View source for Persian Gulf

{{Short description|Mediterranean sea in West Asia}}
{{About|the body of water|other uses|Persian Gulf (disambiguation)|and|Arabian Gulf (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect2|Gulf Region|Sinus Persicus|the region in Australia|Gulf Country|the journal|Sinus Persicus (journal)}}{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
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{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Persian Gulf
| image              = PersianGulf vue satellite du golfe persique.jpg
| caption            = The Persian Gulf from space
| image_bathymetry   = 
| caption_bathymetry = 
| location           = [[West Asia]]
| coords             = {{Coord|26|N|52|E|type:waterbody_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| type               = [[Gulf]]
| inflow             = [[Gulf of Oman]], [[Shatt al-Arab]]
| outflow            = 
| catchment          = 
| basin_countries    = [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Oman]] ([[Musandam Governorate|exclave of Musandam]])
| length             = {{convert|989|km|abbr=on}}
| area               = {{convert|251000|km2|abbr=on}}
| depth              = {{convert|50|m|abbr=on}}
| max-depth          = {{convert|90|m|abbr=on}}
| volume             = {{cvt|8780|km3|cumi|-2}}
| other_name         = 
|mapframe=yes
|mapframe-zoom=3
}}

[[File:ISS-63 Persian Gulf at night.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Persian Gulf at night from the [[International Space Station|ISS]], 2020.]]

The '''Persian Gulf''',{{efn|{{langx|fa|خلیج فارس|translit=Xalīj-i Fârs}}, {{IPA|fa|xæˈliːdʒ e ˈfɒːɹs|pron}}, {{langx|ar|الخليج الفارسي}} }} <!--DO NOT CHANGE OR DELETE THIS WORDING WITHOUT GETTING CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE FIRST. IT WAS AGREED THROUGH AN RFC. SEE TALK ARCHIVE 8 [[Talk:Persian Gulf/Archive 8#Adding the name Arabian Gulf in Lead]] FOR DETAILS-->sometimes called the '''Arabian Gulf''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|الخليج العربي|al-Khalīj al-ˁArabiyy}}, {{IPA|ar|al.xaˈliːdʒ al.ʕaraˈbijj, - alˈʕarabiː|pron}}.}}<!--DO NOT CHANGE OR DELETE THIS WORDING WITHOUT GETTING CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE FIRST. IT WAS AGREED THROUGH AN RFC. SEE TALK ARCHIVE 8 [[Talk:Persian Gulf/Archive 8#Adding the name Arabian Gulf in Lead]] FOR DETAILS--> is a [[mediterranean seas|mediterranean sea]] in [[West Asia]]. The [[body of water]] is an extension of the [[Arabian Sea]] and the larger [[Indian Ocean]] located between the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[Iran]] (Persia).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Persian Gulf summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Persian-Gulf |access-date=22 February 2025 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="unstats.un.org">United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf Working Paper No. 61] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003154349/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf |date=3 October 2012 }}, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed 9 October 2010</ref> It is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The [[river delta]] of the [[Shatt al-Arab]] forms the north-west shoreline.

The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive [[reef]]s (mostly rocky, but also [[Coral reef|coral]]), and abundant [[pearl oyster]]s; however, its [[ecology]] has been damaged by industrialization and [[oil spill]]s.

The Persian Gulf is in the [[Persian Gulf Basin]], which is of [[Cenozoic]] origin and related to the [[subduction]] of the [[Arabian plate]] under the [[Zagros Mountains]].<ref>A Brief Tectonic History of the Arabian basin. Retrieved from the website: http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=133 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917004218/http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=133 |date=17 September 2018 }}</ref> The current [[Outburst flood|flooding of the basin]] started 15,000 years ago due to [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] of the [[Holocene glacial retreat]].<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|1779560557}} |title=Coral bleaching; A hot survivor |newspaper=The Economist |volume=419 |issue=8984 |date=9 April 2016 |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2016/04/09/a-hot-survivor |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Geography==
{{See also|Southern Iran|Eastern Arabia|Arab states of the Persian Gulf}}

The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".{{sfn|IHO|1953|p={{pn|date=October 2025}}}}

This inland sea of some {{convert|251000|km²|0|abbr=out}} is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. Its western end is marked by the major [[river delta]] of the [[Shatt al-Arab]], which carries the waters of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]]. In [[Iran]], this is called "Arvand Rud" ({{lit|Swift River}}). 

Its length is {{convert|989|km|0|abbr=off}}, with Iran covering most of the northern coast and [[Saudi Arabia]] most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about {{convert|56|km|0|abbr=on}} wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of {{convert|90|m|0|abbr=off}} and an average depth of {{convert|50|m|0|abbr=off}}.

Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from north): Iran; [[Oman]]'s [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam exclave]]; the [[United Arab Emirates]]; Saudi Arabia; [[Qatar]], on a [[peninsula]] off the Saudi coast; [[Bahrain]], an island nation; [[Kuwait]]; and [[Iraq]] in the northwest. [[List of islands in the Persian Gulf|Various small islands]] also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of [[Territorial disputes in the Persian Gulf|territorial disputes]] between the states in the region.

===Exclusive economic zone===
[[Exclusive economic zone]]s in the Persian Gulf:<ref>{{Cite web|title=EEZ|url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez|access-date=25 February 2021|website=www.seaaroundus.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Catches by Taxon in the waters of Oman (Musandam)|url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/911?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10|access-date=25 February 2021|website=www.seaaroundus.org}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
!width=75|Number
!width=250|Country
!width=100|Area (km<sup>2</sup>)
|-
| align=center|1 || '''{{IRI}}''' || align=center|97,860
|-
| align=center|2 || '''{{UAE}}''' || align=center|52,455 
|-
| align=center|3 || '''{{KSA}}''' || align=center|33,792
|-
| align=center|4 || '''{{QAT}}''' || align=center|31,819
|-
| align=center|5 || '''{{KUW}}''' || align=center|11,786
|-
| align=center|6 || '''{{BHR}}''' || align=center|8,826
|-
| align=center|7 || '''{{OMA}}''' || align=center|3,678
|-
| align=center|8 || '''{{IRQ}}''' || align=center|540
|- style="background:#9acdff;"
!Total
|'''Persian Gulf''' || align=center|'''240,756''' 
|}

===Coastlines===
Countries by [[coastline length]]:{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
!width=75|Number
!width=250|Country
!width=100|Length (km)
|-
| align=center|1 || '''{{IRI}}''' || align=center|1,536
|-
| align=center|2 || '''{{KSA}}''' || align=center|1,300
|-
| align=center|3 || '''{{UAE}}''' || align=center|900
|-
| align=center|4 || '''{{QAT}}''' || align=center|563
|-
| align=center|5 || '''{{KUW}}''' || align=center|499
|-
| align=center|6 || '''{{BHR}}''' || align=center|161
|-
| align=center|7 || '''{{OMA}}''' || align=center|100
|-
| align=center|8 || '''{{IRQ}}''' || align=center|58
|- style="background:#9acdff;"
!Total
|'''Persian Gulf''' || align=center|'''5,117''' 
|}

=== Islands ===
{{See also|List of islands in the Persian Gulf}}
[[File:Durrat Al Bahrain, Persian Gulf (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Durrat Al Bahrain]] from [[ISS]], 2011]]

The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf is [[Qeshm island]], belonging to Iran and located in the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf include [[Greater Tunb]], [[Lesser Tunb]] and [[Kish Island|Kish]] administered by Iran, [[Bubiyan Island|Bubiyan]] administered by Kuwait, [[Tarout]] administered by Saudi Arabia, and [[Dalma (island)|Dalma]] administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been the addition of [[artificial island]]s for [[tourist attraction]]s, such as [[The World Islands]] in [[Dubai]] and [[The Pearl Island]] in [[Doha]]. Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in the past by colonial powers such as the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and the [[British Empire|British]] in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramerini|first=Marco|title=Portuguese in the Arabia and the Persian Gulf|url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/eng/asia/persian_gulf/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911015234/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/portuguese-persian-gulf-arabian-peninsula/|archive-date=11 September 2015|access-date=27 November 2010}}</ref>

== Oceanography ==
The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be {{convert|2000|m3}} per second), as well as precipitation over the sea which is around {{convert|180|mm|in|abbr=on}}/year in [[Qeshm Island]]. The evaporation rate is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there is still a deficit of {{convert|416|km3}} per year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pous|first1=Stéphane|last2=Lazure|first2=Pascal|last3=Carton|first3=Xavier|title=A model of the general circulation in the Persian Gulf and in the Strait of Hormuz: Intraseasonal to interannual variability|journal=Continental Shelf Research|volume=94|pages=55–70|doi=10.1016/j.csr.2014.12.008|year=2015|url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00244/35563/|bibcode=2015CSR....94...55P}}</ref> 

This difference is supplied by currents at the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from the bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –{{convert|1.84|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, precipitation = {{convert|0.08|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, inflow from the Strait = {{convert|33.66|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, outflow from the Strait = -{{convert|32.11|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, and the balance is 0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft)/year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xue |first1=Pengfei |last2=Eltahir |first2=Elfatih A. B. |title=Estimation of the Heat and Water Budgets of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf Using a Regional Climate Model |journal=Journal of Climate |date=July 2015 |volume=28 |issue=13 |pages=5041–5062 |doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00189.1 |bibcode=2015JCli...28.5041X }}</ref> Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of {{convert|3|km}} and depth each element equal to {{convert|1|–|10|m|ft}} are predominantly used in computer models.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

==Name==
===Historical names===
[[File:Persian Gulf map.png|upright=1.35|thumb|A map of the Persian Gulf. The [[Gulf of Oman]] leads to the [[Arabian Sea]]. Detail from [[:File:MiddleEast.png|larger map of the Middle East]].]]
Before the adoption of the current name, the Persian Gulf was known by other names. The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] called it the "Bitter Sea".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bagg |first1=Ariel M. |title=The unconquerable country: the Babylonian marshes in the Neo-Assyrian sources |journal=Water History |date=March 2020 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57–73 |doi=10.1007/s12685-020-00245-5 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020WatHi..12...57B }}</ref> In 550 BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire]] established the first ancient empire in [[Persis]] (''Pars'', or modern ''[[Fars province|Fars]]'', also known as Persia), in the southwestern region of the [[Iranian plateau]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Touraj Daryaee |title=The Persian Gulf Trade in Late Antiquity |journal=Journal of World History |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=2003 |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.1/daryaee.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805010657/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.1/daryaee.html |archive-date=5 August 2013}}</ref> Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://japan.mfa.gov.ir/en/newsview/536034| title = Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the eternal heritage ancient time by Dr.Mohammad Ajam<!-- -->}}</ref> In the book of [[Nearchus]] known as ''Indikê'' (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned multiple times referring to the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nearchus |title=The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates |journal=The Voyage of Nearchus |volume=1|issue=1 |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TyHAnAEACAAJ }}</ref>

In 550–330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the region, the name "Persian (''Pars'') Sea" appears frequently in written texts.<ref name="unstats.un.org"/>

An inscription and engraving of [[Darius the Great]], dating to the fifth century BC states:<ref name="unstats.un.org"/> King Darius says:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dz/|title=DZ – Livius|website=www.livius.org|access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=I ordered to dig this ([[Canal of the Pharaohs]]) canal from the river that is called Nile (''Pirâva'') and flows in Egypt (''Mudrâyâ''), to the sea that begins in Persia (''Pârsa''). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended.|sign=Darius I|source=[[Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions]]}}

In the Persian [[Sasanian Empire]] (224–651 AD), the Persian Gulf was called ''Pūdīg'', which comes from {{Langx|ae|Pūitika|lit=cleansing}}, a name mentioned in [[Bundahishn]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=8 March 2023 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref>


===Modern naming dispute===
{{Main|Persian Gulf naming dispute}}
[[File:Persian-gulf-dubai-mus.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|A historical map of the Persian Gulf in [[Sheikh Saeed House|a Dubai museum]] with the word ''Persian'' censured <ref>{{cite web|title=Gulf renamed in aversion to 'Persian'|author=K Darbandi|publisher=Asia Times|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IJ27Ak01.html|date=27 October 2007|access-date=30 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021451/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IJ27Ak01.html|archive-date=27 November 2010|url-status=unfit}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=All at sea over 'the Gulf'|author=Mahan Abedin|publisher=Asia Times|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html|date=9 December 2004|access-date=30 November 2010|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521084254/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html|archive-date=21 May 2016|url-status=unfit}}</ref>]]

The body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|title=The World Fact Book|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110162554/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 January 2021|access-date=4 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=nationsonline.org|title=Political Map of Iran|url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/iran_map.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127182747/http://nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/iran_map.htm|archive-date=27 November 2010|access-date=4 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations|title=United Nations Cartographic Section (Middle East Map)|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630232206/http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm|archive-date=30 June 2017|access-date=29 June 2017}}</ref> It is listed in the third edition of [[Limits of Oceans and Seas]] as "Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) and, {{as of|2002|lc=on}}, in the draft fourth edition as "Persian Gulf".{{sfn|IHO|1953|p=21}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas{{!}}Draft 4th Edition, 2002|url=https://legacy.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm|chapter=Indian Ocean|chapter-url=https://legacy.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/S-23_Draft_2002_INDIAN_OCEAN.doc|publisher=[[International Hydrographic Organization]]|year=2002}}</ref> [[Arab League|Arab governments]] refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf.<ref name="LINK2">Niusha Boghrati, [http://www.worldpress.org/Mideast/2616.cfm ''Omission of 'Persian Gulf' Name Angers Iran''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109185735/http://www.worldpress.org/Mideast/2616.cfm|date=9 January 2007}}, World Press.com, 28 December 2006</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Zraick |first1=Karen |title=Persian (or Arabian) Gulf Is Caught in the Middle of Regional Rivalries |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/13/world/middleeast/persian-gulf-arabian-gulf-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=9 February 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=12 January 2016}}</ref> The name Gulf of Iran is used by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]].{{sfn|IHO|1953|p=21}}

The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Security Considerations in the Persian Gulf |journal=[[International Security]] |date=Fall 1980 |last=Eilts |first=Hermann |author-link=Hermann Eilts |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=79–113 |doi=10.2307/2538446 |jstor=2538446 }}</ref> Rivalry between Iran and certain Arab states, along with the emergence of [[pan-Arabism]] and [[Arab nationalism]], has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Abedin |first=Mahan |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html |title=All at Sea over 'the Gulf' |work=[[Asia Times Online]] |date=4 December 2004 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521084254/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html |archive-date=21 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bosworth, C. Edmund |year=1980 |chapter=The Nomenclature of the Persian Gulf |pages=xvii–xxxvi |editor=Cottrell, Alvin J. |title=The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |quote=Not until the early 1960s does a major new development occur with the adoption by the Arab states bordering on the Persian Gulf of the expression ''al-Khalij al-Arabi'' as weapon in the psychological war with Iran for political influence in the Persian Gulf; but the story of these events belongs to a subsequent chapter on modern political and diplomatic history of the Persian Gulf.|quote-page=xxxiii |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth }}</ref> Although historically less common, the term "Arabian Gulf" first began to be used by some Arab states during the 1950s and 1960s, at a time when Arab nationalism was at its height.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Obućina |first1=Vedran |last2= |first2= |date=March 2015 |title=Symbolic Name Strategies: Iran and the Persian Gulf |url=https://www.durham.ac.uk/media/durham-university/research-/research-centres/hh-sheikh-nasser-al-mohammad-al-sabah-programme/documents/publications/insights/Symbolic-Name-Strategies---Iran-and-the-Persian-Gulf.pdf |journal=HH Sheikh Nasser al-Mohammad al-Sabah Publication Series |volume=14 |issue=1 |publisher= |pages=1-18 |doi= |access-date=May 13, 2026}}</ref> Despite the dispute, [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Britannica]] notes that outside Arab states, the name “Arabian Gulf” has not received widespread recognition.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Why Is It Called the Persian Gulf? {{!}} Countries, Map, Arabia, & Naming Dispute {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Why-Is-It-Called-the-Persian-Gulf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260221131114/https://www.britannica.com/place/Why-Is-It-Called-the-Persian-Gulf |archive-date=2026-02-21 |access-date=2026-05-16 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===Ancient history===
The region of the Persian Gulf has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic]].<ref name="Rose2010" /> During most of the [[Last Glacial Period]] (115,000–11,700 years [[Before Present]]), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around {{convert|125|metres|ft}} metres below present values during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]]) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around {{convert|35|metres|ft}} and at max around {{convert|100|metres|ft}} metres depth) most of the Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lambeck |first1=Kurt |title=Shoreline reconstructions for the Persian Gulf since the last glacial maximum |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=July 1996 |volume=142 |issue=1–2 |pages=43–57 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(96)00069-6 |bibcode=1996E&PSL.142...43L }}</ref> forming a flat [[floodplain]] where a number of rivers converged. 

This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf was formed when sea level rose during the early [[Holocene]], from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development of [[Neolithic]] farming cultures in regions of the Middle East adjacent to the Gulf.<ref name="Rose2010">{{cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Jeffrey I. |title=New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis |journal=Current Anthropology |date=2010 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=849–883 |id={{CORE output|144826739}} |doi=10.1086/657397 |jstor=10.1086/657397 }}</ref> 

[[File:Map of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A map depicting the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian Empire]] in relation to the Persian Gulf.]]
[[File:Ras Al Khaimah by Charles Hamilton Smith.jpg|thumb|A painting depicting the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809|British Expeditionary Force]] off the coast of [[Ras Al Khaimah]] in 1809.]]
The world's oldest known civilization ([[Sumer]]) developed along the Persian Gulf and southern [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Rose2010"/> The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found at [[H3 (Kuwait)|H3]] in Kuwait, dating to the mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved the [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along the entire Gulf coast.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Robert |title=Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC |journal=Antiquity |date=March 2006 |volume=80 |issue=307 |pages=52–63 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X0009325X |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1559523 }}</ref>

For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the [[fourth millennium BC]], the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the [[Dilmun]] civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was [[Gerrha]]. In the second century [[Lakhmids|the Lakhum tribe]], who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the [[Lakhmid|Lakhmid Kingdom]] along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by [[Shapur II]] against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shorelines.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA179|title=E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 |author=M. Th. Houtsma|access-date=26 November 2010|isbn=978-90-04-09796-4|year=1993|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> During the 7th century, the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian Persian empire]] conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores.

Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the [[Median kingdom|Median]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]], [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king [[Darius the Great]] (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.<ref name=navy>{{cite book|title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war|author=Kaveh Farrokh|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|page=68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p7kltwf9yrwC&pg=PA68|isbn=978-1-84603-108-3}}</ref> Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including [[Shatt-al-Arab]], [[Tigris river|Tigris]], and the [[Nile]] in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.<ref name=navy/>

The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.<ref name=navy/><ref>{{cite book|title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire|author=Pierre Briant|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2006|page=761|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA761|isbn=978-1-57506-120-7}}</ref>

Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the [[Parthian Empire]], the [[Sasanian Empire]] ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the [[Silk Road]], were important trade routes in the Sasanian Empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf. [[Siraf]], an ancient Sasanian port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what is now the Iranian province of [[Bushehr]], is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bips.ac.uk/sites/siraf|title=Siraf|author=British Institute of Persian Studies|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716111330/http://www.bips.ac.uk/sites/siraf|archive-date=16 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Colonial era===
{{See also|Portuguese rule|Battle of the Gulf of Oman|Battle of the Strait of Hormuz (1553)|Battle off Hormuz (1625)|British residency of the Persian Gulf}}

[[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mission of the Portuguese Augustinians to Persia and Beyond (1602–1747) Por John M. Flannery|isbn = 978-90-04-24382-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz5TO9BNFH8C&q=Portuguese+kong+persian+Gulf+1730&pg=PA108|last1 = Flannery|first1 = John M.|year = 2013| publisher=BRILL }}</ref> Since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance<ref>{{Cite web|title=THE AGE OF COLONIALISM Persian Gulf States Table of Contents|url=http://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/11.htm}}</ref> contended with the local powers and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Empire]] allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Baloch and Balochistan: A Historical Account from the Beginning to the fall of Baloch state Por Naseer Dashti|isbn = 978-1-4669-5896-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIjyLNpusbAC&q=Persian+gulf+portuguese+dominance&pg=PA154|last1 = Dashti|first1 = Naseer|date = October 2012| publisher=Trafford }}</ref> 

[[File:Hormuz fort-Correia.png|thumb|The [[Fort of Our Lady of the Conception|Portuguese Castle]] on Hormuz Island, [[Gaspar Correia]]. "''Lendas da Índia''", {{Circa|1556}}]]
Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following [[Vasco da Gama]]'s voyages of exploration saw [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] [[Portuguese conquest of Hormuz|capture]] the strategically located [[kingdom of Hormuz]]. The Portuguese fought the Ottomans in the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander [[Portuguese invasion of Bahrain|Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain]] to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On 29 April 1602, [[Abbas the Great|Shāh Abbās]], the [[Persian people|Persian]] emperor of the [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Persian Empire]], expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,<ref name="j163353">{{cite journal|author=Juan R. I. Cole|title=Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800|jstor=163353|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=19|issue= 2 |year=1987|pages= 177–203 [186]|doi=10.1017/s0020743800031834|s2cid=162702326 }}</ref> and that date is commemorated as [[Persian Gulf National Day]] in [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rahmani |first1=Morteza |title=Persian Gulf: From rich history to security depth |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/447346/Persian-Gulf-From-rich-history-to-security-depth |work=Tehran Times |date=29 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref> With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] from the Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town of [[Bandar Abbas|Bandar 'Abbās]], which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. 

The [[Ottoman Empire]] reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871.<ref>Rahman 1979,{{full|date=October 2025}} pp. 138–139</ref> Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman [[Vilayet of Baghdad]], [[Midhat Pasha]], the ruling [[Al Thani]] tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule.<ref name="Rogan1199">{{cite journal |last1=Rogan|first1=Eugene|date=November 1999|title=Review of The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar by Frederick F. Anscombe; The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy, 1797–1820 by Charles E. Davies; The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia and the Gulf, 1745–1900 by Hala Fattah |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |volume=26 |issue=2|pages=339–342|jstor=195948 |doi=10.1080/13530199908705688 |last2=Murphey |first2=Rhoads |last3=Masalha |first3=Nur |last4=Durac |first4=Vincent |last5=Hinnebusch |first5=Raymond}}</ref> The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start of [[World War I]] and the need for troops in various other frontiers.<ref name="diwan">{{cite web|url=https://www.diwan.gov.qa/about-qatar/qatars-rulers/sheikh-abdullah-bin-jassim-al-thani?sc_lang=en|title=Shaikh Abdullah Bin Jassim Al Thani – Amiri Diwan|publisher=Amiri Diwan|access-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307214352/https://www.diwan.gov.qa/about-qatar/qatars-rulers/sheikh-abdullah-bin-jassim-al-thani?sc_lang=en|archive-date=7 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> 

In [[World War II]] and following the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]], the [[Allies of World War II|Western Allies]] used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as the "[[Persian Corridor]]". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of the [[Trans-Iranian Railway]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Command Decisions|author1=Martin Blumenson |author2=Robert W. Coakley |author3=Stetson Conn |author4=Byron Fairchild |author5=Richard M. Leighton |author6=Charles V.P. von Luttichau |author7=Martin Blumenson |author8=Robert W. Coakley |author9=Stetson Conn |author10=Byron Fairchild |author11=Richard M. Leighton |author12=Charles V.P. von Luttichau |author13=Charles B. MacDonald |author14=Sidney T. Mathews |author15=Maurice Matloff |author16=Ralph S. Mavrogordato |author17=Leo J. Meyer |author18=John Miller, Jr. |author19=Louis Morton |author20=Forrest C. Pogue |author21=Roland G. Ruppenthal |author22=Robert Ross Smith |author23=Earl F. Ziemke |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxWWhu9ARoC&pg=PA225|year=1960 }}</ref> The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against the [[Operation Barbarossa|Nazi invasion]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Persian Corridor and aid to Russia, Volume 7, Part 1|author=T. H. Vail Motter|publisher=Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army |year=1952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t3QGAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> 

The [[piracy in the Persian Gulf]] was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by the [[Al Qasimi]] tribe. This led to the British mounting the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/sheikh-saqr-bin-mohammed-al-qasimi|title=Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed al-Qasimi obituary|work=The Guardian|date=1 November 2010}}</ref> The campaign led to the signing of the [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820]] between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the "[[Pirate Coast]]". From 1763 until 1971, the [[British Empire]] maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the [[Trucial States]])<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OnhCBuXmeWYC&pg=PA172|title= Trucial States|author=Donald Hawley |page=172 |access-date=19 November 2010 |isbn=978-0-04-953005-8 |year=1970|publisher= Ardent Media|author-link= Donald Hawley}}</ref> and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the [[British Residency of the Persian Gulf]].

===Modern history===
[[File:USS Hawes (FFG-53), USS William H. Standley (CG-32) and USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7) escort tanker Gas King in the Persian Gullf on 21 October 1987 (6432283).jpg|thumb|[[Operation Earnest Will]]: Tanker convoy No. 12 under [[United States Navy|US Navy]] escort in October 1987]]
The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 [[Iran–Iraq War]], in which each side attacked the other's [[oil tanker]]s. It is the namesake of the 1991 [[Gulf War]], the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed [[Iraq]]'s invasion of [[Kuwait]]. The United States' role in the Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncfIAAAAQBAJ|title=The Persian Gulf in History|last=Potter|first=L.|date=5 January 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61845-9|language=en}}</ref> On 3 July 1988, [[Iran Air Flight 655]] was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken the [[Airbus A300]] operating the flight for an Iranian [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14 Tomcat]]) while it was flying over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880703-0|title=ASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B2-203 EP-IBU Qeshm Island|last=Ranter|first=Harro|website=www.aviation-safety.net|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1&nbsp;million British nationals visited [[Dubai]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/24/foreignpolicy.iran|title=Blair was dangerously off target in his condemnation of Iran|last=Beaumont|first=Peter|date=23 December 2006|work=[[The Guardian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730023813/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/24/foreignpolicy.iran|archive-date=30 July 2016|url-status=live|location=[[London]]|author-link=Peter Beaumont (journalist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-britain-diplomacy/classified-document-on-bahrain-rankles-britain-decades-later-idUKKBN0O61YZ20150521|title=Classified document on Bahrain rankles Britain decades later|date=22 May 2015|access-date=22 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130051916/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-britain-diplomacy/classified-document-on-bahrain-rankles-britain-decades-later-idUKKBN0O61YZ20150521|archive-date=30 January 2022|url-status=live|work=Reuters|quote=The case shows how alive the history of British colonial rule still is in the Gulf today}}</ref> In 2018, the UK opened a permanent military base, {{HMS|Jufair}}, in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew from [[East of Suez]] in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-30355953|title=UK to establish £15m permanent Mid East military base|date=6 December 2014|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124233435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-30355953|archive-date=24 November 2017|url-status=live|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/ORGDec14EastSuezWestHelmand_0.pdf|title=East of Suez, West from Helmand: British Expeditionary Force and the next SDSR|date=December 2014|publisher=Oxford Research Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702074143/http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/ORGDec14EastSuezWestHelmand_0.pdf|archive-date=2 July 2015|access-date=22 May 2015|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/the-uk-in-oman-a-new-support-facility-for-the-british-armed-forces/|title=The UK in Oman – A new support facility for the British Armed Forces|last=Tossini|first=J. Vitor|date=20 February 2018|website=UK Defence Journal|language=en-GB|access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref>

==Cities and population==
Eight nations have coasts along the Persian Gulf: [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of the Middle East are located in this region.

{|
|<gallery mode="packed">
File:سواحل کیش در روز طبیعت1400011322240458522511884.jpg|[[Kish island]], [[Iran]]
File:Murthadha.80.jpg|[[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]]
File:Abu dhabi skylines 2014.jpg|[[Abu Dhabi]], [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]
File:Dubai skyline unsplash.jpg|[[Dubai]], UAE
File:Bandarabbashomahotel.jpg|[[Bandar Abbas]], Iran
File:Dhow in the fjords of Khasab, Oman - panoramio.jpg|[[Khasab]], [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam]], [[Oman]]
File:مرسى القوارب بالجبيل الصناعية.jpg|[[Jubail]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
File:Al-Ahsa Palm Oasis 2023.jpg|[[Al-Ahsa Oasis]], Saudi Arabia
File:West Bay district of Doha seen from the corniche at night.jpg|[[Doha]], [[Qatar]]
File:Manama Night (59168542).jpeg|[[Manama]], [[Bahrain]]
File:Basrah faw shat alarab.jpg|[[Al-Faw]], [[Iraq]]
</gallery>
|}

==Wildlife==
{{see also|Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert}}
The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near [[Local extinction|extirpation]] or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to [[dugong]]s, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as the [[Red Sea]].<ref>Pernetta, John. (2004). Guide to the Oceans. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, Inc. p. 205. {{ISBN|978-1-55297-942-6}}.</ref>

Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parstimes.com/environment/pg_pollution.html|title=Pollution in Persian Gulf|author=Morteza Aminmansour/Pars Times|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126155602/http://parstimes.com/environment/pg_pollution.html|archive-date=26 November 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Aquatic mammals===
Along the [[Mediterranean sea (oceanography)|mediterranean regions]] of the Arabian Sea, including the Persian Gulf, the [[Red Sea]], the [[Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch|Gulf of Kutch]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], the [[Gulf of Aden]], and the [[Gulf of Oman]], [[dolphin]]s and [[finless porpoise]]s are the most common marine mammals, while larger [[whale]]s and [[orca]]s are rarer today.<ref>Dr. Gheilani A.M.H. [https://www.trc.gov.om/TRCWebsite/files/Whales%20and%20Dolphins%20present..pdf Whales and Dolphins in Arabian Sea: Arabian Sea Survey (2007–2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217053450/https://www.trc.gov.om/TRCWebsite/files/Whales%20and%20Dolphins%20present..pdf |date=17 December 2014 }}. The Marine Science and Fisheries Center in the Ministry of Fisheries Wealth. Retrieved on 17 December 2014</ref> Historically, whales had been abundant in the Persian Gulf before commercial hunting wiped them out.<ref>Jongbloed M. [http://www.alshindagah.com/janfeb2004/whales.html Whales and dolphins in the Gulf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217050416/http://www.alshindagah.com/janfeb2004/whales.html |date=17 December 2014 }}. [[Al Shindagha]]. Retrieved on 17 December 2014</ref><ref>Jackson J. 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0dqjvAEACAAJ Diving with Giants]. pp.59. [[New Holland Publishers]]. {{isbn|978-1-84537-180-7}} Retrieved on 17 December 2014</ref> Whales were reduced even further by illegal mass hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>Clapham P., Ivashchenko Y. [http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/mfr711/mfr7114.pdf. Marine Fisheries Review]. Retrieved on 17 December 2014</ref> 

Along with [[Bryde's whale]]s,<ref>Lambros M.. [https://www.livinq8.com/postdetails.php?post_cat=OUTDOORS%20IN%20Q8&post_id=1412 Whale Watching In Kuwait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001141/https://www.livinq8.com/postdetails.php?post_cat=OUTDOORS%20IN%20Q8&post_id=1412 |date=21 September 2017 }}. LIVIN Q8. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref><ref>Burahmah
 I.. 2013. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcHDafyiao0 Whale seen in kuwait seas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcHDafyiao0 |date=20 November 2018 }}. [[YouTube]]. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref><ref>جرائم ومحاكم. 2015. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_GA1tIdLLs حوت يسبح قرب أبراج الكويت] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_GA1tIdLLs |date=20 November 2018 }}. Youtube. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref><ref>Khalaf N.. 2014. [https://issuu.com/dr-normanalibassamkhalaf/docs/blue_whale_at_educational_science_m The 24-meters Blue Whale Skeleton at the Educational Science Museum in Kuwait City, State of Kuwait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019022514/https://issuu.com/dr-normanalibassamkhalaf/docs/blue_whale_at_educational_science_m |date=19 October 2017 }}. [[issuu]]. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref> these once common mammals can be seen in deeper marginal seas such as Gulf of Aden,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20040430_log_transcript.html|title=PBS – The Voyage of the Odyssey – Track the Voyage – Maldives|website=[[PBS]]|access-date=3 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019022514/https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20040430_log_transcript.html|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Israel coasts,<ref name=cbd>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsaws-2015-02/other/ebsaws-2015-02-gobi-submission9-en.pdf |title=Summary review of cetaceans of the Red Sea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011165214/https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsaws-2015-02/other/ebsaws-2015-02-gobi-submission9-en.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uminchumogi.blog111.fc2.com/blog-entry-227.html|title=ホルムズ海峡でGTフィッシング②|last=茂木陽一|access-date=26 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310104940/http://uminchumogi.blog111.fc2.com/blog-entry-227.html|archive-date=10 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Other species, such as the critically endangered Arabian [[humpback whale]],<ref>Minton G.. 2017. [https://arabianseawhalenetwork.org/2017/09/15/paper-published-on-humpback-whales-in-the-persian-gulf/ Pre-print manuscript published on humpback whales in the Persian Gulf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921045900/https://arabianseawhalenetwork.org/2017/09/15/paper-published-on-humpback-whales-in-the-persian-gulf/ |date=21 September 2017 }}. Arabian Sea Whale Network. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref> (also historically common in Gulf of Aden<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mikhalev |first1=Yuri A. |title=Humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in the Arabian Sea |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=1997 |volume=149 |issue=1/3 |pages=13–21 |doi=10.3354/meps149013 |jstor=24857503 |bibcode=1997MEPS..149...13M }}</ref> and increasingly sighted in the Red Sea since 2006, including in the Gulf of Aqaba),<ref name=cbd/> [[omura's whale]],<ref>Babu R. 2017. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qwk5IO1lSbk Whale tracing us in a boat at Kuwait sea area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qwk5IO1lSbk |date=20 November 2018 }}. Youtube. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref> [[minke whale]], and [[orca]] also swim into the Persian Gulf. 

Many other large species such as [[blue whale]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Boer |first1=M. N. |last2=Baldwin |first2=R. |last3=Burton |first3=C. L. K. |last4=Eyre |first4=E. L. |last5=Jenner |first5=K. C. S. |last6=Jenner |first6=M-N. |last7=Keith |first7=S. G. |last8=McCabe |first8=K. A. |last9=Parsons |first9=E. C. M. |last10=Peddemors |first10=V. M. |last11=Rosenbaum |first11=H. C. |last12=Rudolph |first12=P. |last13=Simmonds |first13=M. P. |title=Cetaceans in the Indian Ocean sanctuary: a review |date=2002 |publisher=Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society |url=https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/246400.pdf }}{{pn|date=October 2025}}</ref> [[Sei whale|sei]],<ref>Hoath R.. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=agWfg6oEKKkC&q=gulf+of+aden+&pg=PA115 A Field Guide to the Mammals of Egypt]. pp.112. The [[American University in Cairo Press]]. Retrieved on 26 February. 2016</ref> and [[sperm whale]]s were once migrants into the [[Gulf of Oman]] and in deeper coastal waters,<ref>Dr. Perrin F.W., Koch C.C. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2rkHQpToi9sC&dq=Gulf+of+Aden+whale&pg=PA611 Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals]. pp.611. [[Academic Press]]. Retrieved on 17 December 2014</ref> and still migrate into the Red Sea,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sailingluna.nl/Yemenn.htm|title=Yemen|access-date=26 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307081229/http://www.sailingluna.nl/Yemenn.htm|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> but are seen mainly in the deeper water of outer seas. In 2017, it was found that the Persian Gulf alongside [[Emirate of Abu Dhabi|Abu Dhabi]] had the world's largest population of [[Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin]]s.<ref>WAM.
 2017. [http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/abu-dhabi-has-world-s-largest-population-of-humpback-dolphins-2017-09-17-1.659122 Abu Dhabi has world's largest population of humpback dolphins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001601/http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/abu-dhabi-has-world-s-largest-population-of-humpback-dolphins-2017-09-17-1.659122 |date=21 September 2017 }}. [[Emirates 24/7]]. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref><ref>[[Gulf News]]. 2017. [http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/environment/abu-dhabi-proves-a-haven-for-humpback-dolphins-1.2091551 Abu Dhabi proves a haven for humpback dolphins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920191453/http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/environment/abu-dhabi-proves-a-haven-for-humpback-dolphins-1.2091551 |date=20 September 2017 }}. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref><ref>Sanker A..
 2017. [https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/abu-dhabi/abu-dhabi-leads-world-in-humpback-dolphin-numbers- Abu Dhabi leads world in humpback dolphin numbers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000950/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/abu-dhabi/abu-dhabi-leads-world-in-humpback-dolphin-numbers- |date=21 September 2017 }}. [[Khaleej Times]]. Retrieved on 21 September 2017</ref>

The dolphins that live in the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Research show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse [[seine fishing]] nets and exposure to pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mandana Javidinejad |year=2007 |title=Dolphins of Persian Gulf are in danger |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/07/sep/1339.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629095910/http://www.payvand.com/news/07/sep/1339.html |archive-date=29 June 2011 |access-date=25 December 2010 |publisher=Payvand News Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Vahid Sepehri |date=3 October 2007 |title=Iran: Spill, Dolphin Deaths Spark Alarm At Persian Gulf Pollution |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1078857.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114055950/http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1078857.html |archive-date=14 January 2011 |access-date=25 December 2010 |publisher=Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty}}</ref>

The [[dugong]] (''Dugong dugon'') can be found in the Persian Gulf. Their diet of sea grass has been impacted by developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution from [[Gulf War oil spill|oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war"]] and other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs.<ref name="dugong">{{cite web |title=Case Study |url=http://www.american.edu/TED/persian.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624134459/http://www1.american.edu/TED/persian.htm |archive-date=24 June 2009 |access-date=10 July 2009 |publisher=American.edu}}</ref> The waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia are the dugongs second most important habitat (after Australia), with around 7,500 dugongs. The number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is unknown how many there are or their reproductive trend.<ref name="dugong" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/03/dugong-mermaid-persian-gulf/ |title=Persian Gulf Mermaids Face Environmental Threats |publisher=Maurice Picow |date=4 March 2010 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114092625/http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/03/dugong-mermaid-persian-gulf/ |archive-date=14 January 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Birds ===
[[File:Persian Gulf Near Hormuz Island.jpg|thumb|Birds in the Persian Gulf Near Hormuz Island]]
The Persian Gulf is home to many migratory and local birds. Concerns regarding the endangerment of the ''kalbaensis'' subspecies of the [[collared kingfisher]]s were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman.<ref name=d/> Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this bird, one {{convert|80|mi|0|abbr=out}} from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman.<ref name=d/> 

A UN plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.<ref name=d/> Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that advocate for wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections.<ref name=d/>

Real estate development in the Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman has raised concerns that the habitats of species such as the [[greater flamingo]], and [[booted warbler]] may be destroyed.<ref name=d/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn55/mtn55p26.shtml|title=Turtles Rehabilitated After Persian Gulf Oil Spills|author1=Tim Thomas|author2=Ian Robinson|name-list-style=amp|year=2001|access-date=23 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006103341/http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn55/mtn55p26.shtml |archive-date=6 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> 

A 2009 study of ten Iranian islands in the Persian Gulf recorded more than 100,000 breeding pairs of waterbirds from 11 species, including the [[bridled tern]] (''Sterna anaethetus''), [[lesser crested tern]] (''Thalasseus bengalensis''), and [[Crab-plover|crab plover]] (''Dromas ardeola''). These islands provide critical nesting habitat, and fluctuations in seabird populations have been proposed as biological indicators of regional ecological health.<ref name="Behrouzi2013">Behrouzi-Rad, B. (2013). Breeding Species of Waterbirds on 10 Islands of Persian Gulf in 2009. Octa Journal of Environmental Research, 1(1), 52–64.</ref>

===Fish and reefs===
[[File:Yellowbar Angelfish Pomacanthus maculosus Dubai Jumeirah by Prof Dr Norman Ali Khalaf 2017-1.png|thumb|A Yellowbar Angelfish ([[Pomacanthus maculosus]]) from Dubai-Jumeirah Sea, [[UAE]] ]]
The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native.<ref name=f>{{cite web |url=http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Saltwater_Persian_Gulf.htm |title=Fish Species in Persian Gulf |author=Jen/fishbase.org |date=30 June 2003 |access-date=24 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702044308/http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Saltwater_Persian_Gulf.htm |archive-date=2 July 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> Of these, more than 80% are reef associated.<ref name=f/> These reefs are primarily rocky, but compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between.<ref name=Debelius1993>{{cite book | author=Debelius, H. | title=Indian Ocean Tropical Fish Guide | year=1993 | publisher=Aquaprint Verlag GmbH | page=5 | isbn=3-927991-01-5 }}</ref><ref name=Emery1956>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1306/5CEAE595-16BB-11D7-8645000102C1865D|title = Sediments and Water of Persian Gulf|year = 1956|last1 = Emery |first1=K. O. |journal = AAPG Bulletin|volume = 40}}</ref><ref name=Pohl2014>{{cite journal |author=Thomas Pohl |author2=Sameh W. Al-Muqdadi |author3=Malik H. Ali |author4=Nadia Al-Mudaffar Fawzi |author5=Hermann Ehrlich |author6=Broder Merkel | title=Discovery of a living coral reef in the coastal waters of Iraq | year=2014 | journal=Sci. Rep. | volume=4 | article-number=4250 | doi=10.1038/srep04250 | pmc=3945051 | pmid=24603901| bibcode=2014NatSR...4.4250P }}</ref> This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially the [[Shatt al-Arab]] (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations).<ref name=Debelius1993/><ref name=Emery1956/><ref name=Pohl2014/> Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in the Persian Gulf.<ref name=Pohl2014/> Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing to [[global warming]] but mostly to dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain.<ref name=dump>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/06/coral-bahrain-construction/|title=Dumping by Construction Crews Killing Bahrain Coral|publisher=Maurice Picow|date=16 June 2010|access-date=19 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031214259/http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/06/coral-bahrain-construction/|archive-date=31 October 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Construction garbage such as tires, cement and chemical by-products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the [[construction waste]] creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.<ref name=dump/> The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival.

===Flora===
The [[mangroves]] in the Persian Gulf require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects, which are the source of food for many marine birds.<ref name=d>{{cite web|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/07/03/gulfwildlife_pla.html?category=earth&guid=20060703160030 |title=Development in Persian Gulf Threatens Wildlife |access-date=30 June 2008 |author=Jim Krane |date=3 July 2006 |publisher=Discovery Channel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923035904/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/07/03/gulfwildlife_pla.html?category=earth&guid=20060703160030 |archive-date=23 September 2006}}</ref> Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus ''[[Avicennia]]'' or ''[[Rhizophora]]'' that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mangal.html|title=Mangals|author=SunySB|access-date=23 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206074225/http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mangal.html|archive-date=6 December 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Expression of mangrove allene oxide cyclase enhances salt tolerance in Escherichia coli, yeast, and tobacco cells |journal=[[Plant and Cell Physiology]] |date=Fall 1980 |last1=Yamada |first1=Akiyo |last2=Saitoh |first2=Takeo |last3=Mimura |first3=Tetsuro |last4=Ozeki |first4=Yoshihiro |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=903–910 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcf108 |pmid=12198193 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, with the advent of artificial island development, much of their habitat is being destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them.

===Gallery===
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Dugong.jpg|[[Dugong]] mother and her offspring in shallow water
File:HengamDolphins.jpg|[[Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin]]s off the southern shore of Iran, around [[Hengam Island]]
File:Dolphins Oman.JPG|[[Spinner dolphin]]s [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|leaping]] in the Persian Gulf
File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif|Critically endangered Arabian [[humpback whale]]s (being the most isolated, and the only resident population in the world) off [[Dhofar Governorate|Dhofar]], Oman
File:واجهة-قلعة-تاروت.jpg|[[Tarout Castle]] on [[Tarout Island]] in the [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]] of Saudi Arabia.
</gallery>

== Exports ==

=== Oil and gas ===
{{See also|Strait of Hormuz}}
[[File:Oil and Gas Infrastructure Persian Gulf (large).gif|thumb|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] pipelines and fields]]
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Northrup|first=Cynthia Clark|title=Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|location=London, UK|via=Credo Reference}}</ref> and related industries dominate the region. The gulf plays a central role in the global energy system. In 2026, approximately one fifth of global LNG exports originate in the Gulf. The region is also a key supplier of refined fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), diesel and jet fuel.<ref name=":0">{{Cite report |date=2026 |title=Global Agrifood Implications of the 2026 Conflict in the Middle East |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd8875en |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |language=en}}</ref>

[[Safaniya Oil Field]], the world's largest offshore [[oilfield]], is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG) and petrochemical industry.

In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude [[Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification|oil reserves]], and about 35% of the world's [[natural gas]] reserves.<ref>{{cite web|author=Persian Gulf Online|title=Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Exports Fact Sheet (U.S. Department of Energy)|url=http://www.persiangulfonline.org/interestgroups/oilfacts.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714233158/http://www.persiangulfonline.org/interestgroups/oilfacts.htm|archive-date=14 July 2009|access-date=4 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|title=Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Export Fact Sheet|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/pgulf2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102032341/http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/pgulf2.html|archive-date=2 January 2011|publisher=EIA/DOE (Energy Information Administration/Department of Energy)}}</ref> The oil-rich countries (excluding [[Iraq]]) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the ''[[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf States]]''. Iraq's egress to the Persian Gulf is narrow and easily blockaded, consisting of the marshy river delta of the [[Shatt al-Arab]], which carries the waters of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]] rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran.

=== Fertilizer ===
The Persian Gulf is also a major hub for global [[fertilizer]] production and exports. Countries such as the Islamic Republic of Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Oman are among the world’s leading exporters of nitrogen fertilizers, including urea and ammonia. In the 2020s the region has accounted for roughly 30–35 percent of global urea exports and around 20–30 percent of ammonia exports. Overall, up to 30% of internationally traded fertilizers normally transit the Strait of Hormuz.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
* [[Eastern Arabia]]
* [[Eastern Arabian cuisine]]
* [[Cradle of civilization]]
* [[Deluge (prehistoric)]]
* [[Musandam Peninsula]]
* [[History of the United Arab Emirates#The pearling industry and the Portuguese empire: 16th - 18th century]]
* [[Saeed bin Butti#Perpetual Maritime Truce]]
* [[Trucial States]]
* [[Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi#Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853]]
* [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809]]
* [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819]]
* [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820]]

'''Nations:'''
* [[Geography of Iran]]
* [[Geography of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Geography of Oman]]
* [[Geography of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Geography of Qatar]]
* [[Geography of Bahrain]]
* [[Geography of Kuwait]]
* [[Geography of Iraq]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Free-content attribution |title=Global Agrifood Implications of the 2026 Conflict in the Middle East, Impacts on energy and fertilizer trade, and food security |source=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |documentURL=https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/67a1fe95-98f2-4f23-8be7-99491bfd8343 |license statement URL=https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/67a1fe95-98f2-4f23-8be7-99491bfd8343 |license = CC BY 4.0}}
* {{cite book |date=1953 |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas |edition=3rd |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2011 |access-date=28 December 2020 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization |ref={{sfnRef|IHO|1953}} }}

== Further reading==

* Fromherz, Allen James. ''The Center of the World: A Global History of the Persian Gulf from the Stone Age to the Present'' (University of California Press, 2024). [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=61481 Online review of this book.]
* Fromherz, Allen James, ed. ''The Gulf in World History: Arabia at the Global Crossroads'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2018).
* Potter, Lawrence G., ed. ''The Persian Gulf in History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
{{Commons category|Persian Gulf}}
* [http://www.qdl.qa/en/articles-from-our-experts Qatar Digital Library] – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persian-gulf-i-in-antiquity Persian Gulf] – ''Encyclopædia Iranica''
* [https://theconversation.com/why-the-persian-gulf-has-more-oil-and-gas-than-anywhere-else-on-earth-279303 Why the Persian Gulf has more oil and gas than anywhere else on Earth]. ''[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]'', April 7, 2026 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050515205629/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/hormuz.html The Portuguese in the Arabian peninsula and in the Persian Gulf] (archived 15 May 2005)
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/54272266@N06/6863021370/in/photostream/ 32 historical map of Persian gulf], at [[Flickr]]
* [https://lccn.loc.gov/a22000933 Persian Gulf] from 1920
* [https://gulfnews.com/travel/sharks-in-the-arabian-gulf-1.1679153 Sharks in the Gulf]
; Videos
*[https://japan.mfa.gov.ir/en/newsview/536033 Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the eternal heritage ancient time by Dr.Mohammad Ajam<!-- -->]

{{Articles Related to Persian Gulf}}
{{List of seas}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Petroleum industry}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Persian Gulf| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
[[Category:Bahrain–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Bahrain–Qatar border]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Bahrain]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Iraq]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Kuwait]]
[[Category:Geography of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Geography of West Asia]]
[[Category:Seas of Asia]]
[[Category:Seas of Iran]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Qatar]]
[[Category:Iran–Iraq border]]
[[Category:Iraq–Kuwait border]]
[[Category:Kuwait–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Qatar–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabia–United Arab Emirates border]]
[[Category:Western Indo-Pacific]]