998 Pakistani census states that there are 291,000 (0.22%) Ahmadis in Pakistan. However, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has boycotted the census since 1974 which renders official Pakistani figures to be inaccurate. Independent groups have estimated the Pakistani Ahmadiyya population to be somewhere between 2 million and 4 million Ahmadis. However, the 4 million figure is the most quoted figure and is approximately 2.2% of the country. See:
* over 2 million: {{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/49913b5f2c.html |title=Pakistan: The situation of Ahmadis, including legal status and political, education and employment rights; societal attitudes toward Ahmadis (2006 – Nov. 2008) |date=4 December 2008 |author=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |access-date=28 June 2012}}
* 3 million: International Federation for Human Rights: ''International Fact-Finding Mission. Freedoms of Expression, of Association and of Assembly in Pakistan.'' Ausgabe 408/2, January 2005, S. 61 ([http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/pk408a-2.pdf PDF])
* 3–4 million: Commission on International Religious Freedom: ''Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom.'' 2005, S. 130
* {{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=IRBC&type=QUERYRESPONSE&coi=PAK&rid=&docid=45f1478f20&skip=0 |title=Pakistan: Situation of members of the Lahori Ahmadiyya Movement in Pakistan|access-date=30 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Pakistan |date=19 September 2008 |publisher=[[United States Department of State|US State Department]] |access-date=24 June 2010}}</ref> Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.<ref>New Approaches to the Analysis of Jihadism: Online and Offline, p. 38, Rüdiger Lohlker{{Snd}} 2012</ref>

==== Hinduism ====
{{main|Hinduism in Pakistan}}
[[File:Hindu Proportion by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|
<div style="text-align: center">Hindu proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics</div>]]
[[Hinduism in Pakistan|Hinduism]] is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.17% of the population according to the census in 2023.<ref name="2023 Census" /> Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/hindus/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables96/ |title=10 Countries With the Largest Hindu Populations, 2010 and 2050 |date=2 April 2015 |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226143905/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/hindus/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables96/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2023, Hindus numbered 5,217,216.<ref name="2023 Census" />{{efn|This number includes population of the Hindu (Jati) and the scheduled castes.}} They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated in [[Sindh]], where they make up 8.81% of the population.<ref name="2023 Census" /> [[Umerkot district]] of the province is the only Hindu majority area. [[Tharparkar district]] hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts – Umerkot, Tharparkar, [[Mirpurkhas District|Mirpurkhas]], and [[Sanghar District|Sanghar]] – have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Population By Sex, Religion and Rural/Urban, Census - 2023 {{!}} Sindh |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/sindh/dcr/table_9.pdf |publisher=Pakistan Bureau Statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726222045/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/sindh/dcr/table_9.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2024}}</ref>

At Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5c9ta97GeoC&pg=PA72 |title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories |last=Zamindar |first=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-231-13847-5 |page=72 |quote=The logic of the ''hostage theory'' tied the treatment of Muslim minorities in India to the treatment meted out to Hindus in Pakistan.}}</ref>{{R|Dhulipala-2015-6}} However, some Pakistani Hindus felt marginalised, leading to emigration to India.<ref name="bbc200703022">{{cite news |last=Sohail |first=Riaz |title=Hindus feel the heat in Pakistan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6367773.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=2 March 2007 |quote=But many Hindu families who stayed in Pakistan after partition have already lost faith and migrated to India. |access-date=22 February 2011}}</ref> In the aftermath of the [[Babri Masjid demolition]] they faced violence.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE2DD113BF93BA35751C1A964958260&sec=&spon= |title=Pakistanis Attack 30 Hindu Temples |date=7 December 1992 |newspaper=The New York Times |quote=Muslims attacked more than 30 Hindu temples across Pakistan today, and the Government of this overwhelmingly Muslim nation closed offices and schools for a day to protest the destruction of a mosque in India.|access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref>

==== Christianity and other religions ====
{{Main|Christianity in Pakistan}}
[[File:Christian Proportion by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|
<div style="text-align: center">Christian proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics</div>]]

Christians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.37% of the population.<ref name="2023 Census"/> They are concentrated in [[Lahore District]] (5%) and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historic [[Roman Catholicism in Pakistan|Roman Catholic]] community established by [[Goa]]n and [[Tamil people|Tamil]] migrants during British colonial rule.<ref name="Districtwise">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/district-wise-census-2017-results|title=District wise census|access-date=12 August 2021|archive-date=4 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804025540/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/district-wise-census-2017-results|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Following Christianity, the [[Bahá'í Faith in Pakistan|Bahá'í Faith]] had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, and [[Zoroastrianism]], each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistan—International Religious Freedom Report 2008 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |access-date=28 August 2010 |quote=The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 20 percent.|year=2008 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> alongside a small [[Jainism in Pakistan|Jain community]].

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Pakistan}}
{{See also|Higher Education Commission (Pakistan)|Rankings of universities in Pakistan}}
[[File:NUST MainOffice.png|thumb|[[NUST School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science|NUST]] in Islamabad is a top ranked Engineering University.]]

Pakistan's [[constitution of Pakistan|constitution]] mandates [[Free education|free]] primary and secondary education,<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 1: "Fundamental Rights" of Part II: "Fundamental Rights and Principles of Policy" |url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part2.ch1.html |website=pakistani.org}}<br />- {{cite web |date=21 April 2006 |title=Right to Education in Pakistan |url=http://www.oikoumene.org/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/international-affairs/human-rights-and-impunity/the-right-to-education-in-pakistan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313083147/http://www.oikoumene.org/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/international-affairs/human-rights-and-impunity/the-right-to-education-in-pakistan.html |archive-date=13 March 2012 |access-date=25 July 2010 |publisher=World Council of Churches}}</ref> with public universities established in each province, including [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University]], [[Sindh University]], [[University of Peshawar|Peshawar University]], [[University of Karachi|Karachi University]], and [[University of Balochistan|Balochistan University]]. The country's educational landscape encompasses both [[Public university|public]] and [[Private university|private]] universities, fostering collaboration to enhance research and [[Higher education in Pakistan|higher education]] opportunities, albeit with concerns regarding teaching quality in newer institutions.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 September 2015 |title=Number of universities rises while education standard falls |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/islamabad/10-Sep-2015/number-of-universities-rises-while-education-standard-falls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006074617/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/islamabad/10-Sep-2015/number-of-universities-rises-while-education-standard-falls |archive-date=6 October 2015 |access-date=11 September 2015 |website=DailyTimes}}</ref> [[vocational education|Technical and vocational institutions]] in Pakistan number approximately 3,193,<ref name="edu2">{{cite report |title=Economic Survey 2009–10 |publisher=Ministry of Finance, Pakistan |page=147 & Table 11.1 (p. 160) |access-date=2 January 2012 |chapter=Education |chapter-url=http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_10/10_Education.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113072252/http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_10/10_Education.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> complemented by ''[[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassahs]]'' providing free Islamic education to students,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistani madrassahs |url=http://www.uvm.edu/~envprog/madrassah.html#_ftn8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214194645/http://www.uvm.edu/~envprog/madrassah.html#_ftn8 |archive-date=14 February 2005 |access-date=21 February 2009 |publisher=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> with government efforts to [[Education reform|regulate and monitor]] their quality amidst concerns over extremists recruitment.<ref>{{cite web |last=Synovitz |first=Ron |date=24 February 2004 |title=Pakistan: Despite Reform Plan, Few Changes Seen At Most Radical Madrassahs |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1051650.html |access-date=21 February 2009 |publisher=Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty}}<br />- {{cite web |last1=Ali |first1=Syed Mohammad |title=Policy Brief: Another Approach to Madrassa Reforms in Pakistan |url=http://jinnah-institute.org/policy-brief-another-approach-to-madrassa-reforms-in-pakistan-3/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518112052/http://jinnah-institute.org/policy-brief-another-approach-to-madrassa-reforms-in-pakistan-3/ |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=21 February 2015 |publisher=Jinnah Institute of Peace}}</ref> [[Education in Pakistan|Education]] is divided into six main levels, including nursery, primary, [[Middle school|middle]], [[High school (upper secondary)|matriculation]], [[Community college|intermediate]], and university programs.<ref name="edu2" /> Additionally, [[Schools in Pakistan|private schools]] offer a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set by the [[Cambridge International Examinations]],<ref>{{cite web |title=GCE O and A level exams in Pakistan |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/pakistan-exams-gce.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201090835/http://www.britishcouncil.org/pakistan-exams-gce.htm |archive-date=1 February 2008 |access-date=13 February 2008 |publisher=[[British Council]]}}</ref> with 439 international schools reported in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISC News |url=http://www.iscresearch.com/information/isc-news.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000123/http://www.iscresearch.com/information/isc-news.aspx |archive-date=4 March 2016 |publisher=International School Consultancy Group}}</ref>

[[File:Malala Yousafzai and Kaliash Satyarthi at the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony.jpg|thumb|[[Malala Yousafzai]] was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2014, alongside [[Kailash Satyarthi]] of India, for her advocacy of educational initiatives, particularly girls' education worldwide.|left]]

Initiatives since 2007 made [[English medium education]] mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activist [[Malala Yousafzai]] by the [[Tehrik-i Taliban Pakistan|Taliban]], she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNicoll |first=Kristen |title=English medium education improvement in Pakistan supported |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/organisation/press/english-medium-education-improvement-pakistan-supported |access-date=21 February 2015 |publisher=British Council Pakistan Bureau}}<br />- {{cite web |title=Ministry of Education-Government of Pakistan |url=http://www.moe.gov.pk/mediacell.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105215406/http://www.moe.gov.pk/mediacell.htm |archive-date=5 January 2007 |access-date=1 January 2012 |publisher=Moe.gov.pk}}</ref> Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 June 2019 |title=Pakistan Economic Survey 2018–19 Chapter 10: Education |url=http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_19/10-Education.pdf |access-date=7 July 2019 |work=Dawn |archive-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707005708/http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_19/10-Education.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Plan of Action 2001–2015 |url=http://www.moe.gov.pk/npaEFA.zip |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517232352/http://www.moe.gov.pk/npaEFA.zip |archive-date=17 May 2006 |access-date=13 February 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan |format=ZIP}}</ref> Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan Economic Survey 2019–20 (Education) |url=http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_20/10_Education.pdf |access-date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621162712/https://finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_20/10_Education.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> among the lowest in South Asia.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 April 2016 |title=Pakistan's education spending lowest in South Asia |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1254909/pakistans-education-spending-lowest-in-south-asia |publisher=Dawn}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Pakistan|British heritage of Pakistan|Public holidays in Pakistan}}
[[File:Ceiling of Frere Hall.jpg|thumb|Artwork by [[Sadequain]] on the ceiling of [[Frere Hall]]. Having painted around 15,000 paintings, Sadequain is considered one of the finest painters and calligraphers Pakistan has ever produced.]]

[[Culture of Pakistan|Civil society]] in Pakistan is hierarchical, emphasising [[Etiquette in Pakistan|local cultural etiquette]] and traditional Islamic values. The primary family unit is the [[extended family]], but there's a rising trend towards [[nuclear families]] due to socio-economic factors.<ref name="nuclear">{{cite web |url=http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/pakistan.html |title=Pakistan- Language, Religion, Culture, Customs and Etiquette |publisher=Kwint Essential|access-date=17 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323000308/http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/pakistan.html |archive-date=23 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Anwar Alam |title=Factors and Consequences of Nuclearization of Family at Hayatabad Phase-II, Peshawar |journal=Sarhad J. Agric. |year=2008 |volume=24 |url=http://www.aup.edu.pk/sj_pdf/FACTORS%20AND%20CONSEQUENCES%20OF%20NUCLEARIZATION.pdf |access-date=21 April 2012 |issue=3 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411211512/http://www.aup.edu.pk/sj_pdf/FACTORS%20AND%20CONSEQUENCES%20OF%20NUCLEARIZATION.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Both men and women typically wear ''[[Shalwar Kameez]]''; men also favour trousers, jeans, and shirts.<ref name="taxila">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zn8I4qEew9oC |title=Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway |author2=Lindsay Brow |author3=Paul Clammer |author4=Rodney Cocks |author5=John Mock |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-542-0 |pages=60, 128, 376}}</ref> The middle class has grown to about 35&nbsp;million, with another 17&nbsp;million in the upper and upper-middle classes, leading to a shift in power from rural landowners to urban elites.<ref>{{cite web |title=The rise of Mehran man |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/832930/the-rise-of-mehran-man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125011513/http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/columnists/irfan-husain-the-rise-of-mehran-man-740 |archive-date=25 November 2010 |website=Dawn |location=Pakistan News |author=Irfan Husain |date=17 April 2010|url-status=live |access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref> Festivals like ''[[Eid ul-Fitr]]'', ''[[Eid ul-Azha]]'', [[Ramadan]], [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], [[Holi]], and [[Diwali]] are primarily religious.<ref name="nuclear" /> Pakistan ranked 56th on the 2006 [[A.T. Kearney]]/FP [[Globalization Index]] due to increasing globalisation.<ref>{{cite web |title=A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index 2006 |url=https://www.ucg.ac.me/skladiste/blog_2607/objava_31363/fajlovi/global06index.pdf |publisher=A.T. Kearney |date=Nov–Dec 2006 |page=77 |access-date=15 April 2025 |via=University of Montenegro |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223060932/https://www.ucg.ac.me/skladiste/blog_2607/objava_31363/fajlovi/global06index.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Pakistani architecture|Hindu, Jain and Buddhist architectural heritage of Pakistan}}
[[File: Lahore Fort.jpg|thumb|The [[Lahore Fort]], a landmark built during the Mughal era, is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]|left]]

Four periods define Pakistani architecture: [[History of Pakistan#Early history|pre-Islamic]], [[History of Pakistan#Muslim period|Islamic]], [[History of Pakistan#Colonial era|colonial]], and [[History of Pakistan#Independence|post-colonial]]. The onset of the [[Indus civilisation]] around the mid-3rd millennium BCE heralded an urban culture, evidenced by surviving large structures.<ref>{{cite web |author=Vidja Dehejia |title=South Asian Art and Culture |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sasa/hd_sasa.htm |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=February 2007 |access-date=10 February 2008}}</ref> Notable pre-Islamic settlements include [[Mohenjo-daro]], [[Harappa]], and [[Kot Diji]].<ref name="mountains">{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism.gov.pk/mountain.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110014044/http://www.tourism.gov.pk/mountain.html |archive-date=10 November 2006 |title=PTDC page on mountaineering |publisher=Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation|access-date=10 November 2006}}</ref> The fusion of Buddhism and [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Greek]] influences birthed a distinctive [[Greco-Buddhism|Greco-Buddhist]] style from the 1st century CE, exemplified by the renowned [[Gandara art|Gandhara style]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maity|first=Sachindra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8Iz5C5auqEC&pg=PA46|title=Cultural Heritage of Ancient India|date=1983|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-391-02809-8}}</ref> Notable [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist architectural]] remnants include the [[Takht-i-Bahi]] monastery in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]].<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Advisory Body Evaluation of Takht Bhai |publisher=International Council on Monuments and Sites |pages=1–2 |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/140.pdf |date=29 December 1979|access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref>

The advent of Islam in present-day Pakistan marked the cessation of Buddhist architecture, ushering in [[Islamic architecture]]. The notable [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]] structure, the [[Rukn-e-Alam|tomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam]] in Multan, remains significant. During the Mughal era, Persian-Islamic design merged with Hindustani art, seen in Lahore's architectural gems like the [[Badshahi Mosque]] and the [[Lahore Fort]] with the iconic [[Alamgiri Gate]]. Lahore also boasts the vibrant [[Wazir Khan Mosque]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Valentine|first=Simon Ross|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdRth02Q6nAC&pg=PA63|title=Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice|date=2008|publisher=Hurst & Company|isbn=978-1-85065-916-7}}</ref> and the lush [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]]. In the British colonial period, Indo-European buildings emerged, blending European and Indian-Islamic styles. Post-colonial identity shines through modern landmarks like the [[Faisal Mosque]], [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], and [[Mazar-e-Quaid]]. [[Architecture of the United Kingdom|British architectural]] influence persists in structures across Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kamil Khan Mumtaz |title=Architecture in Pakistan |year=1985 |publisher=Concept Media Pte Ltd |isbn=978-9971-84-141-6 |pages=32, 51, 160}}</ref>

=== Clothing, arts, and fashion ===
{{Main|Pakistani clothing|Shalwar kameez|Sherwani|Jinnah cap|Peshawari chappal|Pakol|Sindhi topi}}
[[File:Traditional clothing from Sindh.jpg|thumb|A depiction of traditional clothing of women from [[Sindh]]]]
The ''[[Shalwar kameez]]'' is Pakistan's [[national dress]], worn in all provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style. Pakistanis wear a variety of fabrics like silk, [[chiffon (fabric)|chiffon]], and cotton. In addition to the national dress, men often wear domestically tailored suits and [[necktie]]s, especially in offices, schools, and social gatherings.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Stephanie Koerner|author2=Ian Russell|title=Unquiet Pasts: Risk Society, Lived Cultural Heritage, Re-designing Reflexivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7li2jpQgYvAC&pg=PA382|year=2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7548-8|page=382}}</ref>

Pakistan's [[Pakistani clothing|fashion industry]] has thrived, blending traditional and modern styles to create a unique cultural identity. Regional and traditional dress remain significant symbols of native tradition, evolving into both modern and purer forms. Organisations like the Pakistan Fashion Design Council in [[Lahore]] and the Fashion Pakistan Council in [[Karachi]] host events like [[PFDC Sunsilk Fashion Week|PFDC Fashion Week]] and [[Fashion Pakistan Week]]. Pakistan's inaugural fashion week took place in November 2009.<ref>{{cite news |author=Michele Langevine Leiby |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-pakistan-fashion-weeks-thrive-beyond-the-style-capitals-of-the-world/2012/04/24/gIQAt3qcgT_story.html |title=In Pakistan, fashion weeks thrive beyond the style capitals of the world |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |date=25 April 2012|access-date=20 April 2013}}</ref>

=== Literature and philosophy ===
{{Main|Literature of Pakistan|Urdu poetry|Pakistani philosophy}}
[[File:Iqbal.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Muhammad Iqbal|[[Muhammad Iqbal]], Pakistan's national poet who conceived the [[Conception of Pakistan|idea]] of Pakistan]]

Pakistan boasts literature in various languages including [[Urdu literature|Urdu]], [[Sindhi literature|Sindhi]], [[Punjabi literature|Punjabi]], [[Pashto literature and poetry|Pashto]], [[Balochi Academy|Baluchi]], [[Persian literature|Persian]], [[Pakistani English literature|English]], and more.<ref>{{cite book |author=Alamgir Hashmi |editor=Radhika Mohanram |others=Gita Rajan |title=English postcoloniality: literatures from around the world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_uwA78YZDoC&pg=PA107|year=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-28854-8 |pages=107–112}}</ref> The [[Pakistan Academy of Letters]] actively promotes literature and poetry both domestically and internationally.<ref>Official website in English [http://pal.gov.pk/home/ Pakistan Academy of Letters] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306135947/http://pal.gov.pk/home/ |date=6 March 2013}}</ref> [[National Library of Pakistan|National Library]] contributes to literary dissemination. Historically, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of [[lyric poetry|lyric]], [[Sufi poetry|religious]], and [[Pakistani folklore|folkloric]] works, later diversifying under colonial influence into prose fiction, now widely embraced.<ref>{{cite web |author=Gilani Kamran |title=Pakistani Literature{{Snd}} Evolution & trends |url=http://www.the-south-asian.com/Jan2002/Pakistani-Literature3-the-Novel.htm |publisher=The South Asian Magazine |date=January 2002|access-date=24 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="granta">{{cite web |author=Huma Imtiaz |title=Granta: The global reach of Pakistani literature |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/53272/granta-the-global-reach-of-pakistani-literature/ |website=The Express Tribune |date=26 September 2010|access-date=24 December 2011}}</ref>

The [[List of national poets|national poet]] of Pakistan, [[Muhammad Iqbal]], wrote influential poetry in Urdu and Persian, advocating for Islamic civilisational revival.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Iqbal, Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |date=15 December 2004 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iqbal-muhammad |access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref> Notable figures in contemporary Urdu literature include [[Josh Malihabadi]], [[Faiz Ahmed Faiz]], and [[Saadat Hasan Manto]].<ref name="granta" /> Popular Sufi poets like [[Shah Abdul Latif]] and [[Bulleh Shah]] are revered.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Muhammad Zahid Rifat |title=Paying tributes to popular Sufi poets |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-268638505.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117074308/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-268638505.html |archive-date=17 January 2013 |newspaper=The Nation|date=3 October 2011|access-date=25 December 2011}}</ref> [[Mirza Kalich Beg]] is hailed as the father of modern Sindhi prose.<ref>{{cite book |title=L.H. Ajwani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dL5owdAV5TcC&pg=PA50 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi|author=Chetan Karnani |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-260-1664-8 |page=50}}</ref> Pakistani philosophy has been shaped by influences from British and American philosophy, with notable figures like [[M. M. Sharif]] contributing to its development.<ref>{{cite web |display-authors=etal |author=Richard V. DeSemet |title=Philosophical Activities in Pakistan:1947–1961 |url=http://www.crvp.org/book/Series02/IIA-3/appendix.htm |website=Work published by Pakistan Philosophical Congress |access-date=25 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509105450/http://www.crvp.org/book/Series02/IIA-3/appendix.htm |archive-date=9 May 2013}}</ref> Post-1971, Marxist thought gained prominence in Pakistani philosophy through figures like [[Jalaludin Abdur Rahim]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Ahmad |editor-first1=Naeem |title=Philosophy in Pakistan |date=1998 |publisher=Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-1-56518-108-3}}</ref>

=== Media and entertainment ===
{{main|Mass media in Pakistan|Cinema of Pakistan|Music of Pakistan|History of Pakistani pop music|Theatre of Pakistan|Pakistani dramas}}
The private [[List of newspapers in Pakistan|print media]], state-owned [[Pakistan Television Corporation]] (PTV), and [[Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation]] (PBC) dominated media until the 21st century. Pakistan now boasts a vast network of domestic, privately owned [[24-hour news cycle|24-hour electronic]] [[List of television channels in Pakistan|news media]] and [[Cable television|cable]] [[Television in Pakistan|television channels]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-media-pakistan-radicalisation-2009.pdf |title=Media in Pakistan |publisher=International Media Support |pages=14–16, 21 |access-date=10 August 2020 |date=July 2009}}</ref> The [[Reporters Without Borders]] has indicated pressure faced by Pakistani reporters, particularly when reporting against the military or government.<ref name="RSF">{{cite web |title=Pakistan {{!}} RSF |url=https://rsf.org/en/country/pakistan |website=rsf.org |date=21 March 2025 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |language=en |access-date=21 March 2025}}</ref> The BBC describes Pakistani media as "among the most outspoken in South Asia".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12965785 |title=Pakistan profile{{Snd}} Media |publisher=BBC News |access-date=23 April 2016|date=2 March 2017}}</ref> Pakistani media has been instrumental in exposing corruption.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-media-pakistan-radicalisation-2009.pdf |title={{Not a typo|Between radicalisation and democratisation in an unfolding conflict: Media in Pakistan}} |publisher=International Media Support |date=July 2009 |access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref>

The [[Lollywood]], Punjabi, and [[Pashto cinema|Pashto]] film industry is centered in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Although Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 to 2008, they remained influential in Pakistani popular culture.<ref>{{cite news |last=Randhava |first=Naseem |title=Bollywood films may be banned in Pakistan |url=http://sg.news.yahoo.com/bollywood-films-may-banned-pakistan-094000464.html |publisher=[[Yahoo! News]] |date=11 October 2011 |access-date=31 October 2011}}<br />- {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4639216.stm |title=Pakistan to show Bollywood film |publisher=BBC News |date=23 January 2006 |access-date=13 February 2008}}</ref> However, in 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies faced an indefinite ban.<ref>{{cite web |last=Zeb |first=Parkha |date=22 February 2023 |title=Pakistan is (finally) getting over its Bollywood mania |url=https://images.dawn.com/news/1191547 |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=Images}}</ref> Despite challenges faced by the Pakistani film industry, Urdu [[Pakistani dramas|televised dramas]] and theatrical performances remain popular, frequently broadcast by many entertainment media outlets.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Evolving World of Pakistani Dramas Builds Stronger Relations With India |url=http://www.browngirlmagazine.com/2015/01/evolving-world-pakistani-dramas-builds-stronger-relations-india/ |date=21 January 2015 |publisher=Brown Girl |last1=Shaikh |first1=Naila |access-date=25 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428110047/http://www.browngirlmagazine.com/2015/01/evolving-world-pakistani-dramas-builds-stronger-relations-india/ |archive-date=28 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, renowned for their quality since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistani dramas contribute to the evolution of Indian television |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/entertainment/25-Dec-2014/pakistani-dramas-contribute-to-the-evolution-of-indian-television |access-date=25 May 2015 |work=Daily Times|date=25 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719082117/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/entertainment/25-Dec-2014/pakistani-dramas-contribute-to-the-evolution-of-indian-television |archive-date=19 July 2015}}</ref> Pakistani music encompasses diverse forms, from provincial folk music and traditional styles like [[Qawwali]] and [[Ghazal]] Gayaki to modern fusions of traditional and western music.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 September 1997 |title=The stilled voice |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1418/14181230.htm |access-date=30 June 2011 |author1=Amit Baruah |author2=R. Padmanabhan |location=Chennai, India |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927003536/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1418/14181230.htm}}</ref><!--<ref>{{cite web |author=Adam Nayyar |author-link=Adam Nayyar |title=Origin and History of the Qawwali |year=1988 |publisher=University of Toronto |page=1 |url=https://www.utoronto.ca/jkcourses/mus200/Nayyar_Qawwali.pdf |access-date=20 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=25 July 2022 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/query.php?url=http://www.utoronto.ca/jkcourses/mus200/Nayyar_Qawwali.pdf}}</ref>--> Pakistan boasts numerous renowned folk singers, and the arrival of Afghan refugees in western provinces has sparked interest in Pashto music, despite occasional intolerance.<ref>{{cite news |author=Owais Tohid |date=7 June 2005 |title=Music soothes extremism along troubled Afghan border |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0607/p07s01-wosc.html |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Pakistani cuisine}}
[[File:2 Chapati warm and ready to be eaten.jpg|[[Roti]], served with various side dishes, is considered a staple food in Pakistan|thumb]]

Pakistani cuisine, rooted in the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors, blends influences from [[British cuisine|British]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Central Asian cuisine|Central Asian]], and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern]] culinary traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=William |title=Pakistan |year=2002 |publisher=Lucent Books |isbn=978-1-59018-218-5 |page=79 |quote=Pakistani food is similar to that of northern India, with a splash of Middle Eastern influence derived from other Muslim cultures over the centuries.}}</ref> Unlike Middle Eastern fare, Pakistani dishes are heavily spiced with garlic, ginger, turmeric, [[Chili powder|chilli]], and [[garam masala]]. [[Roti]], a wheat-based flatbread, accompanies most meals, alongside [[curry]], meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common, served plain, spiced, or in sweet dishes.{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2007|page=3, 317, 323–324}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Deady |first=Kathleen W. |title=Countries of the world: Pakistan |year=2001 |publisher=Capstone Press |isbn=978-0-7368-0815-6 |pages=13–15}}</ref> [[Lassi]], a traditional drink from the [[Punjab region]], and [[Pakistani tea culture|black tea with milk and sugar]] are popular beverages enjoyed nationwide.<ref name="taxila"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Tarla Dalal |title=Punjabi Khana |year=2007 |publisher=Sanjay & Co |isbn=978-81-89491-54-3 |page=8}}</ref> [[Sohan halwa]], a beloved sweet dish from southern Punjab, is savoured across Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1074194/sohan-halwa-a-gift-of-saints-city |title=Sohan Halwa a gift of saints' city |date=16 December 2013 |publisher=Dawn.com |access-date=28 February 2014}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{main|Sport in Pakistan}}
{{multiple image
| align       = right
| width1      = 170
| image1      = Pakvaus.jpg
| caption1    = A cricket match between Pakistan and Australia at [[Lord's]].
| width2      = 170
| image2      = Hockey Nederland tegen Pakistan 3-1, Amsterdam, de Wereldcup die Pakistan onlan…, Bestanddeelnr 925-0964.jpg
| caption2    = The [[Pakistan men's national field hockey team|Pakistan national hockey team]] with the [[1971 Men's Hockey World Cup|1971 Hockey World Cup trophy]]
}}

[[Cricket]] is the most popular sport in Pakistan, followed by [[Association football|football]]. [[Field hockey]] is the national sport. Other sports like [[Squash (sport)|squash]], [[polo]], and [[Traditional games of Pakistan|traditional games]] are also enjoyed.

In cricket, Pakistan boasts victories in all major [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] tournaments, including the [[ICC Cricket World Cup]], [[ICC World Twenty20]], and [[ICC Champions Trophy]]. The [[Pakistan Super League]] ranks among the top [[List of T20 cricket competitions|T20 leagues]] globally.<ref>{{cite web |last=Narayanan |first=Deepu |date=19 June 2017 |title=CT17 final stats: Pakistan become fourth team to win all three ICC crowns |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/95302/ct17-final-stats-pakistan-become-fourth-team-to-win-all-three-icc-crowns |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=[[Cricbuzz]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 February 2019 |title=PSL's brand value stands at $230m or Rs 32.258 bn |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/431453-n-a |website=The News International}}</ref>

In football, Pakistan established the [[Pakistan Football Federation]] soon after its creation, and it is known for producing [[FIFA World Cup]] balls.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahsan |first=Ali |date=23 December 2010 |title=A history of football in Pakistan — Part I |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/593095/a-history-of-football-in-pakistan-part-i |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 January 2018 |title=Footballs made in Pakistan to be used in FIFA World Cup 2018 |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1620487/7-footballs-made-pakistan-used-fifa-world-cup-2018 |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=[[The Express Tribune]]}}</ref>

In field hockey, Pakistan boasts four [[Men's FIH Hockey World Cup|Hockey World Cup]] wins, eight [[Field hockey at the Asian Games|Asian Games]] gold medals, and three [[Field hockey at the Summer Olympics|Olympic]] gold medals. Squash player [[Jahangir Khan]] holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sport history, winning 555 consecutive matches.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bill Mallon |title=Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement |author2=Jeroen Heijmans |publisher=Scarecrow |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8108-7249-3 |edition=4th revised |page=291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jahangir Khan recognised as greatest squash player of all time |url=https://unsquashable.com/en-us/blogs/world-tour-highlights/jahangir-khan-recognised-as-greatest-squash-player-of-all-time |access-date=28 August 2023 |website=UNSQUASHABLE |language=en |archive-date=18 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240918040556/https://unsquashable.com/en-us/blogs/world-tour-highlights/jahangir-khan-recognised-as-greatest-squash-player-of-all-time |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pakistan has hosted various international events, including Cricket and Hockey World Cups and Asian Games.<ref name="ICC-2021">{{cite web |date=16 November 2021 |title=USA to stage T20 World Cup: 2024–2031 ICC Men's tournament hosts confirmed |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2354682 |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=[[International Cricket Council]]}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Pakistan|Countries|Asia
}}
* [[Outline of Pakistan]]
* [[Government of Pakistan]]
* [[Administrative units of Pakistan]]
{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist |refs=

{{efn|name="RSCT"|In the framework of their regional security complex theory (RSCT), Barry Buzan and Ole Waever differentiate between superpowers and great powers which act and influence the global level (or system level) and regional powers whose influence may be large in their regions but have less effect at the global level. This category of regional powers includes Brazil, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey.}}

{{efn|name="Rigveda"|The precise time span of the period is uncertain. [[Philology|Philological]] and [[historical linguistics|linguistic]] evidence indicates that the [[Rigveda]], the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period. Oberlies gives an estimate of 1200–1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a ''terminus post quem'' of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Other 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100.}}

}}<!--end LDR notes-->
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="Abbas-2015">{{harvtxt|Abbas|2015}} "Javed Nasir confesses that despite the U.N. ban on supplying arms to the besieged Bosnians, he successfully airlifted sophisticated antitank guided missiles which turned the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the siege. Under his leadership the ISI also got involved in supporting Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang Province, rebel Muslim groups in the Philippines, and some religious groups in Central Asia."</ref>

<ref name="Ahmed-1997">{{harvtxt|Ahmed|1997}} "Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea."</ref>

<ref name="Allchin-1982">{{harvtxt|Allchin|Allchin|1982}} "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system."</ref>

<ref name="Coningham-Young-2015">{{harvtxt|Coningham|Young|2015}} "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000&nbsp;BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."</ref>

<ref name="Copland-2001">{{harvtxt|Copland|2001}} "However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945–46 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)"</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-1">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=496}} "The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P."</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-2">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=497}} "As the book has demonstrated, local ML functionaries, (U.P.) ML leadership, Muslim modernists at Aligarh, the ulama and even Jinnah at times articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state."</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-3">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=489}} "But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb."……"Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies."</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-4">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=491}} "Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved."</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-5">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=18}} "As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity'."</ref>

<ref name="Dhulipala-2015-6">{{harvtxt|Dhulipala|2015|page=19}} "Within the subcontinent, ML propaganda claimed that besides liberating the 'majority provinces' Muslims it would guarantee protection for Muslims who would be left behind in Hindu India. In this regard, it repeatedly stressed the hostage population theory that held that 'hostage' Hindu and Sikh minorities inside Pakistan would guarantee Hindu India's good behaviour towards its own Muslim minority."</ref>

<ref name="Diamantides-Gearey-2011-1">{{harvtxt|Diamantides|Gearey|2011|page=196}} "The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections&nbsp;..."</ref>

<ref name="Diamantides-Gearey-2011-2">{{harvtxt|Diamantides|Gearey|2011|page=198}} "The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court."</ref>

<ref name="Diamantides-Gearey-2011-3">{{harvtxt|Diamantides|Gearey|2011|page=198}} "The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ..."</ref>

<ref name="Dyson-2018">{{harvtxt|Dyson|2018}} "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000&nbsp;years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500&nbsp;years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."</ref>

<ref name="Endrst-1965">{{harvtxt|Endrst|1965}} "Former Indian Defense Minister Krishna Menon who for years influenced the decisions of late Prime Minister Nehru himself a Kashmiri-put it bluntly last March in an interview with an American newsman when he said India could never agree to a U.N. sponsored plebiscite because 'Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan, and no Indian government responsible for agreeing to the plebiscite could survive.'"</ref>

<ref name="Fisher-2018">{{harvtxt|Fisher|2018}} "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map&nbsp;3.1). From as early as 7000&nbsp;BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."</ref>

{{refn|name="Geology"|Geology: multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|Khan|Clyde|2013}}
* {{harvtxt|DeVivo|Laor|Panza|Kossobokov|2021}}
* {{harvtxt|Alisibramulisi et al.|2022}}
* {{harvtxt|Britannica (Azad Kashmir)|2024}}
}}<!--end refn-->

<ref name="Haqqani-2010-1">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2010|page=16}} "The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly."</ref>

<ref name="Haqqani-2010-2">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2010|page=18}} "One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality."</ref>

<ref name="Haqqani-2010-3">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2010|page=18}} "Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory."</ref>

<ref name="Haqqani-2010-4">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2010|page=19}} "Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country."</ref>

<ref name="Haqqani-2013-1">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2013|pages=20–21}} "Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations."</ref>

<ref name="Haqqani-2013-2">{{harvtxt|Haqqani|2013|page=22}} "During this time most of the Arab world was going through a nationalist awakening. Pan-Islamic dreams involving the unification of Muslim countries, possibly under Pakistani leadership, had little attraction."</ref>

<ref name="Hardy-1972">{{harvtxt|Hardy|1972}} "Much has been made' of the failure of Congress and the Muslim parties to agree over the Nehru Report and of the rejection of Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' as a significant milestone along the way to the partition of India. A great opportunity was lost, it is thought, for the abandonment of separate electorates by voluntary Muslim agreement."</ref>

<ref name="Hasan-Raza-2009">{{harvtxt|Hasan|Raza|2009|page=12}} "When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan."</ref>

<ref name="Hunter-2010">{{harvtxt|Hunter|2010}} "Since then, Pakistan's sectarian tensions have been a major irritant in Iranian-Pakistan relations."</ref>

<ref name="Hussain-2008-1">{{harvtxt|Hussain|2008}} "Mawlānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Islām of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawdūdī and his Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah as the basic law of Pakistan."</ref>

<ref name="Hussain-2008-2">{{harvtxt|Hussain|2008}} "The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973."</ref>

{{refn|name="Iqbal"|Iqbal (two-nation theory): multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|N. Khan|2012}}
* {{harvtxt|Basu|Miroshnik|2023}} "Mohammed Iqbal was credited with coming up with the two-nation theory in his speech at Allahabad in 1930 to the Muslim League in a very formal way by saying: "I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Moslem State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Moslems, at least of NorthWest India" (Zaidi, 1993; Ahmed, 1970)."
* {{harvtxt|Hussain|2018}} "After repeated demands for stronger constitutional safeguards to protect the rights of minorities, Iqbal eventually opted for a separate Islamic Republic instead. As opposed to putting the free and rational individual at the centre of his democratic theory, Iqbal's republic primarily required Muslims endowed with a specific character and smelted together by a peculiar vision of individuality. Like a number of his contemporaries, Iqbal warmed up to the two nation-theory. Unlike the mainstream view, however, which read an eternal struggle of Hindus and Muslims back into Indian history, Iqbal's concept of the Muslim nation was something to be striven towards, not something to be replanted from the past. Iqbal believed that the best way to actualize this national sentiment in the present, was through individual political action."
}}<!--end refn-->

<ref name="Kulke-Rothermund-2016">{{harvtxt|Kulke|Rothermund|2016}} "In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."</ref>

<ref name="Kumarasingham-2013">{{harvtxt|Kumarasingham|2013}} "Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively."</ref>

<ref name="Lapierre-Collins-2015">{{harvtxt|Lapierre|Collins|2015}} "Not only was I not aware, but nobody was aware. Nobody had a clue. I'm glad I didn't because I just don't know what I would have done if I'd known that.
You see, Jinnah was so much of a one-man band. If somebody had told me he's going to be dead in x months would I then
-I am asking myself this question now-would I have said, Let's hold India together and not divide it? Would I have put back the clock, and held the position? Most probably. I have a feeling Jinnah may not have known himself he had tuberculosis. He was a very severe, cold and repressed person. Nothing would have surprised me about him. He was an extraordinary creature."</ref>

<ref name="McGrath-1996">{{harvtxt|McGrath|1996}} "Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them."</ref>

<ref name="Metcalf-2006">{{harvtxt|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006}} "The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people."</ref>

{{refn|name="Middle power nation"|Middle power: multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|Buzan|2004}}
* {{harvtxt|Solomon|1997}}
* {{harvtxt|Rajagopalan|2011}}
* {{harvtxt|Buzan|Waever|2003}}
* {{harvtxt|Paul|2012|p=11}} "The regional powers such as Israel or Pakistan are not simple bystanders of great power politics in their regions; they attempt to asymmetrically influence the major power system often in their own distinct ways."
* {{harvtxt|Vandamme|2014|p=14}} "Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers."
}}<!--end refn-->

{{refn|name="Military relations"|Military relations: multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|Yadav|2024}}
* {{harvtxt|Lalwani|2023}}
* {{harvtxt|Kronstadt|2023}}
* {{harvtxt|Bruno|Bajoria|2008}}
}}<!--end refn-->

<ref name="Miller-2015">{{harvtxt|Miller|2015}} "Not since the tenth century had such a maverick crew occupied Islam's holiest sanctuary, and for nearly two weeks Saudi Special Forces assisted by Pakistani and French commandos fought pitched battles to reclaim the compound."</ref>

<ref name="Mohiuddin-2007-1">{{harvtxt|Mohiuddin|2007|page=70}} "In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan."</ref>

<ref name="Mohiuddin-2007-2">{{harvtxt|Mohiuddin|2007|page=71}} "Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center."</ref>

<ref name="Needham-1994">{{harvtxt|Needham|1994}} "When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BCE they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about CE&nbsp;400."</ref>

<ref name="Pande-2011-1">{{harvtxt|Pande|2011|page=178}} "The belief that the creation of Pakistan made Pakistan the true leader of Muslim causes around the world led Pakistan's diplomats to vigorously champion the cause of self-determination for fellow Muslims at the United Nations. Pakistan's founders, including Jinnah, supported anti-colonial movements: "Our heart and soul go out in sympathy with those who are struggling for their freedom ... If subjugation and exploitation are carried on, there will be no peace and there will be no end to wars." Pakistani efforts on behalf of Indonesia (1948), Algeria (1948–1949), Tunisia (1948–1949), Morocco (1948–1956) and Eritrea (1960–1991) were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan."</ref>

<ref name="Pande-2011-2">{{harvtxt|Pande|2011|page=159}} "Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare."</ref>

<ref name="Pasha-2005-1">{{harvtxt|Pasha|2005|page=225}} "Pakistan's expression of solidarity was followed, after Independence, by a vigorous pursuit of bilateral relations with Muslim countries like Iran and Turkey."</ref>

<ref name="Pasha-2005-2">{{harvtxt|Pasha|2005|page=226}} "Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world."</ref>

{{refn|name="Riots-1"|Casualties/Genocide: multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|Sikand|2004}}
* {{harvtxt|Butalia|2000}}
* {{harvtxt|Isaacs|1975}} "2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of British-India and the creation of India and Pakistan"
* {{harvtxt|Basrur|2008}} "An estimated 12–15 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ..."
* {{harvtxt|D'Costa|2011}} "Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to 2 million (a subsequent Indian speculation). Today, however, it is widely accepted that nearly a million people died during Partition (Butalia, 1997)."
* {{harvtxt|Brass|2003}} "In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder."
}}<!--end refn-->

{{refn|name="Riots-2"|Rape figures: multiple sources:
* {{harvtxt|Visweswaran|2011}}
* {{harvtxt|Daiya|2011}} "The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India."
* {{harvtxt|Abraham|2002}} "In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them."
* {{harvtxt|Singh|Iyer|Gairola|2016}} "The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered."
}}<!--end refn-->

<ref name="Roberts-2003">{{harvtxt|Roberts|2003}} "The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states."</ref>

<ref name="Sengupta-2023">{{harvtxt|Sengupta|2023}} "Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which later became Aligarh Muslim University), had declared in a speech in Meerut what would become famous as the "two nation theory.""......"Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations — the Mahomedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not."</ref>

<ref name="Singh-Shani-2021">{{harvtxt|Singh|Shani|2021}} "Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10–11). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment – a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress."</ref>

<ref name="Stubbs-Thomson-2016">{{harvtxt|Stubbs|Thomson|2016}} "Perhaps best known as home to Asia's earliest cities, the Harappan sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Pakistan's rich history includes contributions from prominent Buddhist, Hindu, Hellenistic, Jain and Zoroastrian civilizations, as well as those connected to its Islamic heritage."</ref>

<ref name="Syed-Pio-Kamran-Zaidi-2016-1">{{harvtxt|Syed|Pio|Kamran|Zaidi|2016|page=379}} "...&nbsp;the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977–1988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ)."</ref>

<ref name="Syed-Pio-Kamran-Zaidi-2016-2">{{harvtxt|Syed|Pio|Kamran|Zaidi|2016|page=346}} "The grave impact of that legacy was compounded by the Iranian Revolution, and Zia-ul Haq's anti-Shia policies, which added the violence and regimentation of the organization."</ref>

<ref name="Tucker-2020">{{harvtxt|Tucker|2020}} "Gandhi's decision played directly into the hands of Jinnah. Jinnah's Muslim League strongly supported the Allied war effort and thereby greatly advanced the possibility of the creation of a separate Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent after the war."</ref>

<ref name="Wiebes-2003">{{harvtxt|Wiebes|2003}} "Pakistan definitely defied the United Nations ban on supply of arms to the Bosnian Muslims and sophisticated anti-tank guided missiles were airlifted by the Pakistani intelligence agency, ISI, to help Bosnians fight the Serbs."</ref>

<ref name="Wolpert-1984">{{harvtxt|Wolpert|1984|page=17}} "Barrister Jinnah of Bombay remained as remote from such feelings, as out of tune with such reasoning, as he had been in London in 1893, when Sir Sayyid first spoke of Hindus and Muslims as "different nationalities.""</ref>

<ref name="Wolpert-2009">{{harvtxt|Wolpert|2009}} "Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself."</ref>

<ref name="Wright-2009">{{harvtxt|Wright|2009}} "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900&nbsp;B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."</ref>

<ref name="Wuthnow-2013">{{harvtxt|Wuthnow|2013}} "To satisfy Muslims' determination to have guaranteed rights in the future political system of India and to maintain territorial unity of the Indian state, by 1929 Jinnah produced the formula known as the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah.
The Fourteen Points included separate electorates for Muslims in the provinces of India, parity of electoral representation in the Punjab and Bengal, and electoral considerations for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, although they would retain clear majority in the Northwest Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Sind."</ref>

<ref name="Wynbrandt-2009">{{harvtxt|Wynbrandt|2009|pp=216–217}} "Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society."</ref>
</references><!-- end LDR refs-->

{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

== Bibliography ==
{{See also|Bibliography of Pakistan}}

=== Overview ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Ayres|first=Alyssa|author-link=Alyssa Ayres|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FddJQi1dQ30C&pg=PA38|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|date=23 July 2009|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=38|isbn=978-0-521-51931-1}}
* {{cite journal|last=Badian|first=Ernst|author-link=Ernst Badian|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/639350|title=Alexander at Peucelaotis|journal=[[The Classical Quarterly]]|volume=37|pages=117–128|number=1|year=1987|jstor=639350|doi=10.1017/S0009838800031712|s2cid=246878679}}
* {{cite book|last=Baqir|first=Fayyaz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwtpDwAAQBAJ|title=Poverty Alleviation and Poverty of Aid: Pakistan|date=6 August 2018|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=|isbn=978-0-429-87153-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Bhandari|first=Medani P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_iGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241|title=Getting the Climate Science Facts Right: The Role of the IPCC|date=September 2022|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=River Publishers|isbn=978-1-000-79720-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Copland|first=Ian|title=India, 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1uAAAAMAAJ|series=Seminar Studies in History|year=2001|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-0-582-38173-5}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Cornwall|editor-first1=Andrea|editor-last2=Edwards|editor-first2=Jenny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOViDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT176|title=Feminisms, Empowerment and Development: Changing Women's Lives|date=13 March 2014|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-78032-586-6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last1=Eberhard|editor-first1=David M.|editor-last2=Simons|editor-first2=Gary F.|editor-last3=Fennig|editor-first3=Charles D.|year=2022|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|edition=25|place=Dallas, Texas|publisher=SIL International|chapter=Pakistan|chapter-url=https://ethnologue.com/country/PK|access-date=2 January 2023|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309065841/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PK/|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|last=Haleem|first=Safia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcA-AQAAQBAJ|title=Pakistan – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture|chapter=1, 7|date=May 2013|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Kuperard|isbn=978-1-85733-678-8}}
* {{cite book|last=James|first=Orpha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2WkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT14|title=Faith Restored: "A Pakistani Women's Journey from Land of Islam to a Nation Under God' a Christian Perspective|date=22 December 2022|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=WestBow Press|isbn=978-1-6642-8702-0}}
*<!--Joseph-->{{cite book|author=Mathew Joseph C.|title=Understanding Pakistan: Emerging Voices from India|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2016|page=337|isbn=978-1-351-99725-6|oclc=958566633|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA337|ref={{harvid|Joseph|2016}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|title=A Concise History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA221|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=221|isbn=978-1-139-45887-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Minahan|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7rOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR19|title=The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems [2 volumes]|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2009|page=141|isbn=978-0-313-34497-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rais|first1=Rasul Bakhsh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXwzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA191|title=Imagining Pakistan: Modernism, State, and the Politics of Islamic Revival|date=30 August 2017|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Lexington Books|page=191|isbn=978-1-4985-5396-4}}
* {{cite web |author=SATP |date=2024 |title=Pakistan: Assessment-2024 |url=https://www.satp.org/terrorism-assessment/pakistan |website=South Asian Terrorism Portal |access-date=25 April 2024 }}
* {{cite book|last=Spuler|first=Bertold|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E2DGzwEACAAJ|title=The Muslim World: a Historical Survey|year=1969|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden, Netherlands|isbn=978-90-04-02104-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sXsmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA227|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2016|pages=227–240|isbn=978-0-300-21659-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Rita P.|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG2ztAEACAAJ&pg=PA1|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=26 October 2009|pages=1–2|isbn=978-0-521-57219-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Wynbrandt|first=James|title=A Brief History of Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8160-6184-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Zia|first1=Nadeem|last2=Burton|first2=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hzTEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA2002|title=Corporate Governance Challenges in Pakistan: Perceptions and Potential Routes Forward|date=24 October 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-077306-4}}
{{refend}}

=== Etymology ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last1=Anand|first1=Sugam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRgcAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA178|title=Modern Indian Historiography: From Pillai to Azad|year=1991|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=MG Publishers|page=178|isbn=978-81-85532-09-7}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aziz|first1=Khursheed Kamal|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jB5uAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA88|title=Rahmat Ali: A Biography|year=1987|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Vanguard|page=88|isbn=978-3-515-05051-7}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lahiri|first1=Ashok|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NS6iEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT74|title=India in Search of Glory: Political Calculus and Economy|date=23 January 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-5492-837-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Saqib|first1=Muhammad Amjad|last2=Malik|first2=Aneeqa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mEBvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT100|title=Integral Finance – Akhuwat: A Case Study of the Solidarity Economy|date=21 September 2018|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-72767-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tummala|first1=Krishna K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HSQZj1_FrosC&pg=PA42|title=Public Administration in India|year=1996|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Allied Publishers (P) Limited|page=42|isbn=978-81-7023-590-3}}
{{refend}}

=== History ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite thesis|last1=Abid|first1=Maryam|year=2023|title=Jamaat-e-Islami's influence on the Muslim Identity of Pakistanis through legislative amendments and their social consequences|type=Master of Arts thesis|institution=[[University of Kansas]]|location=[[Lawrence, Kansas]]|url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7f33623c-4beb-4cfc-aa42-1d183fa9f2d5/content|access-date=16 September 2025|archive-date=24 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250824124329/https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7f33623c-4beb-4cfc-aa42-1d183fa9f2d5/content|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|last1=Abraham|first1=Taisha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm4PBNdaFjYC&pg=PA131|title=Women and the Politics of Violence|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2002|isbn=978-81-241-0847-5|page=131}}
* {{cite web|last1=Afzal|first1=Madiha|url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/pakistans-surprising-and-marred-2024-election-and-what-comes-next/|title=Pakistan's surprising and marred 2024 election, and what comes next|date=29 February 2024|website=[[Brookings Institution]]|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ahmad|first1=Samir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyHcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66|title=Track Two Diplomacy Between India and Pakistan: Peace Negotiations and Initiatives|date=23 November 2023|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-99914-3|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ahmed|first1=Akbar S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGdiqF6V8wYC&pg=PA136|title=Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-14966-2|page=136|access-date=13 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Akbar|first1=M. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qaohEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT55|title=India: The Siege Within|date=8 February 2018|publisher=[[Roli Books]]|isbn=978-81-936009-7-9|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=Bridget|last2=Allchin|first2=Raymond|author-link1=Bridget Allchin|author-link2=Raymond Allchin|title=The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PA131|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1982|page=131|isbn=978-0-521-28550-6}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Allchin|editor-first1=Bridget|editor-last2=Petraglia|editor-first2=Michael D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA5|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|date=22 May 2007|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Springer Netherlands|page=5|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Kanchan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Em17EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT69|title=The Crash Of A Civilization|date=20 May 2022|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-93-5521-240-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Basrur|first1=Rajesh M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqAGKpOe9xMC&pg=PA36|title=South Asia's Cold War: Nuclear Weapons and Conflict in Comparative Perspective|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-1-134-16531-5|page=36|access-date=9 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Basu|first1=Dipak|last2=Miroshnik|first2=Victoria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158|title=India as an Organization: Volume One: A Strategic Risk Analysis of Ideals, Heritage and Vision · Volume 1|date=16 August 2017|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|page=158|isbn=978-3-319-53371-1|access-date=7 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Basu|first1=Dipak|last2=Miroshnik|first2=Victoria W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1mjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|title=How Pakistan Was Formed: The Economic Rationale for Partition|date=9 January 2023|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|page=125|isbn=978-1-6669-1745-1|access-date=7 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Beachler|first1=Donald W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gStdAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|title=The Genocide Debate: Politicians, Academics, and Victims|date=14 August 2011|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=16|isbn=978-0-230-33763-3|access-date=16 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Behrendt|first1=Kurt A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJ3eCZVlT48C|title=The Art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=2007|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|location=[[New York City]]|pages=4–5, 91|isbn=978-1-58839-224-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bhaumik|first1=Subir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iftjFki3fhYC&pg=PA6|title=Insurgent Crossfire: North-East India|publisher=Lancer Publishers|access-date=12 May 2024|year=1996|isbn=978-1-897829-12-7|page=6}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bose|first1=Sarmila|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4417267|title=Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971|journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]]|volume=40|issue=41|pages=4463–4471|year=2005|jstor=4417267|issn=2349-8846}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Brass|first1=Paul R.|author-link=Paul Brass|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes|year=2003|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]]|pages=81–82|journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]]|volume=5|number=1|doi=10.1080/14623520305657|access-date=16 August 2014|archive-date=14 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414153300/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Burnett|editor-first1=M. Troy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=METPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA566|title=Nationalism Today: Extreme Political Movements Around the World [2 Volumes]|date=4 August 2020|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|page=566|isbn=978-1-4408-5000-4|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Burrison|first1=John A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtgyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110|title=Global Clay: Themes in World Ceramic Traditions|date=16 June 2017|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|page=110|isbn=978-0-253-03189-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Busch|first1=Nathan E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZsfBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184|title=No End in Sight: The Continuing Menace of Nuclear Proliferation|date=17 October 2014|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|page=184|isbn=978-0-8131-5662-0|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Butalia|first1=Urvashi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|title=The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of British India|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8223-2494-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Canfield|first=Robert L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PA4|title=Turko-Persia in historical perspective|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=4–21|year=2002|access-date=30 April 2024|isbn=978-0-521-52291-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cavendish|first1=Marshall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j894miuOqc4C|title=World and Its Peoples: Volume 1|date=September 2006|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish Corporation]]|isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2}}
* {{cite book|author1=Central Intelligence Agency|author-link1=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekGUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT4468|title=The CIA World Factbook 2023-2024|date=20 June 2023|publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-5107-7593-0|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chakma|first1=Bhumitra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oW7fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT142|title=South Asia's Nuclear Security|date=17 December 2014|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-58688-3|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Anjana Motihar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7-IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=India Condensed|date=15 July 2008|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|page=71|isbn=978-981-261-975-4|access-date=7 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Chandra|first=Satish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pg=PA365|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part II|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-81-241-1066-9|page=365}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chapman|first1=Graham P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvhKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT239|title=The Geopolitics of South Asia: From Early Empires to India, Pakistan and Bangladesh|date=6 February 2018|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-351-73468-4|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chowdhury|first1=Anis|last2=Mahmud|first2=Wahiduddin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBl8XLiRo3IC&pg=PA72|title=Handbook on the South Asian economies|access-date=27 December 2011|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84376-988-0|pages=72–75}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Stephen Philip|title=The idea of Pakistan|url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe|url-access=registration|date=2004|publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]]|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-8157-9761-6|edition=1st pbk.|access-date=8 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Coll|first1=Steve|author-link1=Steve Coll|title=Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001|url=https://archive.org/details/ghostwarssecreth00coll/page/720|url-access=registration|edition=23 February 2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/ghostwarssecreth00coll/page/720 720]|publisher=[[Penguin Press HC]]|isbn=978-1-59420-007-6|year=2004}}
* {{cite book|last1=Coningham|first1=Robin|last2=Young|first2=Ruth|author1-link=Robin Coningham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=31 August 2015|page=138|isbn=978-0-521-84697-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Consiglio|first1=Cyprian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0_DCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|title=Spirit, Soul, Body: Toward an Integral Christian Spirituality|date=7 January 2015|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Liturgical Press|page=27|isbn=978-0-8146-3582-7}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cook|first1=Hugh C. B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0RuAAAAMAAJ|title=The Sikh Wars: The British Army in the Punjab, 1845-1849|year=1975|publisher=L. Cooper|isbn=978-0-85052-164-1|access-date=4 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cooke|first1=Tim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHhmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|title=Human Rights|date=15 July 2017|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC|page=14|isbn=978-1-5026-2824-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Daiya|first1=Kavita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7a-FuiMcTYC&pg=PA75|title=Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India|publisher=[[Temple University Press]]|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59213-744-2|page=75}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dales|first1=George|last2=Kenoyer|first2=Jonathan Mark|last3=Alcock|first3=Leslie|title=Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery, with an Account of the Pottery from the 1950 Excavations of Sir Mortimer Wheeler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iew_THp8foC&pg=PA4|page=4|year=1986|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=UPenn Museum of Archaeology|isbn=978-0-934718-52-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dandamaev|first1=M. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INr7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147|title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire|date=20 October 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Brill|page=147|isbn=978-90-04-66763-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=D'Costa|first1=Bina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivzKjY5LncIC&pg=PA53|title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0-415-56566-0|page=53|access-date=9 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Dede|editor-first1=Kadir|editor-last2=Sadioglu|editor-first2=Ugur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVSiDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270|title=Comparative Studies and Regionally-Focused Cases Examining Local Governments|date=20 June 2016|publisher=IGI Global|page=270|isbn=978-1-5225-0321-7|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|year=2018|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=29|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fair|first1=C. Christine|author-link1=C. Christine Fair|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjaTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|title=Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=78|isbn=978-0-19-989270-9|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Faroqhi|first1=Suraiya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPalDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18|title=The Ottoman and Mughal Empires Social History in the Early Modern World|date=8 August 2019|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-78831-872-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33|year=2018|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=33|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fitzpatrick|first1=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbLddoNkxi4C&pg=PA115|title=Nuclear Black Markets: Pakistan, A.Q. Khan and the Rise of Proliferation Networks : a Net Assessment|year=2007|publisher=[[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]|pages=115–116|isbn=978-0-86079-201-7|access-date=17 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Flood|editor-first1=Gavin|editor-link1=Gavin Flood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWl6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|date=23 May 2022|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|page=421|isbn=978-1-119-14486-1|access-date=14 September 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gayer|first1=Laurent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BklRBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|title=Karachi: Ordered Disorder and the Struggle for the City|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=42|isbn=978-0-19-935444-3|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|author=Gwillim Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXCeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|title=Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 Through 1998|year=1999|publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers|page=276|isbn=978-1-4766-0447-3|access-date=5 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hajari|first1=Nisid|author-link1=Nisid Hajari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrDqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT351|title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|date=9 June 2015|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0-547-66924-3|access-date=18 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hakeem|first1=Abdul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BPFAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1900|title=Paradise on Fire: Syed Ali Geelani and the Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir|date=2 June 2014|publisher=Kube Publishing Limited|isbn=978-0-9536768-6-6|access-date=10 September 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hali|first1=Khvajah Altaf Husain|last2=Akhtar|first2=Saleem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hV1DAAAACAAJ|title=Ḥayāt-i jāved|date=1993|publisher=Sang-i Mīl Publications|location=Lāhore|isbn=978-969-35-0186-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Hardy (historian)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA213|title=The Muslims of British India|date=7 December 1972|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=213|isbn=978-0-521-08488-8|access-date=6 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Harjani|first1=Dayal N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4ZlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT244|title=Sindhi Roots & Rituals - Part 1|date=19 July 2018|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-1-64249-289-7|access-date=4 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Haroon|first1=Sana|year=2008|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27755911|title=The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North-West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914–1996|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]|volume=18|issue=1|pages=66–67|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|jstor=27755911|doi=10.1017/S1356186307007778|s2cid=154959326}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hasan|first1=Arif|last2=Raza|first2=Mansoor|author-link1=Arif Hasan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7imPH4KVJUC&pg=PA10|title=Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan|year=2009|publisher=Human Settlements Programme, [[International Institute for Environment and Development]]|pages=10–12|isbn=978-1-84369-734-3|access-date=13 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hiro|first1=Dilip|title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpPCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA216|publisher=Nation Books|year=2015|page=216|isbn=978-1-56858-503-1}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Holt|editor-first1=Andrew|editor-last2=Curta|editor-first2=Florin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1339|title=Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 Volumes]|date=28 November 2016|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=979-8-216-09187-5|access-date=6 May 2024}}
* {{cite news|last1=Hoodbhoy|first1=Pervez|author-link=Pervaiz Hoodbhoy|title=Pakistan's nuclear bayonet|website=[[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]]|date=23 January 2011|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/606669/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218212415/http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html|archive-date=18 February 2011|url-status=live|access-date=9 September 2011}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hoodbhoy|first1=Pervez|author-link=Pervaiz Hoodbhoy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgSqEAAAQBAJ|title=Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future|year=2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-000-85667-5}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Husain|first1=Ishrat|title=The Role of Politics in Pakistan's Economy|url=https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/news/role-politics-pakistans-economy|journal=[[Journal of International Affairs]]|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|issn=0022-197X|date=25 March 2010|volume=63|issue=1|pages=1–18|jstor=24384169|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Adeel|author-link1=|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24730580.2018.1544023|title=Muhammad Iqbal's constitutionalism|journal=Indian Law Review|volume=2|pages=135–158|number=2|issn=2473-0599|date=8 November 2018|doi=10.1080/24730580.2018.1544023|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|access-date=23 May 2024|hdl=1887/79342|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Hussain|first1=Rizwan|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616|year=2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121052313/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0616|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 November 2008|title=Pakistan|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hussain|first1=Shafqat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PfOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|title=Remoteness and Modernity: Transformation and Continuity in Northern Pakistan|year=2015|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|page=112|isbn=978-0-300-20555-8|access-date=4 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Isaacs|first1=Harold Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kne87aU7D0C&pg=PA3|title=Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1975|isbn=978-0-674-44315-0|page=3|access-date=9 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jaffrelot|first1=Christophe|author-link1=Christophe Jaffrelot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5GMCwAAQBAJ|title=The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience|year=2015|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-023518-5|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite thesis|last1=Junejo|first1=Rabela|title=Architectural Encounters at Makli Necropolis (14th–18th Centuries)|date=August 2020|url=https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12625583/index.pdf|pages=iv, 2|department=History of Architecture|degree=[[Doctor of Philosophy]]|publisher=[[Middle East Technical University]]|access-date=30 April 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kapoor|first1=Deepak|author-link1=Deepak Kapoor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlVXtIsXCxYC&pg=PA3|title=Pentagon's South Asia Defence and Strategic Year Book 2009|year=2009|publisher=Pentagon Press|page=3|isbn=978-81-8274-399-1|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kathpalia|first1=Pran Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_MMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17|title=Mission with a Difference: The Exploits of 71 Mountain Brigade|year=1986|publisher=Lancer International|page=17|isbn=978-81-7062-069-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kazmi|first1=Muhammad Raza|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBduAAAAMAAJ|title=Liaquat Ali Khan: His Life and Work|year=2003|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-579788-6|access-date=13 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Kennedy|editor-first1=Kerry J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxswEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT37|title=Social Studies Education in South and South East Asian Contexts|date=22 July 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-39426-9|access-date=20 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Asghar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irSEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|title=Mainstreaming the Tribal Areas (ex-FATA) of Pakistan Bordering Afghanistan: Challenges and Prospects|date=23 August 2022|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Springer Nature Singapore|pages=114, 119|isbn=978-981-19-1794-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Feroz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC|title=Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb|date=7 November 2012|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8047-8480-1|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Gohar Ayub|author-link1=Gohar Ayub Khan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQduAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA184|title=Glimpses Into the Corridors of Power|date=29 August 2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=184|isbn=978-0-19-547354-4|access-date=15 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=M. H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dp-QDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|title=Memoir of M. H. Khan: Turbulence in the Indian Subcontinent|date=September 2016|publisher=Mereo Books|page=17|isbn=978-1-86151-569-8|access-date=7 May 2024|ref={{harvid|M. H. Khan|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Khanna|first1=Sushil|title=The Crisis in the Pakistan Economy|url=http://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv8n1/pakistan.htm|journal=Revolutionary Democracy|volume=8|issue=1|date=April 2002|access-date=16 November 2011}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Naveeda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cevbpt3SQqQC&pg=PA58|title=Muslim Becoming: Aspiration and Skepticism in Pakistan|date=22 May 2012|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|page=58|isbn=978-0-8223-5231-0|access-date=6 May 2024|ref={{harvid|N. Khan|2012}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Khoja-Moolji|first1=Shenila|author-link1=Shenila Khoja-Moolji|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXEnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32|title=Sovereign Attachments: Masculinity, Muslimness, and Affective Politics in Pakistan|date=15 June 2021|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|page=32|isbn=978-0-520-97439-5|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Koumar|first1=Shaupaun|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haSnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT118|title=Naturocracy|date=16 January 2023|publisher=Zorba Books|isbn=978-93-952172-0-0|access-date=15 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Krasno|first1=Jean|last2=LaPides|first2=Sean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqnIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT303|title=Personality, Political Leadership, and Decision Making: A Global Perspective|date=7 July 2015|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=979-8-216-12791-8|access-date=17 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kubica|first1=Olga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8M-vEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA153|title=Greco-Buddhist Relations in the Hellenistic Far East: Sources and Contexts|date=14 April 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=153|isbn=978-1-000-86852-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYelDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT196|title=A History of India|date=27 May 2016|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-24212-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kumarasingham|first1=Harshan|title=The 'Tropical Dominions': The Appeal of Dominion Status in the Decolonisation of India, Pakistan, and Ceylon, vol. 23|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23726109|year=2013|journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=23|pages=223–245|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0080440113000108|jstor=23726109}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lapidus|first1=Ira M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkJpBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA274|title=A History of Islamic Societies|date=13 October 2014|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=274|isbn=978-0-521-73297-0}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Lapierre|editor-first1=Dominique|editor-last2=Collins|editor-first2=Larry|editor-link1=Dominique Lapierre|editor-link2=Larry Collins (writer)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxjdjgEACAAJ|title=Mountbatten and the Partition of India|year=2015|publisher=Wide Canvas|page=57|isbn=978-93-259-8601-5|access-date=13 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Law|first1=Gwillim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXCeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA276|title=Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 Through 1998|year=1999|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|page=276|isbn=978-1-4766-0447-3|access-date=5 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lH40gT7xvYC&pg=PA70|title=Bangladesh|year=2011|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=70|isbn=978-0-521-71377-1|access-date=15 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Myra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxgxDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War|year=2017|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|page=85|isbn=978-1-84904-858-3|access-date=2 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Malik|first=Iftikhar Haider|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQTABKAGaVgC|title=Culture and Customs of Pakistan|year=2006|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33126-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mansbach|first1=Richard W.|last2=Pirro|first2=Ellen B.|last3=Taylor|first3=Kirsten L.|author-link1=Richard W. Mansbach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=644-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT298|title=Introduction to Global Politics|date=10 November 2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-315-30181-5|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Markovits|editor-first1=Claude|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AybHBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA350|title=History of Modern India|year=2012|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]]|page=350|isbn=978-1-316-16517-1|access-date=8 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Martini|editor-first1=Alice|editor-last2=Ford|editor-first2=Kieran|editor-last3=Jackson|editor-first3=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ge_3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT390|title=Encountering Extremism: Theoretical Issues and Local Challenges|date=18 August 2020|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|isbn=978-1-5261-3663-3|access-date=20 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mazari|first1=Shireen M.|author-link1=Shireen Mazari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwFvAAAAMAAJ|title=The Kargil Conflict, 1999: Separating Fact from Fiction|year=2003|publisher=[[Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad]]|isbn=978-969-8772-00-0|access-date=19 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=McGrath|first1=Allen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA38|title=The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-577583-9|page=38}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mohiuddin|first1=Yasmin Niaz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC|title=Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=978-1-85109-801-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mookerji|first1=Radhakumud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC&pg=PA478|title=Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist|year=1989|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|pages=478–479|isbn=978-81-208-0423-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Mufti|first=Shahan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb9vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134|title=The Faithful Scribe: A Story of Islam, Pakistan, Family and War|date=2013|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Other Press|page=124|isbn=978-1-59051-505-1}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Muniapan|first1=Balakrishnan|last2=Shaikh|first2=Junaid M.|url=https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/WREMSD.2007.012130?journalCode=wremsd#|title=Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India|journal=World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development|date=February 2007|volume=3|issue=1|page=50|doi=10.1504/WREMSD.2007.012130}}
*<!--NDTV-->{{cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/independence-day-2025-why-pakistans-independence-day-is-before-indias-story-behind-the-dates-9075124|title=Why Pakistan's Independence Day Is Before India's: Story Behind The Dates|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=14 August 2025|access-date=10 September 2025|ref={{harvid|NDTV|2025}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Needham|first1=Joseph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=taweAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA24|title=A selection from the writings of Joseph Needham|year=1994|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=McFarland & Company|page=24|isbn=978-0-89950-903-7}}
* {{cite book|last1=Nyrop|first1=Richard F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5jTh7DA598C|title=Area Handbook for Pakistan|date=1975|publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]]|access-date=13 September 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Oberlies|first1=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6zpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|title=The Religion of the Rigveda|date=12 December 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=OUP Oxford|page=25|isbn=978-0-19-269432-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Oldenburg|first1=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLsuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|title=India, Pakistan, and Democracy: Solving the Puzzle of Divergent Paths|date=13 September 2010|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=226|isbn=978-1-136-93930-3|access-date=17 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pandeya|first1=Visva Mohana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2lu-ZI-vQC&pg=PA37|title=Historiography of India's Partition: An Analysis of Imperialist Writings|year=2003|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|page=37|isbn=978-81-269-0314-6|access-date=7 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=World History: From the Ancient World to the Information Age|date=3 October 2017|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=DK|page=75|isbn=978-0-7440-3345-8}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Paxton|editor-first1=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QunIDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA949|title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1986-87|date=22 December 2016|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=949|isbn=978-0-230-27115-9|access-date=17 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pirbhai|first1=M. Reza|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEOCeD7ntzUC&pg=PR21|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context|year=2009|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=978-90-04-17758-1|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pollitt|first1=Jerome Jordan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vt9JwsNcKzwC&pg=PA285|title=Art in the Hellenistic Age|date=12 June 1986|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=285|isbn=978-0-521-27672-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Qassem|first1=Ahmad Shayeq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAzACwAAQBAJ&pg=PP33|title=Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised|date=16 March 2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-18459-1|access-date=18 April 2026}}
* {{cite book|last1=Quintanilla|first1=Sonya Rhie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtqvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|title=History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura, Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE|date=15 March 2007|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Brill|page=9|isbn=978-90-474-1930-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rendell|first1=H. M.|last2=Dennell|first2=Robin W.|author-link2=Robin Dennell|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/203287|title=Dated Lower Palaeolithic Artefacts From Northern Pakistan|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=26|number=3|pages=495–498|issn=0011-3204|date=June 1985|jstor=2743470|doi=10.1086/203287|publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press Journals]]|bibcode=1985CurrA..26..393R|access-date=10 August 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Riggs|first1=Erin P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZ1Z0AEACAAJ|title=A Contemporary Archaeology of Post-Displacement Resettlement: Delhi's 1947 Partition Refugee Homescapes|year=2024|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-003-24714-2|access-date=10 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ruhland|first1=Heike|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7uC_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|title=Peacebuilding in Pakistan: A Study on the Religious Minorities and Initiatives for Interfaith Harmony|year=2019|publisher=Waxmann Verlag GmbH|page=49|isbn=978-3-8309-9121-2|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rummel|first1=Rudolph J.|author-link1=R. J. Rummel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC&pg=PA153|title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900|year=1998|publisher=[[LIT Verlag]]|page=153|isbn=978-3-8258-4010-5|access-date=16 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rustomji|first1=Behram Sohrab H. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-wprhxyyPIC|title=Karachi, 1839-1947 (a Short History of the Foundation and Growth of Karachi)|year=1952|publisher=Excelsior Electric Printing Works|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sadasivan|first1=Balaji|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=980SAvbmpUkC&pg=PT55|title=The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India|year=2011|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4311-67-0}}
* {{cite book|last1=Samad|first1=Rafi U.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA275|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|year=2011|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Algora Pib.|page=275|isbn=978-0-87586-860-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sengupta|first1=Hindol|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RcT3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|title=Soul and Sword: The Endless Battle Over Political Hinduism|date=December 2023|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|page=53|isbn=978-1-5381-2684-4|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Sharma|editor-first1=Anamika|editor-last2=D'Angelo|editor-first2=James|editor-last3=Giri|editor-first3=Ram Ashish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRP9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA130|title=Functional Variations in English: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Challenges|date=14 September 2020|publisher=Springer International Publishing|page=130|isbn=978-3-030-52225-4|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sikand|first1=Yoginder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yf5aJi2loLcC&pg=PA5|title=Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=978-1-134-37825-8|page=5|access-date=9 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Simpson|first1=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3XvBbdWCKYC&pg=PA102|title=Language and National Identity in Asia|date=30 August 2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|page=102|isbn=978-0-19-153308-2|access-date=2 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Amritjit|last2=Iyer|first2=Nalini|last3=Gairola|first3=Rahul K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmA0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|title=Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4985-3105-4|page=14}}
* {{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Gurharpal|last2=Shani|first2=Giorgio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IctVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Sikh Nationalism|date=25 November 2021|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=75|isbn=978-1-009-21344-8|access-date=23 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stonard|first1=John-Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvAuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT143|title=Creation: A Fully Illustrated, Panoramic World History of Art from Ancient Civilisation to the Present Day|date=16 October 2017|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4088-7966-5}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Stubbs|first1=John H.|last2=Thomson|first2=Robert G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zCQlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA427|title=Architectural Conservation in Asia: National Experiences and Practice|date=10 November 2016|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-40619-8|pages=427}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Sunkara|editor-first1=Bhaskar|editor-last2=Walter|editor-first2=Jonah|editor-last3=Rojas|editor-first3=René|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9DmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|title=The Good Die Young: The Verdict on Henry Kissinger|date=17 January 2024|publisher=[[Verso Books]]|page=113|isbn=978-1-78873-030-3|access-date=15 May 2024}}
* {{cite news|last1=Tariq|first1=Shrouq|last2=Stenson|first2=Joe|title=Shehbaz Sharif Voted In As Pakistan's Prime Minister For Second Time|newspaper=[[Barron's]]|date=3 March 2024|url=https://www.barrons.com/amp/news/shehbaz-sharif-voted-in-as-pakistan-s-prime-minister-for-second-time-642c3302|access-date=22 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Totten|editor-first1=Samuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfwnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA147|title=Teaching about Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources|date=September 2000|publisher=[[Information Age Publishing]]|pages=147–148|isbn=978-1-60752-968-2}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Tucker|editor-first1=Spencer C.|editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1087|title=U.S. Conflicts in the 21st Century: Afghanistan War, Iraq War, and the War on Terror [3 Volumes]|date=14 December 2015|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=979-8-216-15822-6|access-date=18 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|authorlink=Spencer C. Tucker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QPHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241|title=Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide|date=17 April 2017|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|page=241|isbn=979-8-216-11844-2|access-date=13 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|authorlink=Spencer C. Tucker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZX3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1567|title=The Cold War [5 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|year=2020|isbn=979-8-216-06249-3|page=1567|access-date=7 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|author1=United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|author-link1=United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeLWpvGZYXYC&pg=PA54|title=U.S. Policy Options in Post-election Pakistan: Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, Second Session, February 28, 2008 · Volume 4|year=2008|publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]]|page=54|isbn=978-0-16-082307-7|access-date=20 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Visweswaran|editor-first1=Kamala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA125|title=Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation|date=6 May 2011|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|page=125|isbn=978-1-4051-0062-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Walbridge|first1=Linda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asH5ND-3V8sC&pg=PA177|title=The Christians of Pakistan: The Passion of Bishop John Joseph|date=12 October 2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=177|isbn=978-1-136-13186-8|access-date=3 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Waseem|first1=Mohammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGxvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT253|title=Political Conflict in Pakistan|date=April 2022|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-765426-2|access-date=21 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Westad|first1=Odd Arne|author-link1=Odd Arne Westad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhFZHRpQdu4C&pg=PT343|title=The global Cold War: third world interventions and the making of our times|access-date=22 January 2012|year=2005|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-85364-4|pages=348–358}}
* {{cite book|last1=Westmoreland|first1=Perry L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdbHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT105|title=Life's Wonders|date=9 December 2019|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Dorrance Publishing Company, Incorporated|isbn=978-1-64426-834-6}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Wilson|editor-first1=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&pg=PA93|title=Pakistan: The Struggle Within|year=2009|publisher=[[Longman]]|page=93|isbn=978-81-317-2504-7|access-date=14 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wink|first1=André|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA129|title=Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th–11th Centuries, Volume 1|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2002|page=129|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|series=Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wolpert|first1=Stanley A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OFtAAAAMAAJ|title=Jinnah of Pakistan|year=1984|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-503412-7|access-date=2 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wolpert|first1=Stanley A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJHTif-WA6oC&pg=PA163|title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-974504-3|page=163}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Wuthnow|editor-first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOVJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA427|title=The Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion: 2-volume Set|date=4 December 2013|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=427|isbn=978-1-136-28493-9|access-date=6 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Yap|editor-first1=Po Jen|editor-last2=Abeyratne|editor-first2=Rehan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YI-rEAAAQBAJ|title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Parliaments|date=24 March 2023|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-85060-4|access-date=7 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Yarbakhsh|first1=Elisabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnWqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA270|title=The Middle East and South Asia 2019-2020|date=9 October 2019|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|page=270|isbn=978-1-4758-5217-2|access-date=19 May 2024}}
{{refend}}

=== Geography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation|last1=Abul-Soad|first1=Adel Ahmed|title=Date Palm in Pakistan, Current Status and Prospective|year=2011|url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea333.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807040411/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea333.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 August 2015|publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]]|access-date=27 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Agarwal|editor-first1=Aakash|editor-last2=Ahmad|editor-first2=Alaaeldin Azmi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2doMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT196|title=Early Onset Scoliosis: Guidelines for Management in Resource-Limited Settings|date=27 January 2021|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-1-000-29866-6|access-date=22 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ahmad|first1=Aijazuddin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA24|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|pages=24|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|access-date=13 November 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Akhtar|first1=Rubina|last2=Mirza|first2=Sarwat Naz|url=https://www.jle.com/download/sec-270100-5053-arid_steppes_of_balochistan_pakistan_-g.pdf|title=Arid steppes of Balochistan (Pakistan)|journal=Science et changements planétaires / Sécheresse|volume=17|number=1|pages=203–209|issn=1777-5922|date=January–June 2006|publisher=John Libbey|access-date=28 May 2024|archive-date=30 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030041811/https://www.jle.com/download/sec-270100-5053-arid_steppes_of_balochistan_pakistan_-g.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Alisibramulisi|editor-first1=Anizahyati|editor-last2=Che Ibrahim|editor-first2=Che Khairil Izam|editor-last3=Mansor|editor-first3=Hazrina|editor-last4=Billah|editor-first4=Muntasir|editor-last5=Belayutham|editor-first5=Sheila|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IrVoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207|title=Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Civil Engineering Structures and Construction Materials: SCESCM 2020|page=207|date=6 April 2022|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|location=[[Singapore]]|isbn=978-981-16-7924-7|access-date=24 May 2024|ref={{harvid|Alisibramulisi et al.|2022}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Gautam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6c6PDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT92|title=China's Great Leap Forward-II: The China Pakistan Economic Corridorand Strategic Reshaping of Indian Neighbourhood|date=2 April 2019|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-1-940988-43-6|access-date=23 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Blood|first1=Peter R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRMTO7mn7hIC|title=Pakistan: A Country Study|date=December 1996|publisher=DIANE Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-7881-3631-3|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bright|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZNADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA681|title=1001 Natural Wonders You Must See Before You Die|date=24 October 2017|publisher=[[Book Sales]]|page=681|isbn=978-0-7858-3583-7|access-date=26 May 2024}}
*<!--Britannica (Azad Kashmir)-->{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Azad-Kashmir|title=Azad Kashmir|date=13 May 2024|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=25 May 2024|ref={{harvid|Britannica (Azad Kashmir)|2024}}}}
*<!--Britannica (Gulf of Oman)-->{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Oman|title=Gulf of Oman|date=13 April 2024|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=23 May 2024|ref={{harvid|Britannica (Gulf of Oman)|2024}}}}
*<!--CBD Report-->{{citation|title=Pakistan: Fourth National Report|year=2009|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/pk/pk-nr-04-en.pdf|work=[[Government of Pakistan]] ([[Ministry of Environment (Pakistan)|Ministry of Environment]])|publisher=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]|access-date=2 July 2024|ref={{harvid|CBD Report|2009}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chandrappa|first1=Ramesha W.|last2=Gupta|first2=Sushil|last3=Kulshrestha|first3=Umesh Chandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1_fg3qnr2sC&pg=PA347|title=Coping with Climate Change: Principles and Asian Context|date=17 June 2011|publisher=[[Springer Berlin Heidelberg]]|page=347|isbn=978-3-642-19674-4|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Cheng|editor-first1=Gong|editor-last2=Wang|editor-first2=Sibao|editor-last3=Zhou|editor-first3=Xiao-Nong|editor-last4=Guo|editor-first4=Xiao-kui|editor-last5=Feng|editor-first5=Xinyu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5a-jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81|title=Needs and potential application of one health approach in the control of vector-borne and zoonotic infectious disease|date=23 December 2022|publisher=[[Frontiers Media]]|page=81|isbn=978-2-8325-0956-2|access-date=22 May 2024|ref={{harvid|Cheng et al.|2022}}}}
*<!--Dawn-->{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/884966|title=Geography: The borders of Pakistan|newspaper=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=17 October 2009|access-date=19 February 2026|ref={{harvid|Dawn|2009a}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Descals|first1=Adrià|last2=Wich|first2=Serge|last3=Szantoi|first3=Zoltan|last4=Struebig|first4=Matthew J.|last5=Dennis|first5=Rona|last6=Hatton|first6=Zoe|last7=Ariffin|first7=Thina|last8=Unus|first8=Nabillah|last9=Gaveau|first9=David L. A.|last10=Meijaard|first10=Erik|author-link10=Erik Meijaard|url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/3991/2023/essd-15-3991-2023.pdf|title=High-resolution global map of closed-canopy coconut palm|journal=Earth System Science Data|volume=15|number=9|pages=3991–4010|issn=1866-3516|date=8 September 2023|doi=10.5194/essd-15-3991-2023|doi-access=free|bibcode=2023ESSD...15.3991D|access-date=27 May 2024|ref={{harvid|Descals et al.|2023}}}}
* {{cite web|last1=Descloitres|first1=Jacques|url=https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/images/62558/indus-river-pakistan|title=Indus River, Pakistan|date=26 October 2002|publisher=[[NASA]] Visible Earth|work=MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC|access-date=25 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=DeVivo|editor-first1=Benedetto|editor-last2=Laor|editor-first2=Efraim|editor-last3=Panza|editor-first3=Giuliano|editor-last4=Kossobokov|editor-first4=Vladimir G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecwnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA546|title=Earthquakes and Sustainable Infrastructure: Neodeterministic (NDSHA) Approach Guarantees Prevention Rather Than Cure|pages=546–547|date=21 May 2021|publisher=[[Elsevier Science]]|isbn=978-0-12-823541-6|access-date=25 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=DeVotta|editor-first1=Neil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6XbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|title=An Introduction to South Asian Politics|date=23 October 2015|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=37|isbn=978-1-317-36973-8|access-date=19 February 2026}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=El-Esawi|editor-first1=Mohamed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhT8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|title=Legume Crops: Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security|date=11 December 2019|publisher=IntechOpen|page=24|isbn=978-1-83968-086-1|access-date=27 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Faridah-Hanum|editor-first1=I.|editor-last2=Hakeem|editor-first2=Khalid Rehman|editor-last3=Öztürk|editor-first3=Münir|editor-last4=Efe|editor-first4=Recep|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1X1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA461|title=Climate Change Impacts on High-Altitude Ecosystems|pages=461–462|date=5 May 2015|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|isbn=978-3-319-12859-7|access-date=29 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fatima|first1=Naz|date=30 June 2020|title=Some Interesting facts about National Animal of Pakistan|url=https://markhorjournal.com/index.php/mjz/article/view/13|journal=MARKHOR (The Journal of Zoology)|volume=1|issue=1|page=02|doi=10.54393/mjz.v1i1.13|s2cid=246708061|issn=2790-4385|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Flux|editor-first1=John E. C.|editor-last2=Chapman|editor-first2=Joseph A.|editor-link2=Joseph A. Chapman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q994k86i0zYC&pg=PA82|title=Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan|year=1990|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]|page=82|isbn=978-2-8317-0019-9|access-date=31 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G|doi-access=free|ref={{harvid|Grantham et al.|2020}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Grimmett|first1=Richard|last2=Inskipp|first2=Tim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIALEAAAQBAJ|title=Birds of Pakistan|date=7 January 2021|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4729-9031-0|access-date=29 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haque|first1=Jameel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKbwqo_xAP8C&pg=PA6|title=Pakistan|year=2002|publisher=[[Gareth Stevens]]|page=6|isbn=978-0-8368-2352-3|access-date=22 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hunter|first1=Luke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gz9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|title=Carnivores of the World: Second Edition|year=2018|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=56|isbn=978-0-691-18295-7|access-date=30 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jiwani|first1=Azam H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xns-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|title=Humanizing Medicine: Making Health Tangible: Memoirs of Engagement with a Global Development Network|date=19 August 2021|publisher=[[FriesenPress]]|page=54|isbn=978-1-0391-0908-7|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Karaman|first1=Igor V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gVEeXzCJEGYC&pg=PA346|title=Dispute Resolution in the Law of the Sea|year=2012|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|page=346|isbn=978-90-04-21202-2|access-date=23 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=Intizar H.|last2=Clyde|first2=William C.|title=Lower Paleogene Tectonostratigraphy of Balochistan: Evidence for Time-Transgressive Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Uplift|journal=[[Geosciences (journal)|Geosciences]]|volume=3|number=3|pages=466–501|issn=2076-3263|date=29 July 2013|doi=10.3390/geosciences3030466|publisher=[[MDPI]]|doi-access=free |bibcode=2013Geosc...3..466K }}
* {{citation|last1=Kreft|first1=Heinrich|title=The Geopolitical Importance of Pakistan|year=2007|url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/47558/Pakistan.pdf|publisher=[[ETH Zurich]]|access-date=24 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Alexander|last2=Norton|first2=Michael|last3=Ryan|first3=Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdssDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT237|title=Water Resources: A New Water Architecture|date=13 July 2017|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=978-1-118-79407-4|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Mallon|editor-first1=David P.|editor-last2=Kingswood|editor-first2=Steven Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFo03Nd2oj8C&pg=PA124|title=Antelopes: North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia|year=2001|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]|page=124|isbn=978-2-8317-0594-1|access-date=2 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Mordi|editor-first1=Chima|editor-last2=Adisa|editor-first2=Toyin Ajibade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rP5vEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA292|title=HRM in the Global South: A Critical Perspective|date=16 May 2022|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|page=292|isbn=978-3-030-98309-3|access-date=22 May 2024}}
*<!--PEPA-->{{citation|title=National Environment Report|year=2016|url=https://environment.gov.pk/SiteImage/Publication/SOE2016.pdf|page=18|publisher=[[Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency]] ([[Ministry of Climate Change (Pakistan)|Ministry of Climate Change]])|work=Geomatic Center for Climate Change & Sustainable Development|access-date=28 May 2024|ref={{harvid|PEPA|2016}}|archive-date=28 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528010110/https://environment.gov.pk/SiteImage/Publication/SOE2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|last1=Roze|first1=Uldis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LtOhh7ILpT0C&pg=PA132|title=Porcupines: The Animal Answer Guide|date=28 September 2012|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|page=132|isbn=978-1-4214-0735-7|access-date=12 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Samuel|editor-first1=Paul S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r6GmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129|title=Meteorology and Energy Security: Simulations, Projections, and Management|date=24 February 2016|publisher=Apple Academic Press|page=129|isbn=978-1-77188-387-0|access-date=26 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sandhu|first1=Parvinder Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ki8m5RoE3moC&pg=SL20-PA348|title=Environmental Science and Technology|year=2010|publisher=Research Publishing Services|isbn=978-981-08-5716-5|access-date=28 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=San|editor-first1=Emmanuel Do Linh|editor-last2=Belant|editor-first2=Jerrold L.|editor-last3=Sato|editor-first3=Jun J.|editor-last4=Somers|editor-first4=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NW96EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA263|title=Small Carnivores: Evolution, Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation|page=263|date=25 October 2021|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=978-1-118-94328-1|access-date=30 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Somerville|first1=Keith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcYWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151|title=Humans and Hyenas: Monster Or Misunderstood|date=18 March 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-36056-1|access-date=23 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Spate|first1=O. H. K.|last2=Learmonth|first2=A. T. A.|author-link1=Oskar Spate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-fDgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT466|title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography|date=7 April 2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-351-96898-0|access-date=28 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Srinivasulu|first1=Chelmala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djduDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT33|title=South Asian Mammals: An Updated Checklist and Their Scientific Names|date=3 September 2018|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-0-429-88089-6|access-date=12 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Srinivasulu|editor-first1=Chelmala|editor-last2=Srinivasulu|editor-first2=Bhargavi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEsIul417ewC&pg=PA305|title=South Asian Mammals: Their Diversity, Distribution, and Status|date=19 May 2012|publisher=[[Springer New York]]|page=305|isbn=978-1-4614-3449-8|access-date=31 May 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stoneman|first1=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx4OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks|date=8 June 2021|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=26|isbn=978-0-691-21747-5|access-date=11 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sunquist|first1=Fiona|last2=Sunquist|first2=Mel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZH6aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA239|title=The Wild Cat Book: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about Cats|date=2 October 2014|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|page=239|isbn=978-0-226-78026-9|access-date=5 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sunquist|first1=Mel|last2=Sunquist|first2=Fiona|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=Wild Cats of the World|date=15 May 2017|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|page=72|isbn=978-0-226-51823-7|access-date=11 June 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tisdell|first1=C. A.|author-link1=Clem Tisdell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxXLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title=Wild Pigs: Environmental Pest Or Economic Resource?|date=22 October 2013|publisher=[[Elsevier Science]]|page=20|isbn=978-1-4831-8225-4|access-date=12 June 2024}}
* {{cite web|author=UNEP-WCMC|author-link=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|url=https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/east-afghan-montane-conifer-forests/|title=East Afghan Montane Conifer Forests|year=2024|website=[[One Earth]]|access-date=28 May 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Waseem|first1=Muhammad|last2=Khan|first2=Barkatullah|last3=Mahmood|first3=Tariq|last4=Hussain|first4=Hafiz Sajid|last5=Aziz|first5=Rizwana|last6=Akrim|first6=Faraz|last7=Ahmad|first7=Tariq|last8=Nazir|first8=Rabia|last9=Ali|first9=Mirza Wajid|last10=Awan|first10=Muhammad Naeem|title=Occupancy, habitat suitability and habitat preference of endangered indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in Potohar Plateau and Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|volume=23|issn=2351-9894|date=September 2020|article-number=e01135 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01135|publisher=[[Elsevier B.V.]]|ref={{harvid|Waseem et al.|2020}}|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020GEcoC..2301135W }}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Woods|editor-first1=Charles Arthur|editor-last2=Mufti|editor-first2=Shahzad Ahmad|editor-last3=Hasan|editor-first3=Syed Azhar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ebaAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA533|title=Biodiversity of Pakistan|year=1997|publisher=[[Pakistan Museum of Natural History]]|page=533|isbn=978-0-9660913-0-4|access-date=2 July 2024}}
*<!--World Bank-->{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=PK|title=Forest area (% of land area) - Pakistan|year=2024|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|website=[[World Bank]]|access-date=29 May 2024|ref={{harvid|World Bank|2024}}}}
*<!--WWF-->{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/indus-river-dolphin|title=Indus River Dolphin|year=2024|website=WWF|access-date=3 July 2024|ref={{harvid|WWF|2024}}}}
{{refend}}

=== Government and politics ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last1=Abbas|first1=Hassan|author-link1=Hassan Abbas (scholar)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FHKsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148|title=Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-46328-3|page=148}}
* {{cite book|last1=Adibelli|first1=Barış|last2=Gülbaş|first2=Elif|last3=Keskin|first3=Ghulam Faroq|last4=Ünlü|first4=Hayati|last5=Türkmen|first5=Hediye Gamze|last6=Şahin|first6=H. Hilal|last7=Ansari|first7=Mohammed Javed|last8=Islam|first8=Nazmul|last9=Aslan|first9=Ömer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhq4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131|title=South Asia Country Analyses: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|date=15 December 2022|publisher=South Asia Strategic Research Center|pages=131–132|isbn=978-605-72072-1-0|access-date=21 July 2024|ref={{harvid|Adibelli et al.|2022}}}}
* {{cite web|last1=Afridi|first1=Jamal|last2=Bajoria|first2=Jayshree|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-pakistan-relations|title=China-Pakistan Relations|date=6 July 2010|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=14 August 2024}}
* {{cite thesis|last1=Aftab|first1=Zara|title=Pakistan's Terror: Identification and Awareness Regarding the Harmful Cultural Practice of Swara|date=June 2022|url=https://www.etd.ceu.edu/2022/aftab_zara.pdf|department=Department of Legal Studies|degree=[[Master of Arts|Master of Arts in Human Rights]]|publisher=[[Central European University]]|location=[[Vienna]]|access-date=8 January 2026}}
* {{citation|last1=Ahmad|first1=Dawood|last2=Asif|first2=Aizaz|title=A Guide to Understanding the Budget in Pakistan|date=June 2007|url=https://www.pips.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/004.A-Guide_to_Understanding_the_Budget_in_Pakistan_English.pdf|page=12|website=[[Parliament of Pakistan]]|access-date=10 July 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Ahmed|first1=Zahid Shahab|last2=Zahoor|first2=Musharaf|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14662043.2019.1575032|title=Bangladesh-Pakistan relations: hostage to a traumatic past|journal=[[Commonwealth & Comparative Politics]]|volume=57|number=1|pages=31–51|issn=0306-3631|date=17 February 2019|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|doi=10.1080/14662043.2019.1575032|access-date=17 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Anwar|first1=Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0W51yRD0GwC|title=Friends Near Home: Pakistan's Strategic Security Options|page=|date=27 November 2006|publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] UK|location=[[Islamabad]]|isbn=978-1-4670-1541-7|access-date=30 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Arora|editor-first1=Ranjana|editor-last2=Grover|editor-first2=Verinder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ofRtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA189|title=Political System in Pakistan: The Islamic state of Pakistan: role of religion in politics|year=1995|publisher=Deep & Deep|pages=189|isbn=978-81-7100-737-0|access-date=24 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|author1=Asia Watch Committee (U.S.)|author-link1=Asia Watch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mIUwZ4aVM8AC&pg=PA17|title=Double Jeopardy: Police Abuse of Women in Pakistan|year=1992|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|page=17|isbn=978-1-56432-063-6|access-date=20 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aziz|first1=Sadaf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-lBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|title=The Constitution of Pakistan: A Contextual Analysis|pages=94–95|date=11 January 2018|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-5099-1912-3|access-date=6 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Babayev|editor-first1=Azer|editor-last2=Schoch|editor-first2=Bruno|editor-last3=Spanger|editor-first3=Hans-Joachim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KwiZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA286|title=The Nagorno-Karabakh Deadlock: Insights from Successful Conflict Settlements|date=2 May 2019|publisher=[[Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden]]|page=286|isbn=978-3-658-25199-4|access-date=11 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Baderin|editor-first1=Mashood A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2tBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT292|title=Islamic Law in Practice: Volume III|date=2 March 2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-351-92593-8|access-date=23 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Bartholomees|editor-first1=J. Boone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FnE4QxrWogC&pg=PA247|title=U.S. Army War College Guide to National Security Issues: National security policy and strategy|year=2008|publisher=[[Strategic Studies Institute]]|page=247|isbn=978-1-58487-357-0|access-date=1 October 2024}}
* {{citation|last1=Basharat|first1=Iqra|author-link1=|title=Diplomatic Evolution: Pakistan's Transition from Neutrality to Mediation in the Saudi-Iran Rivalry [2015-2023] Section: BSIR-A|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376595410|date=17 December 2023|work=[[International Islamic University]]|access-date=23 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Berg|first1=Eiki|last2=Kursani|first2=Shpend|author-link1=Eiki Berg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gJZOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT101|title=De Facto States and Land-for-Peace Agreements: Territory and Recognition at Odds?|date=21 December 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-51859-7|access-date=9 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Berman|editor-first1=Evan M.|editor-last2=Sabharwal|editor-first2=Meghna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rh03DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424|title=Public Administration in South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan|date=25 September 2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|pages=424|isbn=978-1-351-55266-0|access-date=23 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Bhattacharyya|editor-first1=Rituparna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EunAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT105|title=Genocides and Xenophobia in South Asia and Beyond: A Transdisciplinary Perspective on Known, Lesser-known and Unknown Crime of Crimes|date=7 July 2023|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-90434-5|access-date=31 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bloor|first1=Kevin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74OzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT291|title=Global Politics|date=9 March 2023|publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] UK|isbn=979-8-8230-8099-6|access-date=4 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Bruno|first1=Greg|last2=Bajoria|first2=Jayshree|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-pakistan-military-cooperation|title=U.S-Pakistan Military Cooperation|date=26 June 2008|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=4 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Buzan|first1=Barry|year=2004|title=The United States and the great powers: world politics in the twenty-first century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvtS5hKg9jYC&pg=PR8|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Polity (publisher)|Polity]]|isbn=978-0-7456-3374-9|pages=71, 99}}
* {{cite book|last1=Buzan|first1=Barry|last2=Waever|first2=Ole|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3LfkrrNM4QC&pg=PA55|title=Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-89111-0|page=55}}
* {{cite web|author=Center for Preventive Action|url=https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan|title=Conflict Between India and Pakistan|date=9 April 2024|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=19 November 2024|ref={{harvid|Center for Preventive Action|2024}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chakma|first1=Bhumitra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XTbOO0gVgR0C|title=Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons|date=12 October 2012|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-134-13254-6|access-date=31 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Chakma|editor-first1=Bhumitra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmmoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270|title=South Asia in Transition: Democracy, Political Economy and Security|date=25 June 2014|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=270|isbn=978-1-137-35664-2|access-date=4 July 2024|ref={{harvid|B. Chakma|2014}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chengappa|first1=Bidanda M.|url=https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/sa/sa_jan02chb01.html|title=Pakistan: Impact of Islamic Socialism|journal=[[Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses|Strategic Analysis]]|volume=26|pages=27–47|number=1|issn=0970-0161|date=January–March 2002|doi=10.1080/09700160208450024|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|access-date=5 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Chengappa|first1=Bidanda M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDoMlBd4dYsC&pg=PR2|title=Pakistan, Islamisation, Army and Foreign Policy|pages=42|year=2004|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-548-7}}
*<!--CIA-->{{cite book|author1=United States Central Intelligence Agency|author-link1=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxISEYzcpZcC|title=India--Pakistan Border Kashmir Area (map)|year=1988|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=27 August 2024|ref={{harvid|CIA|1988}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Clary|first1=Christopher|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article/62/5-6/838/194531/Russia-Pakistan-Relations-and-the-Constraints-of|title=Russia–Pakistan Relations and the Constraints of Geoeconomics|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|volume=62|number=5–6|pages=838–865|issn=0004-4687|date=31 October 2022|doi=10.1525/as.2022.1801312|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|access-date=7 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Stephen P.|author-link=Stephen P. Cohen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-tob7aEr7AC&pg=PA123|title=The Future of Pakistan|page=123|date=October 2011|publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=978-0-8157-2181-9|access-date=12 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Cordesman|first=Anthony H.|author-link=Anthony Cordesman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA139|title=Western Strategic Interests in Saudi Arabia|pages=139–140|year=1987|publisher=[[Croom Helm]]|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1}}
*<!--CPI-->{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index – Pakistan|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/pakistan|website=[[Transparency International]]|date=August 2025|access-date=13 December 2025|ref={{harvid|CPI|2025}}}}
*<!--CRS-->{{citation|title=Pakistan's Domestic Political Setting|date=2 November 2023|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10359/31|work=[[Congressional Research Service]]|access-date=6 July 2024|ref={{harvid|CRS|2023}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Alexander E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqy-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|title=The Geopolitics of Melting Mountains: An International Political Ecology of the Himalaya|page=83|date=12 May 2023|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|location=[[Singapore]]|isbn=978-981-9916-81-8|access-date=27 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=de Coning|editor-first1=Cedric|editor-last2=Aoi|editor-first2=Chiyuki|editor-last3=Karlsrud|editor-first3=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157|title=UN Peacekeeping Doctrine in a New Era: Adapting to Stabilisation, Protection and New Threats|date=20 February 2017|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|pages=157–158|isbn=978-1-315-39693-4|access-date=29 December 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=DeRouen|editor-first1=Karl R.|editor-last2=Heo|editor-first2=Uk|editor-link2=Uk Heo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6jOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA579|title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies|year=2005|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|page=579|isbn=978-1-85109-786-9|access-date=1 October 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Dhulipala|first=Venkat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ|title=Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2015|isbn=978-1-316-25838-5|access-date=15 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Diamantides|editor-first1=Marinos|editor-last2=Gearey|editor-first2=Adam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WG-pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196|title=Islam, Law and Identity|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=196–198|date=8 August 2011|isbn=978-1-136-67565-2|access-date=20 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dorsey|first1=James M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csRlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|title=China and the Middle East: Venturing Into the Maelstrom|page=180|date=19 July 2018|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|isbn=978-3-319-64355-7|access-date=19 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Dowding|editor-first1=Keith|editor-last2=Dumont|editor-first2=Patrick|editor-link1=Keith Dowding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UStHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120|title=The Selection of Ministers Around the World|date=13 August 2014|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=120|isbn=978-1-317-63445-4|access-date=7 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last=Ejaz|first=Noor|url=https://rsilpak.org/2022/the-gilgit-baltistan-constitutional-crisis/|title=The Gilgit Baltistan Constitutional Crisis|year=2022|website=Research Society of International Law|access-date=13 July 2024}}
*<!--Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Malta-->{{cite web|url=https://malta.mid.ru/en/embassy/press-centre/news/press_release_on_the_2022_annual_summit_of_the_shangai_cooperation_organisation/|title=Press Release on the 2022 annual summit of the Shangai Cooperation Organisation|date=19 September 2022|work=Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Malta|access-date=2 August 2024|ref={{harvid|Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Malta|2022}}}}
* {{cite news|last1=Endrst|first1=Jeff|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19650908&id=9wwvAAAAIBAJ&pg=7266,2323319&hl=en|title=Kashmir Old Headache For U.N.|date=8 September 1965|work=[[The Pittsburgh Press]]|access-date=31 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Esposito|editor-first1=John L.|author-link1=John Esposito|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA242|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|date=15 May 2003|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=242|isbn=978-0-19-975726-8|access-date=15 July 2024}}
*<!--Establishment Division-->{{citation|title=A Manual on Appointment, Promotion and Transfer|year=2013|url=https://establishment.gov.pk/userfiles1/file/Appoint%2013-02-2019.pdf|work=[[Establishment Division]]|access-date=9 July 2024|ref={{harvid|Establishment Division|2013}}|archive-date=26 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240826155949/https://establishment.gov.pk/userfiles1/file/Appoint%2013-02-2019.pdf|url-status=dead}}
*<!--Establishment Division-->{{citation|title=Civil Service of Pakistan (Composition and Cadre) Rules, 1954|year=2021|url=https://establishment.gov.pk/SiteImage/Misc/files/CIVIL%20SERVICE%20OF%20PAKISTAN%20(COMPOSITION%20AND%20CADRE)%20RULES%2C%201954(updated).pdf|work=[[Establishment Division]]|access-date=9 July 2024|ref={{harvid|Establishment Division|2021}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Faruqui|first=Ahmad|author-link=Ahmad Faruqui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCCeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT143|title=Rethinking the National Security of Pakistan: The Price of Strategic Myopia|pages=|date=14 June 2019|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-351-76157-4|access-date=27 March 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Fischer-Tahir|editor-first1=Andrea|editor-last2=Naumann|editor-first2=Matthias|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQZHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79|title=Peripheralization: The Making of Spatial Dependencies and Social Injustice|date=12 January 2013|publisher=[[Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden]]|page=79|isbn=978-3-531-19018-1|access-date=26 July 2024}}
* {{cite news|last1=Gabol|first1=Imran|last2=Ali|first2=Imtiaz|title=Pakistan human rights commission alarmed at government withholding ads from some publications|url=https://asianews.network/pakistan-human-rights-commission-alarmed-at-government-withholding-ads-from-some-publications/|work=[[Asia News Network]]|date=6 March 2025|access-date=22 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ganguly|first1=A. K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXLOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT82|title=Kashmir: An Affair of Continued Existence|date=16 May 2019|publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-88161-42-8|access-date=31 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gates|first1=Scott|last2=Roy|first2=Kaushik|author-link1=Scott Gates (academic)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sSXCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|title=Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency|date=17 February 2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=89|isbn=978-1-317-00541-4|access-date=8 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Gerber|editor-first1=Paula|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oRnOEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PT228|title=Worldwide Perspectives on Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals [3 Volumes]|date=26 January 2021|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=979-8-216-16895-9|access-date=21 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Halladay|editor-first1=Carolyn|editor-last2=Matei|editor-first2=Florina Cristiana|editor-last3=Bruneau|editor-first3=Thomas C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InYIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|title=The Routledge Handbook of Civil-Military Relations|date=November 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=53|isbn=978-1-000-47155-7|access-date=24 August 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Hamid|first1=Mairaj ul|last2=Aquil|first2=Saira|last3=Mubarakzeb|last4=Khan|first4=Salman|last5=Zaman|first5=Faisal|last6=Hamza|url=https://www.journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/download/16489/10483|title=Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Abridgement Of Internal And External Determinants|journal=Journal of Positive School Psychology|volume=7|number=4|pages=1089–1098|issn=2717-7564|year=2023|access-date=29 July 2024|ref={{harvid|Hamid et al.|2023}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haqqani|first1=Husain|author-link1=Husain Haqqani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC|title=Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military|publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-87003-285-1|access-date=18 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haqqani|first1=Husain|author-link1=Husain Haqqani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNAiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title=Magnificent Delusions: Pakistan, the United States, and an Epic History of Misunderstanding|pages=20–22|date=5 November 2013|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1-61039-317-1|access-date=20 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=He|first1=Baogang|last2=Breen|first2=Michael G.|last3=Allison-Reumann|first3=Laura|author-link2=Michael Breen (author)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxO8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|title=Comparative Federalism in Asia: Democracy, Ethnicity and Religion|date=23 June 2023|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-90105-4|access-date=4 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hoekman|first1=Bernard M.|last2=Kostecki|first2=M. M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRNwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA285|title=The Political Economy of the World Trading System: The WTO and Beyond|year=2009|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=285|isbn=978-0-19-955377-8|access-date=4 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Hunter|first=Shireen T.|author-link=Shireen Hunter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rIXDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA144|title=Iran's Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order |page=144 |date=20 May 2010 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-0-313-38194-2 |access-date=22 August 2024}}
* {{citation |last=Hussain |first=Faqir |title=The Judicial System of Pakistan |date=May 2015 |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/downloads_judgements/all_downloads/Judicial_System_of_Pakistan/thejudicialsystemofPakistan.pdf |page=8 |website=[[Supreme Court of Pakistan]] |access-date=6 July 2024 |ref={{harvid|F. Hussain|2015}}}}
* {{citation |last=Hussain |first=Syed Asif |title=Azad Jammu & Kashmir at a Glance – 2020 |year=2020 |url=https://pndajk.gov.pk/uploadfiles/downloads/AJK%20At%20A%20Glance-2020.pdf |page=3 |work=Bureau of Statistics, Planning and Development Department, [[Government of Azad Kashmir]] |access-date=26 July 2024}}
*<!--IFES-->{{citation|title=Provincial Assemblies|date=27 March 2013|url=https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/migrate/the_provincial_assembly.pdf|work=[[International Foundation for Electoral Systems]]|access-date=10 July 2024|ref={{harvid|IFES|2013}}}}
*<!--IISS-->{{cite book|author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tmib20/124/1?nav=tocList|title=The Military Balance 2024|date=13 February 2024|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|pages=16, 158, 218, 301–305|isbn=978-1-032-78004-7|access-date=16 September 2024|url-access=subscription|ref={{harvid|IISS|2024}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Imam|first1=Syed Kaleem|last2=Fatima|first2=Samza|author-link1=Syed Kaleem Imam|url=http://www.pjcriminology.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/7.-Significance-of-Road-Safety.pdf|title=Significance of Road Safety: Challenges and Prospects|journal=Pakistan Journal of Criminology|volume=13|number=4|pages=92–109|issn=2074-2738|year=2021|access-date=14 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|author1=Inter-Parliamentary Union|author-link1=Inter-Parliamentary Union|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TIr3VNUgg4C&pg=RA1-PA122|title=Constitutional and Parliamentary Information: Volumes 93–104|year=1973|publisher=[[Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments]]|page=122|access-date=3 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Iqbal|first1=Khurshid|title=The Right to Development in International Law: The Case of Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Wh8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=10 September 2009|page=189|isbn=978-1-134-01999-1|access-date=20 July 2024}}
* {{citation|last1=Izuyama|first1=Marie|last2=Ogawa|first2=Shinichi|title=The Nuclear Policy of India and Pakistan|date=March 2003|url=https://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/publication/kiyo/pdf/bulletin_e2002_3.pdf|work=National Institute for Defense Studies|location=[[Japan]]|access-date=1 August 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Jafri|first1=Mubashar Hasan|last2=Sultana|first2=Summer|last3=Ijaz|first3=Sabir|url=https://www.pjia.com.pk/index.php/pjia/article/download/164/123|title=Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Views on Palestine and Question of Recognizing Israel|journal=Pakistan Journal of International Affairs|volume=4|number=1|pages=727–739|issn=2664-360X|date=29 March 2021|doi=10.58575/pjia.v4i1.164|publisher=Society for Social Sciences & Research Association|location=Karachi, Pakistan|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025|access-date=24 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Jaishankar|editor-first1=K.|editor-link1=Karuppannan Jaishankar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27qmDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PT50|title=Routledge Handbook of South Asian Criminology|date=August 2019|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-30088-8|access-date=27 April 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jan|first1=Faizullah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0p3LCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|title=The Muslim Extremist Discourse: Constructing Us Versus Them|date=12 November 2015|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|page=30|isbn=978-1-4985-2038-6|access-date=22 July 2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Jha |first=U.C. |title=Pakistan Army: Legislator, Judge and Executioner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub2rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18 |publisher=KW Publishers |date=15 August 2016 |access-date=13 July 2024 |isbn=978-93-86288-30-1}}
* {{cite news |last=Kahwaji |first=Riad |title=Saudi-Pakistan defense pact brings new nuclear player to region |url=https://breakingdefense.com/2025/09/saudi-pakistan-defense-pact-brings-new-nuclear-player-to-region/|work=Breaking Defense|date=22 September 2025|access-date=29 September 2025}}
* {{cite book|last=Karat|first=Prakash|author-link=Prakash Karat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSjq_3EyPtMC&pg=PA10|title=Subordinate Ally: The Nuclear Deal and India-US Strategic Relations|page=10|year=2007|publisher=[[LeftWord Books]]|isbn=978-81-87496-73-1|access-date=7 August 2024}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kemal |first=A.R. |author-link=Abdul Razzaq Kemal |url=https://file.pide.org.pk/pdf/psde20AGM/EXPLORING%20PAKISTANS%20REGIONAL%20ECONOMIC%20COOPERATION%20POTENTIAL.pdf|title=Exploring Pakistan's Regional Economic Cooperation Potential |journal=[[The Pakistan Development Review]] |volume=43 |number=4 |pages=313–334 |jstor=41260693 |issn=0030-9729 |date=February 2004 |doi=10.30541/v43i4Ipp.313-334 |publisher=[[Pakistan Institute of Development Economics]] |location=Islamabad |access-date=4 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|author-link=Gilles Kepel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA100|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|year=2006|pages=100–101|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84511-257-8|access-date=5 December 2014}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=Zahid Ali|url=https://www.issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/1339999992_58398784.pdf|title=Military operations in FATA and PATA: implications for Pakistan|journal=Strategic Studies|volume=31/32|number=4/1|pages=129–146|jstor=48527641|issn=1029-0990|year=2012|publisher=[[Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad]]|location=[[Islamabad]]|access-date=18 April 2025|ref={{harvid|ZA Khan|2012}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Khurshid|first1=Tooba|url=https://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/SS_Tooba_Khurshid_No-4_2016.pdf|title=United Nations Security Council Resolutions: Status of the People of Jammu and Kashmir|journal=Strategic Studies|volume=36|number=4|pages=100–122|jstor=48535976|issn=1811-9557|year=2016|publisher=[[Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad]]|access-date=2 September 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kmentt|first1=Alexander|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uR0lEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157|title=The Treaty Prohibiting Nuclear Weapons: How it was Achieved and Why it Matters|date=17 May 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-39348-4|access-date=31 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Kronstadt|first1=K. Alan|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47565|title=Pakistan and U.S.-Pakistan Relations|date=22 May 2023|work=[[Congressional Research Service]]|access-date=5 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kudaisya|first1=Gyanesh|last2=Yong|first2=Tan Tai|author-link1=Gyanesh Kudaisya|author-link2=Tan Tai Yong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPOBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217|title=The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia|date=March 2004|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=217|isbn=978-1-134-44048-1|access-date=29 August 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Kumar|first1=Raksha|title=As Pakistan approaches a crucial election, its media watchdog bans critical voices from TV|url=https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/news/pakistan-approaches-crucial-election-its-media-watchdog-bans-critical-voices-tv|website=[[Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism]]|date=3 October 2023|access-date=22 May 2025}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kureshi|first1=Yasser|last2=Waseem|first2=Zoha|title=The politics of policing in Pakistan: decentralisation of power in a federalised political landscape|journal=[[Commonwealth & Comparative Politics]]|volume=62|number=3|pages=315–338|issn=1743-9094|date=9 October 2024|doi=10.1080/14662043.2024.2397851|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite report|last1=Lalwani|first1=Sameer P.|title=A Threshold Alliance: The China-Pakistan Military Relationship|date=March 2023|url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sr-517_threshold-alliance-china-pakistan-military-relationship.pdf|series=Special Report|issue=517|work=[[United States Institute of Peace]]|access-date=22 October 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307174924/https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/sr-517_threshold-alliance-china-pakistan-military-relationship.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Lansford|editor-first1=Tom|editor-last2=Muller|editor-first2=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d33MfEFXvW8C&pg=PA1102|title=Political Handbook of the World 2012|date=2 April 2012|publisher=[[Sage Publishing]]|page=1102|isbn=978-1-60871-995-2|access-date=22 July 2024}}
* {{cite conference|last1=Lintner|first1=Bertil|author-link1=Bertil Lintner|title=Religious Extremism and Nationalism in Bangladesh|url=https://dkiapcss.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/PagesfromReligiousRadicalismandSecurityinSouthAsiach17.pdf|date=19–22 August 2002|page=418|conference=Religion & Security in South Asia – An International Workshop|work=[[Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies]]|location=[[Honolulu]], Hawaii|access-date=19 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Lodhi|first1=Maleeha|author-link1=Maleeha Lodhi|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1687884|title=Independent foreign policy?|date=2 May 2022|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|access-date=28 July 2024}}
* {{cite conference|url=https://www.cfr.org/event/president-nixons-trip-china-fifty-years-later|title=President Nixon's Trip to China: Fifty Years Later|last1=Lord|first1=Winston|author-link1=Winston Lord|last2=Mastro|first2=Oriana Skylar|author-link2=Oriana Skylar Mastro|last3=Naftali|first3=Timothy|author-link3=Timothy Naftali|last4=Brinkley|first4=Douglas G.|author-link4=Douglas Brinkley|date=25 February 2022|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|conference=Lessons from History|access-date=16 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mahmood|first1=Shaukat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_MlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA132|title=The Constitution of Pakistan|year=1965|publisher=Pakistan Law Times Publications|page=132|access-date=7 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mahmood|first1=Sohail|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qo9pYNLQKK8C&pg=PA77|title=Good Governance Reform Agenda in Pakistan: Current Challenges|year=2007|publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers]]|page=77|isbn=978-1-60021-418-9|access-date=9 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Maizland|first1=Lindsay|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan|title=Pakistan's Role in the Afghanistan War's Outcome|date=19 January 2023|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=27 August 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Marès|first1=Blanche|title=World Press Freedom Index 2025: Over half of world's population in "red zones"|website=[[Reporters Without Borders]]|date=14 May 2025|url=https://rsf.org/en/world-press-freedom-index-2025-over-half-worlds-population-red-zones|access-date=21 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mazzetti|first1=Mark|author-link1=Mark Mazzetti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak09_BVX1wMC&pg=PT34|title=The Way of the Knife: The CIA, a Secret Army, and a War at the Ends of the Earth|date=9 April 2013|publisher=[[Penguin Random House]]|isbn=978-1-101-61794-6|access-date=7 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Flagg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nZeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|title=The Audacious Ascetic: What the Bin Laden Tapes Reveal About Al-Qa'ida|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-061339-6}}
* {{cite web|last1=Mubashar|first1=Laiba|last2=Mir|first2=Muhammad Wasay|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/acid-attacks-pakistans-worst-social-epidemic|title=Acid Attacks: Pakistan's Worst Social Epidemic|date=7 September 2023|website=[[Pulitzer Center]]|access-date=5 January 2026}}
* {{cite book|last=Munir|first=Muhammad|author-link1=Muhammad Munir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6EU-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA78|title=Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Being a Commentary on the Constitution of Pakistan, 1973|date=1975|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=Law Publishing Company|page=78}}
* {{cite book|last1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Vali Reza|author-link1=Vali Nasr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I07ykFUoKTUC&pg=PA45|title=Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism|year=1996|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=45–46|isbn=978-0-19-535711-0|access-date=20 July 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Nazrul Islam|first1=Md|last2=Saidul Islam|first2=Md|title=Islam, Politics and Secularism in Bangladesh: Contesting the Dominant Narratives|journal=[[Social Sciences (MDPI journal)|Social Sciences]]|volume=7|number=3|article-number=37|issn=2076-0760|date=3 March 2018|doi=10.3390/socsci7030037|publisher=[[MDPI]]|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|last1=Nee|first1=Patrick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8YoXOzygzYC&pg=PT11|title=Key Facts on Pakistan: Essential Information on Pakistan|date=12 March 2013|publisher=[[CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform]]|isbn=978-1-4827-5470-4|access-date=25 July 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Noor|first1=Sitara|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2023-10/features/pakistans-evolving-nuclear-doctrine|title=Pakistan's Evolving Nuclear Doctrine|journal=[[Arms Control Today]]|volume=53|pages=26–32|number=8|issn=0196-125X|date=1 October 2023|publisher=[[Arms Control Association]]|access-date=1 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Oberst|first1=Robert C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b0tWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT152|title=Government and Politics in South Asia|date=19 April 2018|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-429-97484-7|access-date=13 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Oetzel|first1=John G.|last2=Ting-Toomey|first2=Stella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XutyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA506|title=The SAGE Handbook of Conflict Communication: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice|date=18 January 2006|publisher=[[SAGE Publishers]]|page=506|isbn=978-1-4522-6163-8|access-date=9 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Oldenburg|editor-first1=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3ekDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48|title=India Briefing, 1991|date=8 April 2019|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-0-429-72264-6|access-date=4 September 2024}}
* {{cite report|last1=Panda|first1=Ankit|title=Pakistan's Approach to Navigating the Saudi-Iranian Split|url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2019-02/pakistans-approach-to-navigating_the-saudi-iranian-split.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311213112/https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2019-02/pakistans-approach-to-navigating_the-saudi-iranian-split.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 March 2019|series=Special Report|issue=439|page=12|date=February 2019|work=[[United States Institute of Peace]]|access-date=22 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pande|first1=Aparna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ceg-kSmft94C|title=Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India|date=16 March 2011|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-136-81894-3|access-date=31 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Pant|first=Harsh V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7MXEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|title=China's Rising Global Profile: The Great Power Tradition|page=31|date=6 October 2011|publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]]|isbn=978-1-83624-059-4|access-date=20 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Pasha|first=Sayed Abdul Muneem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjJuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225|title=Islam in Pakistan's Foreign Policy|pages=225–226|year=2005|publisher=Global Media Publications|isbn=978-81-88869-15-2|access-date=20 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Paul|first=T. V.|date=2012|title=International Relations Theory and Regional Transformation|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-02021-4|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ofzH6pFO9iUC&pg=PA11|access-date=3 February 2017}}
*<!--PBS-->{{citation|title=Table 1: Households, Population, Household Size and Annual Growth Rate|year=2023|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/Pakistan.pdf|publisher=[[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]|access-date=26 July 2024|ref={{harvid|PBS|2023}}}}
* {{cite report|last1=Perito|first1=Robert|last2=Parvez|first2=Tariq|author-link2=Tariq Pervez|title=A Counterterrorism Role for Pakistan's Police Stations|url=https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/wps/usip/0032260/f_0032260_26252.pdf|publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]]|date=August 2024|series=Special Report|issue=351|isbn=978-1-60127-233-1|page=9|access-date=14 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|last1=Picone|first1=Louis L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s4LPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|title=The President Is Dead!: The Extraordinary Stories of Presidential Deaths, Final Days, Burials, and Beyond|page=10|date=4 February 2020|publisher=[[Skyhorse]]|isbn=978-1-5107-5454-6|access-date=5 August 2024}}
*<!--PRC-->{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2011/07/21/chapter-2-how-muslims-and-westerners-view-each-other/|title=Chapter 2. How Muslims and Westerners View Each Other|date=21 July 2011|work=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=22 July 2024|ref={{harvid|PRC|2011}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Qingyan|first=Li|url=https://www.ciis.org.cn/english/COMMENTARIES/202109/t20210908_8122.html|title=China–Pakistan "Iron Brotherhood": 70 Years Hand in Hand|date=8 September 2021|work=[[China Institute of International Studies]]|access-date=6 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Rafiq|editor-first1=Adnan|editor-last2=Ahmad|editor-first2=Ishtiaq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzMlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|title=Pakistan's Democratic Transition: Change and Persistence|date=3 November 2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=174|isbn=978-1-317-23595-8|access-date=6 July 2024}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Raghavan |editor-first=V.R. |editor-link=V.R. Raghavan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_6pCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|title=Conflicts in Jammu and Kashmir: Impact on Polity, Society and Economy|date=9 May 2012|publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited|page=83|isbn=978-93-82573-33-3|access-date=31 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Rajagopalan|first=Rajesh|year=2011|chapter=Pakistan: regional power, global problem?|editor1=Nadine Godehardt|editor2=Dirk Nabers|title=Regional Orders and Regional Powers|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2WrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA193|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-136-71891-5|pages=193–208}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Raju|editor-first=Adluri Subramanyam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1dBEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA30|title=South Asia and China: Engagement in the Twenty-First Century|date=5 October 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-45953-1|access-date=17 August 2024}}
* {{cite web|last=Riedel|first=Bruce|author-link=Bruce Riedel|url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/pakistans-role-in-the-afghanistan-wars-outcome/|title=Pakistan's Role in the Afghanistan War's Outcome|date=20 May 2010|work=[[Brookings Institution]]|access-date=26 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Rimmer|first=Peter J.|author-link=Peter J. Rimmer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozsIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=China's Global Vision and Actions: Reactions to Belt, Road and Beyond|page=61|date=27 November 2020|publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-78897-897-2|access-date=18 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rizvi|first1=Hasan Askari|author-link1=Hasan Askari Rizvi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SiHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|title=Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment: A Study of Foreign Policy|page=84|date=15 January 1993|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan UK]]|isbn=978-0-230-37984-8|access-date=13 April 2025}}
* {{citation|last=Rizvi|first=Hasan Askari|author-link=Hasan Askari Rizvi|url=https://hostnezt.com/cssfiles/currentaffairs/Pakistan%20Foreign%20Policy%201947%20to%202004.pdf|title=Pakistan's Foreign Policy:An Overview 1947–2004|publisher=[[Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency]]|pages=10–12, 20|date=April 2004|access-date=29 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Jeffery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfZtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA134|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan|page=134|date=30 December 2003|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]]|isbn=978-0-275-97878-5|access-date=21 August 2024}}
* {{cite web|last=Roos|first=Dave|url=https://www.history.com/news/nixon-china-visit-cold-war|title=How Nixon's 1972 Visit to China Changed the Balance of Cold War Power|date=22 February 2024|publisher=[[History Channel]]|access-date=14 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Rose|editor-first1=Leo E.|editor-last2=Husain|editor-first2=Noor A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V5F1AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA209|title=United States-Pakistan Relations|year=1985|publisher=Institute of East Asian Studies, [[University of California]]|page=209|isbn=978-0-912966-78-6|access-date=24 August 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last=Rupert|first=James|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209132|title=Afghanistan's Slide toward Civil War|journal=[[World Policy Journal]]|volume=6|number=4|pages=759–785|jstor=40209132|issn=0740-2775|date=Fall 1989|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|access-date=30 November 2024}}
* {{cite news|last=Saeed|first=Aamir|title=Experts divided over effectiveness of Pakistan's new intelligence coordination committee|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1882716/pakistan|work=[[Arab News]]|date=24 June 2021|access-date=16 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|last=Schuurmans|first=Laura|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pki9EAAAQBAJ|title=Azaadi, Freedom and Change in Kashmir|year=2023|publisher=Arena Books|isbn=978-1-914390-10-4|access-date=12 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Schwinghammer|first=Torsten|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpRXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT327|title=Warfare Since the Second World War|date=24 April 2018|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-351-28970-2|access-date=13 August 2024}}
*<!--Senate of Pakistan-->{{citation|title=The Constitution of The Islamic Republic of Pakistan|date=31 May 2018|url=https://senate.gov.pk/uploads/documents/Constitution%20of%20Pakistan%20(25th%20amendment%20incoporated).pdf|page=57|website=[[Senate of Pakistan]]|access-date=10 July 2024|ref={{harvid|Senate of Pakistan|2018}}|archive-date=10 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710035948/https://senate.gov.pk/uploads/documents/Constitution%20of%20Pakistan%20(25th%20amendment%20incoporated).pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|last1=Shah|first1=Mehtab Ali|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTUyzAEACAAJ|title=The Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Ethnic Impacts on Diplomacy, 1971–94|date=31 December 1997|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]]|isbn=978-1-86064-169-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Shih|first1=Chih-yu|author-link1=Chih-yu Shih|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VElbEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66|title=Post-Chineseness: Cultural Politics and International Relations|date=April 2022|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=978-1-4384-8772-4|access-date=19 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Singh|editor-first1=Harshita|editor-last2=Lee|editor-first2=Jae-Seung|editor-last3=Roh|editor-first3=Myunghoon|editor-last4=Dhamija|editor-first4=Somesh|editor-last5=Yadav|editor-first5=Tarun Pratap|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9w2EQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Global Law, Human Rights, and Intersections with Honor Killing|page=85|date=2 December 2024|publisher=[[IGI Global]]|isbn=979-8-3693-9598-1|access-date=2 January 2026|ref={{harvid|Singh et al.|2024}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Solomon|first=Hussein|date=May 1997|title=South African Foreign Policy and Middle Power Leadership|url=http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No13/Solomon.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020624231948/http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No13/Solomon.html|archive-date=24 June 2002|access-date=27 December 2011}}
* {{cite book|last=Sprague|first=Stanley B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzUGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|title=Pakistan Since Independence: A History, 1947 to Today|page=29|date=12 November 2020|publisher=[[McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers]]|isbn=978-1-4766-8151-1|access-date=19 May 2025}}
* {{cite web|last=Stewart|first=Richard W.|title=The United States Army in Somalia, 1992–1994|url=https://www.history.army.mil/brochures/somalia/somalia.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214152654/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/Somalia/Somalia.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 December 2007|publisher=[[U.S. Army Center of Military History]]|page=19|date=2002|id=CMH Pub 70-81-1|access-date=29 December 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stewart-Ingersoll|first1=Robert|last2=Frazier|first2=Derrick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OW6OoFvV42AC&pg=PA217|title=Regional Powers and Security Orders: A Theoretical Framework|date=23 May 2012|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=217|isbn=978-1-136-64497-9|access-date=30 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stone|first1=Lester B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FXLOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT140|title=War and the Market Economy|date=February 2017|publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-86834-41-6|access-date=31 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Syed|editor-first1=Jawad|editor-last2=Pio|editor-first2=Edwina|editor-last3=Kamran|editor-first3=Tahir|editor-last4=Zaidi|editor-first4=Abbas|editor-link2=Edwina Pio|editor-link3=Tahir Kamran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Mx5DQAAQBAJ|title=Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2016|isbn=978-1-349-94966-3|access-date=21 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT205|title=The History of British Diplomacy in Pakistan|date=28 December 2020|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-32670-3|access-date=24 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Tertrais|editor-first1=Bruno|editor-last2=Sokolski|editor-first2=Henry D.|editor-link2=Henry D. Sokolski|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMtky-3hX6EC&pg=PA145|title=Nuclear Weapons Security Crises: What Does History Teach?|year=2013|publisher=[[Strategic Studies Institute]] and [[United States Army War College|U. S. Army War College Press]]|pages=145–188|isbn=978-1-58487-574-1|access-date=4 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Tin|editor-first1=Louis-Georges|editor-link1=Louis-Georges Tin|translator-last1=Redburn|translator-first1=Marek|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aK02DwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT371|title=The Dictionary of Homophobia: A Global History of Gay & Lesbian Experience|date=November 2008|publisher=[[Arsenal Pulp Press]]|isbn=978-1-55152-314-9|access-date=12 June 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Turner|editor-first1=B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HE7ODQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1236|title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2000|date=28 December 2016|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan UK]]|page=1236|isbn=978-0-230-27128-9|access-date=4 August 2024}}
*<!--UN-->{{citation|title=Uniformed Personnel Contributing Countries by Ranking|date=4 April 2023|url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/02_country_ranking_59_february_2023.pdf|website=[[United Nations Peacekeeping]]|access-date=11 February 2025|ref={{harvid|UN|2023}}}}
* {{cite web|author=UN Women|author-link=UN Women|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/feature-story/2024/11/breaking-tradition-to-end-child-marriage-in-pakistans-remote-village|title=Breaking tradition to end child marriage in Pakistan's remote village|date=13 November 2024|publisher=[[UN Women]]|access-date=7 January 2026}}
* {{cite web|last1=Vandamme|first1=Dorothee|date=August 2014|title="Pakistan and Saudi Arabia: Towards Greater Independence in their Afghan Foreign Policy"|url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/downloader/downloader.php?pid=boreal%3A180961&datastream=PDF_01&disclaimer=f0803a73d3d99903e058788b0845d39f9edf476c234aeb6ad3791b5875fa57bd|publisher=[[Université catholique de Louvain]]|access-date=16 November 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=van Tonder|first=Gerry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrTNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT82|title=Sino-Indian War: Border Clash: October–November 1962|date=30 July 2018|publisher=[[Pen & Sword Books]]|isbn=978-1-5267-2838-8|access-date=12 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Visoka|editor-first1=Gëzim|editor-last2=Richmond|editor-first2=Oliver P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305|title=The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies|date=21 June 2022|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|page=305|isbn=978-3-030-77954-2|access-date=27 August 2024}}
* {{cite web|author=Walk Free|author-link=Walk Free|url=https://www.walkfree.org/news/2025/pakistan-takes-step-to-end-child-marriage-as-calls-grow-for-national-reform/|title=Pakistan takes step to end child marriage as calls grow for national reform|date=13 June 2025|publisher=[[Walk Free]]|access-date=7 January 2026}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Wasi|first1=Nausheen|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394104|title=Pakistan and the United Nations|journal=[[Pakistan Horizon]]|volume=58|number=3|pages=89–100|jstor=41394104|issn=0030-980X|date=July 2005|publisher=[[Pakistan Institute of International Affairs]]|location=[[Karachi]]|access-date=3 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wasti|first1=Tahir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8qwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA248|title=The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan: Sharia in Practice|date=28 February 2009|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|page=248|isbn=978-90-474-2572-4|access-date=25 July 2024}}
* {{citation|last1=Wezeman|first1=Pieter D.|last2=Djokic|first2=Katarina|last3=George|first3=Mathew|last4=Hussain|first4=Zain|last5=Wezeman|first5=Siemon T.|title=Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023|date=March 2024|url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-03/fs_2403_at_2023.pdf|work=[[SIPRI]]|access-date=8 November 2024|ref={{harvid|Wezeman et al.|2024}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Wiebes|first=Cees|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TINpAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA195|title=Intelligence and the War in Bosnia, 1992–1995: Volume 1 of Studies in intelligence history|publisher=[[LIT Verlag]]|year=2003|isbn=978-3-8258-6347-0|page=195}}
* {{cite journal|last=Withington|first=Thomas|url=https://raf.mod.uk/what-we-do/centre-for-air-and-space-power-studies/aspr/apr-vol8-iss1-7-pdf/|title=The Experiences of the Soviet Air Force in Afghanistan 1979-1989|journal=Air and Space Power Review|volume=8|number=1|pages=115–128|issn=2634-0976|date=Autumn 2005|publisher=[[Royal Air Force]]|access-date=4 December 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Wolf|first=Siegfried O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUeeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214|title=The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative: Concept, Context and Assessment|page=214|date=20 June 2019|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|isbn=978-3-030-16198-9|access-date=15 May 2025}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Wu|editor-first1=Chin-en|editor-last2=Bandyopadhyay|editor-first2=Kaustuv Kanti|editor-last3=Lee|editor-first3=Sook Jong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kI8cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA82|title=Populism in Asian Democracies: Features, Structures, and Impacts|date=11 January 2021|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|page=82|isbn=978-90-04-44446-1|access-date=10 July 2024}}
* {{cite web|last1=Yadav|first1=Abhishek|url=https://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/Turkiye-Pakistan-Defence-Cooperation-AYadav-090224|title=Turkiye–Pakistan Defence Cooperation: Evolving Dynamics|date=9 February 2024|work=[[Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses]]|access-date=23 October 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Yousafzai|first=Zafar Iqbal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8z1KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT108|title=The Troubled Triangle: US-Pakistan Relations Under the Taliban's Shadow|pages=|date=7 December 2021|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-000-51596-1|access-date=9 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Zahoor|editor-first1=Bilal|editor-last2=Rumi|editor-first2=Raza|editor-link2=Raza Rumi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxD8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA221|title=Rethinking Pakistan: A 21st Century Perspective|date=23 September 2020|publisher=Anthem Press|page=221|isbn=978-1-78527-493-0|access-date=30 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Zahra|editor-first1=Abiha|editor-last2=Bouckaert|editor-first2=Geert|editor-last3=Jadoon|editor-first3=Muhammad Zafar Iqbal|editor-last4=Jabeen|editor-first4=Nasira|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4J0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|title=Public Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Hierarchies, Markets and Networks|page=43|date=10 June 2022|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|isbn=978-3-030-96825-0|access-date=3 August 2024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zaidi|first1=Syed Muhammad Saad|last2=Ahmad|first2=Azhar|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/20578911211007936|title=From friend to foe: Post-9/11 Pakistan–US relations; a realist perspective|journal=Asian Journal of Comparative Politics|volume=7|number=4|pages=727–743|issn=2057-8911|date=12 April 2021|doi=10.1177/20578911211007936|publisher=[[Sage Journals]]|access-date=8 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last=Zelnick|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Zelnick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie9wvGsKyJYC&pg=PA126|title=Israel's Unilateralism: Beyond Gaza|page=126|date=September 2013|publisher=[[Hoover Institution Press]]|isbn=978-0-8179-4773-6|access-date=9 August 2024}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ziegfeld|first1=Adam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0vLCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT414|title=Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System|date=19 February 2016|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-316-53900-2|access-date=21 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Zierke|editor-first1=Niklas|editor-last2=Stockmann|editor-first2=Reinhard|editor-last3=Meyer|editor-first3=Wolfgang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOrkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA274|title=The Institutionalisation of Evaluation in Asia-Pacific|date=21 November 2023|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|page=274|isbn=978-3-031-36918-6|access-date=8 July 2024}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Zreik|editor-first1=Mohamad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVj_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|title=Soft Power and Diplomatic Strategies in Asia and the Middle East|year=2024|publisher=IGI Global|page=209|isbn=979-8-3693-2445-5|access-date=18 August 2024}}
{{refend}}

===Economy===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news|last1=Abbas|first1=Waheed|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/uae/pakistanis-uae-continue-using-home-country-sims-without-blocking|title=Pakistanis in UAE can continue using their home country SIMs without blocking|newspaper=[[Khaleej Times]]|date=26 January 2026|access-date=1 March 2026}}
*<!--ADB-->{{cite web|title=Economic forecasts for Pakistan|url=https://www.adb.org/where-we-work/pakistan/economy|website=[[Asian Development Bank]]|date=September 2025|access-date=13 December 2025|ref={{harvid|ADB|2025a}}}}
*<!--ADB-->{{cite news|url=https://www.adb.org/news/adb-approves-financing-transformative-reko-diq-copper-mining-project-pakistan|title=ADB Approves Financing for Transformative Reko Diq Copper Mining Project in Pakistan|work=[[Asian Development Bank]]|date=22 August 2025|access-date=8 April 2026 |ref={{harvid|ADB|2025b}}}}
* {{cite news|last1=Ahmad|first1=Mansoor|title=From leader to laggard: The decline of Pakistan's middle class|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1236843-from-leader-to-laggard-the-decline-of-pakistan-s-middle-class|newspaper=[[The News International]]|date=5 October 2024|access-date=12 December 2025}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Burki|first1=Shahid Javed|last2=Teekah|first2=Ethan|last3=Ziring|first3=Lawrence|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan/Economy|date=25 May 2026|title=Economy of Pakistan|encyclopedia=[[Britannica.com]]|access-date=28 May 2026}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Comim|editor-first1=Flavio|editor-last2=Anand|editor-first2=P. B.|editor-last3=Fennell|editor-first3=Shailaja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nL4cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1080|title=Handbook of BRICS and Emerging Economies|year=2021|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=1080|isbn=978-0-19-882753-5|access-date=31 October 2025}}
* {{cite web|last1=Conte|first1=Niccolo|title=Ranked: The World's 20 Largest Labor Forces, by Country|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/ranked-the-worlds-20-largest-labor-forces-by-country/|website=Visual Capitalist|date=17 October 2025|access-date=28 February 2026}}
*<!--Dawn-->{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/486315|title=Initiating Thar coal project|newspaper=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=25 August 2009|access-date=5 April 2026|ref={{harvid|Dawn|2009b}}}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Henneberry|first1=Shida Rastegari|last2=Khan|first2=Muhhamad Ehsan|last3=Piewthongngam|first3=Kullapapruk|title=An analysis of industrial–agricultural interactions: A case study in Pakistan|url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/175305/files/agec2000v022i001a002.pdf|journal=[[Agricultural Economics]]|volume=22|pages=17–27|year=2000|doi=10.1016/S0169-5150(99)00041-9|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025|issn=0169-5150}}
*<!--IMF-->{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0pbMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|title=Pakistan: Request for a Stand-by Arrangement-Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Statement; and Statement by the Executive Director for Pakistan|date=18 July 2023|access-date=30 April 2024|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|page=54|isbn=979-8-4002-4851-1|ref={{harvid|IMF|2023}}}}
*<!--IMF (datasets)-->{{cite web|title=Pakistan: Datasets|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/PAK|website=[[IMF]]|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=April 2026|access-date=10 May 2026|ref={{harvid|IMF (datasets)|2026}}}}
*<!--IMF (nom)-->{{cite web|title=GDP, current prices Billions of U.S. dollars|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/PAK|website=[[IMF]]|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=October 2025|access-date=21 December 2025|ref={{harvid|IMF (nom)|2025}}}}
*<!--IMF (nom per capita)-->{{cite web|title=GDP per capita, current prices U.S. dollars per capita|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/PAK|website=[[IMF]]|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=October 2025|access-date=21 December 2025|ref={{harvid|IMF (nom per capita)|2025}}}}
*<!--IMF (PPP)-->{{cite web|title=GDP, current prices Purchasing power parity; billions of international dollars|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/PAK|website=[[IMF]]|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=April 2026|access-date=24 April 2026|ref={{harvid|IMF (PPP)|2026}}}}
*<!--IMF (PPP per capita)-->{{cite web|title=GDP per capita, current prices Purchasing power parity; international dollars per capita|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPPC@WEO/PAK|website=[[IMF]]|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|date=April 2026|access-date=24 April 2026|ref={{harvid|IMF (PPP per capita)|2026}}}}
* {{cite report|last1=Iqbal|first1=Nasir|title=The Poverty Illusion: When Numbers Distort Reality|institution=[[Pakistan Institute of Development Economics]]|series=PIDE Knowledge Brief|number=132|date=June 2025|url=https://pide.org.pk/research/the-poverty-illusion-when-numbers-distort-reality/|access-date=11 December 2025}}
* {{cite news|last1=Kiani|first1=Khaleeq|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1900381|title=Study confirms over $60bn copper and gold reserves at Reko Diq|newspaper=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=26 March 2025|access-date=8 April 2026}}
* {{cite book|last1=Maddison|first1=Angus|author-link1=Angus Maddison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeoEiNLtrLsC&pg=PA241|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy: Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|pages=241, 261|date=18 September 2006|publisher=[[OECD Publishing]]|isbn=978-92-64-02261-4|access-date=22 July 2025}}
*<!--Mining.com-->{{cite news|url=https://www.mining.com/barrick-warns-of-significant-increases-to-budget-timeline-for-pakistan-copper-project/|title=Barrick warns of 'significant increases' to budget, timeline for Pakistan copper project|work=[[Mining.com]]|date=2 April 2026|access-date=8 April 2026|ref={{harvid|Mining.com|2026}}}}
*<!--OEC-->{{cite web|title=Pakistan|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/pak|website=[[The Atlas of Economic Complexity#The Observatory of Economic Complexity (platform)|Observatory of Economic Complexity]]|publisher=Datawheel|year=2023|access-date=24 November 2025|ref={{harvid|OEC|2023}}}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Pasillas|editor-first1=Marcela Ramírez|editor-last2=Brundin|editor-first2=Ethel|editor-last3=Markowska|editor-first3=Magdalena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3pHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133|title=Contextualizing Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies and Developing Countries|date=31 March 2017|publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]]|page=133|isbn=978-1-78536-753-3|access-date=29 July 2025}}
* {{cite magazine|last1=Runde|first1=Daniel|author-link1=Daniel FitzGerald Runde|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrunde/2016/02/29/us-higher-education-partnership-development-pakistan/|title=How U.S. Higher Education Partnerships Can Promote Development In Pakistan|magazine=[[Forbes]]|date=1 March 2016|access-date=24 April 2026}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Sharif|first1=Shahzad|last2=Javed|first2=M. Siddique|last3=Abbas|first3=Azhar|last4=Hassan|first4=Sarfraz|url=https://file.pide.org.pk/pdfpdr/2008/547-563.pdf|title=Impact of WTO's Trade Liberalisation on Selected Food Crops in Pakistan|journal=[[The Pakistan Development Review]]|volume=47|number=4, Part II|pages=547–563|issn=0030-9729|date=Winter 2008|doi=10.30541/v47i4IIpp.547-563|publisher=[[Pakistan Institute of Development Economics]]|location=[[Islamabad]]|jstor=41261240|access-date=27 February 2026}}
* {{cite report|last1=Shorrocks|first1=Anthony|last2=Davies|first2=James B.|last3=Lluberas|first3=Rodrigo|last4=Waldenström|first4=Daniel|author-link1=Anthony Shorrocks|author-link4=Daniel Waldenström|title=Global Wealth Databook 2023|publisher=Credit Suisse Research Institute|year=2023|url=https://bibbase.org/network/publication/shorrocks-davies-lluberas-waldenstrm-globalwealthdatabook2023-2023|page=23|access-date=15 July 2025}}
*<!--SIFC-->{{cite web|title=PM pleased as remittances rise by 26.6pc to hit record $38.3bn in FY25|url=https://sifc.gov.pk/news/641|website=[[Special Investment Facilitation Council]]|publisher=[[Special Investment Facilitation Council]]|date=9 July 2025|access-date=2 March 2026|ref={{harvid|SIFC|2025}}}}
* {{cite web|author=The Global Economy|url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Pakistan/share_world_exports|title=Pakistan: Percent of world exports|year=2023|publisher=The Global Economy|access-date=4 March 2026}}
*<!--UNDP-->{{cite web|title=Human Development Insights|url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/PAK|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|year=2025|access-date=12 May 2025|ref={{harvid|UNDP|2025}}}}

*<!--USDA-->{{cite web|title=Production - Wheat|url=https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/production/0410000|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]], [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]|year=2026|access-date=28 May 2026|ref={{harvid|USDA|2026}}}}
*<!--WEF-->{{cite report|title=Global Gender Gap Report 2025|date=June 2025|url=https://reports.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2025.pdf|series=Insight Report|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|access-date=13 December 2025|isbn=978-2-940631-89-6|ref={{harvid|WEF|2025}}}}
*<!--World Bank (LFPR)-->{{cite web|title=Labor force participation rate, total (% of total population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) - Pakistan|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.ZS?locations=PK|website=World Bank Data|publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2025|access-date=15 July 2025|ref={{harvid|World Bank (LFPR)|2025}}}}
*<!--World Bank (TED)-->{{cite web|title=International Debt Statistics|url=https://datatopics.worldbank.org/debt/ids/country/PAK|website=World Bank Data|publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2024|access-date=15 July 2025|ref={{harvid|World Bank (TED)|2024}}}}
*<!--World Bank (WITS)-->{{cite web|url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/PAK/Year/LTST/Summary|title=Pakistan Trade Summary 2023 Data|publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2025|access-date=24 November 2025|ref={{harvid|World Bank (WITS)|2025}}}}

{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Allchin |first1=F. Raymond |author-link1=Raymond Allchin |title=The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan |journal=Studies in the History of Art |date=1993 |volume=31 |pages=69–81 |jstor=42620473}}
* {{cite book |title=Pakistan: A Hard Country |date=2012 |last=Lieven |first=Anatol |publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-61039-145-0}}
* {{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Pakistan |date=2006 |last=Malik |first=Hafeez |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-597735-6|ref={{harvid|H. Malik|2006}}}}
* {{cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia) |date=2005 |last=Malik |first=Iftikhar |publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0-313-33126-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009 |date=2011 |last=McCartney |first=Matthew |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-57747-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity |date=2010 |last=Raja |first=Masood Ashraf |author-link=Masood Ashraf Raja|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-547811-2}}
* {{cite book |title=India, Pakistan and the West |date=2007 |last=Spear |first=Percival |author-link=Percival Spear|publisher=Read Books Publishers|isbn=978-1-4067-1215-5}}
* {{cite book |title=Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis: Addressing Real World Issues |date=1 January 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgiDiR1QQHQC&pg=PA44 |last1=Stimson |first1=Robert |last2=Haynes |first2=Kingsley E. |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-78100-796-9}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Pakistan|d=Q843}}

=== Government ===
* {{Official website|http://www.pakistan.gov.pk}}
* [https://pid.gov.pk/ Press Information Department] –  Ministry of Information and Broadcasting

=== General information ===
* {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Pakistan}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120829212601/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/pakistan.htm Pakistan] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12965779 Pakistan] from [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Pakistan}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/IFs/frm_CountryProfile/PK Key Development Forecasts for Pakistan] from [[International Futures]]
* {{OSM relation|307573}}

{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Navboxes top}}
{{List of districts of Pakistan |all}}
{{Administrative units of Pakistan|state=collapsed}}
{{South Asian topics}}
{{Countries bordering the Arabian Sea}}
{{Economic Cooperation Organization}}
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}}
{{D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation}}
{{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|state=collapsed}}
{{The Commonwealth|state=collapsed}}
{{World Constitutional Convention call signatories}}
{{Navboxes bottom}}
{{#invoke:Authority control|authorityControl}}

{{#invoke:coordinates|coord|30|N|70|E|type:country_region:PK|display=title}}

[[Category:Pakistan| ]]<!--Please leave the empty space as standard.-->
[[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]]
[[Category:Federal republics]]
[[Category:Islamic republics]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Countries in South Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1947]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where Urdu is an official language]]
[[Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories]]