View source for Susa

{{short description|Ancient city in Iran}}
{{Redirect|Shushan}}
{{Other uses}}
{{distinguish|Shusha}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Susa
| native_names = {{native name|fa|شوش}}
| alternate_name = 
| image = History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria (1903) (14584070300).jpg
| alt = 
| caption = [[Palace of Darius in Susa|The Palace of Darius in Susa]]
| locmapin = Iran#West Asia
| map_alt = 
| image_map_size = 
| map_dot_label = Susa
| map_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{coord|32|11|26|N|48|15|28|E|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Shush, Iran|Shush]], [[Khuzestan Province]], [[Iran]]
| region = [[Zagros Mountains]]
| type = Settlement
| part_of = 
| length = 
| width = 
| area = 
| height = 
| builder = 
| material = 
| built = *4395-4200 BCE<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1= Mark |first1= Joshua J. |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/susa/ |title= Susa timeline |encyclopedia= World History Encyclopedia |date= 12 November 2018|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

*the late 5th millennium BCE<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1455/ |title= Unesco |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
| abandoned = 1218 AD
| epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
| cultures = 
| dependency_of = 
| occupants = 
| event = [[Battle of Susa]]
| excavations = 
| archaeologists = 
| condition = 
| ownership = 
| management = 
| public_access = 
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
| notes = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
  | child         = yes
  | Official_name = Susa
  | Year          = 2015
  | ID            = 1455
  | criteria      = Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv
}}
}}
'''Susa''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|uː|s|ə}} {{respell|SOO|sə}}) was an ancient city in the lower [[Zagros Mountains]] about {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of the [[Tigris]], between the [[Karkheh River|Karkheh]] and [[Dez River|Dez]] Rivers in [[Iran]]. It represents the current city of [[Shush, Iran|Shush]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Susa |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1455/ |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> located on the site of ancient Susa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Curtis |first=John |editor1-last=Perrot|editor1-first=Jean|editor1-link=Jean Perrot|title=The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia|date=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9781848856219|page=xvi|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fDimj7F2VVgC&q=Shush+Susa&pg=PR16|language=en|chapter=Introduction}}</ref> One of the most important cities of the [[Ancient Near East]], Susa served as the capital of [[Elam]] and the winter capital of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], and remained a strategic centre during the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] periods.

== Name ==
The name Susa is of Elamite origin and has appeared in many languages:
*Middle {{langx|elx|𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗|translit=Šušen}}{{sfn|Hinz|Koch|1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/ElamischesWorterbuch.2/page/n449/mode/2up 1184]}}
*Middle and Neo-{{langx|elx|𒋢𒋢𒌦|translit=Šušun}}{{sfn|Hinz|Koch|1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/ElamischesWorterbuch.2/page/n449/mode/2up 1184]}}
*Neo-[[Elamite language|Elamite]] and [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] {{langx|elx|𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭|translit=Šušan}}{{sfn|Hinz|Koch|1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/ElamischesWorterbuch.2/page/n449/mode/2up 1183]}}
*[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] {{langx|elx|𒀸𒋗𒐼|translit=Šuša}}{{sfn|Hinz|Koch|1987|page=[https://archive.org/details/ElamischesWorterbuch.2/page/n449/mode/2up 1183]}}
*{{langx|he|שׁוּשָׁן}} {{transliteration|he|Šūšān}}
*{{langx|grc|Σοῦσα}} {{transliteration|grc|Soûsa}}
*{{langx|peo|𐏂𐎢𐏁𐎠}} {{transliteration|peo|Çūšā}}
*{{langx|pal|𐭮𐭥𐭱𐭩}} {{transliteration|pal|Sūš}} or {{lang|pal|𐭱𐭥𐭮}} {{transliteration|pal|Šūs}}
*New {{langx|fa|شوش}} {{transliteration|fa|Šuš}} {{IPA|fa|ʃuʃ|}}
*{{langx|syr|ܫܘܫ}} {{transliteration|syr|Šuš}}<ref>Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Susa — ܫܘܫ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified June 30, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/415.</ref>

== Literary references ==

[[File:Elam Map-en.svg|300px|thumb|left|Map showing the area of the Elamite kingdom (in orange) and the neighboring areas. The approximate [[Bronze Age]] extension of the [[Persian Gulf]] is shown.]]

Susa was one of the most important cities of the [[Ancient Near East]]. In [[Historiography|historic literature]], Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to [[Inanna]], patron deity of [[Uruk]], in ''[[Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta]]''.

=== Biblical texts ===
Susa is mentioned in the [[Ketuvim]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]] by the name Shushan, mainly in the [[Book of Esther]], but also once each in the books of [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] (Ezra 4:9), [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] (Nehemiah 1:1) and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] (Daniel 8:2). According to these texts, Nehemiah lived in Susa during the [[Babylonian captivity]] of the 6th century BC (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), while [[Esther]] became queen there, married to [[Ahasuerus|King Ahasuerus]], and saved the Jews from [[genocide]]. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as ''Shush-Daniel''. However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, {{Circa|1871}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kriwaczek |first=Paul |title=Babylon: Mesopotamia and the birth of civilization |date=2012 |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-250-00007-1 |edition=1st U.S. |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/babylonmesopotam0000kriw |url-access=registration}}</ref>

=== Ancient Greek Theatre ===
Susa is the setting for the Aeschylus play, [[The Persians]]. The play concerns the repercussions for [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]], and Persia, after his failed attempt to conquer Greece at the [[Battle of Salamis]].

=== Pseudepigrapha ===

Susa is further mentioned in the ''[[Book of Jubilees]]'' (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of [[Shem]] and his eldest son [[Elam, son of Shem|Elam]]; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.

== Excavation history ==

[[File:Susa map.jpg|thumb|Site of Susa]]
[[File:S03 06 01 017 image 2344.jpg|thumbnail|Assyria. Ruins of Susa, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection]]

The site was examined in 1836 by [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]] and then by [[Austen Henry Layard|A. H. Layard]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawlinson |first=George |author-link=George Rawlinson |title=A Memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson |date=1898 |publisher=Nabu Press |publication-date=2010 |isbn=1-178-20631-9}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2025}}

In 1851, some modest excavation was done by [[William Loftus (archaeologist)|William Loftus]], accompanied by [[Fenwick Williams]], who identified it as Susa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Loftus |first=William K. |author-link=William Loftus (archaeologist) |title=Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52 |publisher=Robert Carter & Brothers |location=New York |year=1857}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Curtis |first=John |title=William Kennett Loftus and his Excavations at Susa |journal=Iranica Antiqua |publisher=Leiden |volume=28 |pages=1–55 |date=1993}}</ref> Among his finds was a jar containing around 110 coins, the earliest of which was dated to 697-98 AD.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaux |first=W. S. W. |date=1857 |title=ON COINS DISCOVERED, BY W. K. LOFTUS, Esq., AT SUSA |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42680383 |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Numismatic Society |volume=20 |pages=25–32 |issn=2054-9172}}</ref>

In 1885 and 1886 [[Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy]] and [[Jane Dieulafoy]] began the first French excavations, discovering glazed bricks, column bases, and capitals from the palace of the Achaemenid kings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dieulafoy |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Dieulafoy |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62108 |title=La Perse, la Chaldée et la Susiane |date=1887 |language=French |via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}</ref> However, they failed to identify mudbrick walls, which were then destroyed in the course of excavation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mousavi |first=Ali |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28053 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |date=2013-06-21 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Potts |editor-first=Daniel T. |chapter=The History of Archaeological Research in Iran |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0003 |chapter-url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199733309-e-003 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post-1885, were organized and authorized by the French government.<ref name="Peters 1915 82–93">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=John P.|date=1915|title=Excavations in Persia|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|volume=8|issue=1|pages=82–93|issn=0017-8160|jstor=1507314|doi=10.1017/S0017816000008336|s2cid=163892909 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2287221}}</ref>

In two treaties in 1894 and 1899, the French gained a monopoly on all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely.<ref name=":0" /> [[Jacques de Morgan]], after visiting the site in 1891, conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1900 |title=M. J. De Morgan's Excavations in the Akropolis and Palaces of Susa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24983192 |journal=Scientific American |volume=82 |issue=11 |pages=169–170 |issn=0036-8733 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scheil |first=V. |date=1904 |title=Excavations Made by the French in Susa and Babylonia, 1902-1903 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3140967 |journal=The Biblical World |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=146–152 |issn=0190-3578}}</ref><ref name="Peters 1915 82–93"/> De Morgan's most important work was the excavation of the Grande Tranchée in the Acropole mound, where he found the stele of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]], a collection of Babylonian [[kudurru]]s (boundary stones), the stele bearing the [[Code of Hammurabi]], an ornamented bronze table of snakes, the bronze statue of [[Napir-Asu|Queen Napir-Asu]], and thousands of inscribed bricks. His finds showed Susa to be the most important center of [[Elam|Elamite civilization]], which was effectively discovered by the French mission at Susa.<ref name=":0" />

Excavation efforts continued under [[Roland de Mecquenem (archaeologist)|Roland De Mecquenem]] until 1914, at the beginning of [[World War I]]. French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until [[World War II]] in 1940.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mecquenem |first=R. de |date=1931 |title=Excavations at Susa (Persia), 1930–1931 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/excavations-at-susa-persia-19301931/47C4CBE3BCC22EF9A3FDB4B2F92ECDB5 |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=5 |issue=19 |pages=330–343 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00037753 |issn=0003-598X |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=J. de |author-link=Jacques de Morgan |url=https://archive.org/details/mmoires01franuoft |title=Mémoires: Recherches Archéologiques, Fouilles a Suse en 1897-1898 et 1898-1899 |year=1900 |volume=1 |location=Paris |page=1990 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/download/mmoires07franuoft/mmoires07franuoft.pdf], Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1899–1902, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires VII, 1905</ref><ref>Robert H. Dyson, Early Work on the Acropolis at Susa. The Beginning of Prehistory in Iraq and Iran, Expedition, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 21–34, 1968</ref> To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.<ref>[http://www.mom.fr/mecquenem/] Roland de Mecquenem: Archives de Suse (1912–1939) - Unpublished excavation archive (French)</ref>

[[Roman Ghirshman]] took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ghirshman |first=Roman |date=1970 |title=The Elamite Levels at Susa and their Chronological Significance |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/503096 |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=223–225 |doi=10.2307/503096 |issn=0002-9114|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Together with his wife [[Tania Ghirshman]], he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ghirshman |first=Roman |last2=Brinkman |first2=J. A. |date=1968 |title=Suse au tournant du IIIe au IIe millénaire avant notre ère |trans-title=Susa at the turn of the 3rd to the 2nd millennium BC |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_1968_num_17_1_985 |journal=Arts Asiatiques |language=fr |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=3–44 |doi=10.3406/arasi.1968.985}}</ref> The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gasche |first=H. |title=La poterie élamite du deuxième millénaire a.C: Ville Royale de Suse 1 |date=1973 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-03826-4 |series=Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique française en Iran |location=Leiden |language=fr |trans-title=Elamite pottery from the second millennium BC: Royal City of Susa 1}}</ref><ref>M. Steve and Hermann H. Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse: Nouvelles fouilles (rapport preliminaire)", Memoires de la Delegation archeologique en Iran, vol. 46, Geuthner, 1971</ref>

From 1969 until 1979 excavations were conducted under [[Jean Perrot]].<ref>Jean Perrot, Les fouilles de Suš en 1975, Annual Symposium on
Archaeological Research in Iran 4, pp. 224–231, 1975</ref><ref>D. Canal, La haute terrase de l'Acropole de Suse, Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 169–176, 1978</ref>

In 2019 the Susa salvage project was launched to counter the construction of a transportation underpass in the vicinity of the site.<ref>
{{Cite journal |last=Soraghi |first=Siavash |last2=Zeynivand |first2=Mohsen |date=2022-08-11 |title=The Susa salvage project in 2019, southwestern Iran |url=https://czasopisma.uph.edu.pl/historiaswiat/article/view/3009 |journal=Historia i Świat |volume=11 |pages=71–79 |doi=10.34739/his.2022.11.04 |issn=2299-2464|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History ==

=== Early settlement ===

In [[urban history]], Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on calibrated [[carbon-14 dating]], the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4200&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=46}} In the region around Susa were a number of towns (with their own platforms) and villages that maintained a trading relationship with the city, especially those along the Zagro frontier.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Henry |date=2010 |title=The Zagros Frontiers of Susa during the Late 5th Millennium |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_2010_num_36_1_5308 |journal=Paléorient |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=11–21 |doi=10.3406/paleo.2010.5308}}</ref>

The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at [[Chogha Mish]], about 25&nbsp;km to the west.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=46}} Previously, [[Chogha Mish]] was a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Alizadeh |first=Abbas |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm53122624 |title=Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996 |date=2003 |publisher=Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in Association with the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization |isbn=978-1-885923-23-3 |series=University of Chicago Oriental Institute publications |location=Chicago, Ill |oclc=ocm53122624}}</ref>

Another important settlement in the area is [[Chogha Bonut]], which was discovered in 1976.<ref name=":1" />

=== Susa I period (4200–3800 BC) ===
[[File:Iran époque d'Obeid Sèvres.jpg|thumb|320px|Goblet and cup, Iran, Susa I style, 4th millennium BC – [[Ubaid period]]; goblet height c. 12&nbsp;cm; [[Sèvres – Cité de la céramique]], France]]
{{see also|Ubaid period}}
Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000&nbsp;years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hole |first=Frank |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc63.pdf |title=Beyond the Ubaid: transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East |date=2010 |publisher=Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |isbn=978-1-885923-66-0 |editor-last=Carter |editor-first=Robert A. |series=Studies in ancient oriental civilization |location=Chicago |pages=221–226 |chapter=A Monumental Failure: The Collapse of Susa |editor-last2=Philip |editor-first2=Graham}}</ref> The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hole |first=Frank |date=2010 |title=The Organization of Ceramic Production during the Susa I Period |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_2010_num_36_1_5309 |journal=Paléorient |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.3406/paleo.2010.5309}}</ref>

Susa's earliest settlement is known as the ''Susa I'' period (c. 4200–3900 BC). Two settlements named by archaeologists the ''Acropolis'' (7 ha) and the ''Apadana'' (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=46}} The ''Apadana'' was enclosed by 6 metre thick walls of [[rammed earth]] (this particular place is named [[Apadana]] because it also contains a late [[Achaemenid]] structure of this type).

Nearly two thousand pots of ''Susa I'' style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the [[Louvre]]. The vessels found attest to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.{{sfn|Harper|Aruz|Talon|1992|p=26}}
Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.{{sfn|Harper|Aruz|Talon|1992|p=26}} Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children.{{sfn|Harper|Aruz|Talon|1992|p=29}} The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.

==== Metallurgy ====
Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as [[Tepe Sialk]].

As many as 40 copper axes have been found at the Susa cemetery, as well as 10 round discs probably used as mirrors. Many awls and spatulas were also found.

: "Metal finds from the burials in Susa are the major metal assemblage from the end of the 5th millennium BCE. Strata 27 to 25 contained the earliest burials with a large number of axes, made from unalloyed copper and copper with elevated As [Arsenic] levels."<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Rose |first=Thomas |title=Emergence of Copper Pyrotechnology in Western Asia |date=2023 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev]] |url=https://iris.uniroma1.it/retrieve/5172909a-429c-4fc2-901d-f1e82b1465cb/Tesi_dottorato_Rose.pdf |format=PDF |page=342}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosenstock |first=Eva |title=Von Baden bis Troia: Ressourcennutzung, Metallurgie und Wissenstransfer |last2=Scharl |first2=Silviane |last3=Schier |first3=Wolfram |year=2016 |isbn=978-3-86757-010-7 |editor-last=Bartelheim |editor-first=Martin |series=Oriental and European Archaeology |volume=3 |location=Rahden/Westf |page=75 |language=de |trans-title=From Baden to Troy: Resource exploitation, metallurgy and knowledge transfer |chapter=Ex oriente lux? – Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zur Stellung der frühen Kupfermetallurgie Südosteuropas. |trans-chapter=Ex oriente lux? – A discussion paper on the position of early copper metallurgy in Southeast Europe. |editor-last2=Horejs |editor-first2=Barbara |editor-last3=Krauß |editor-first3=Raiko |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294087347_Ex_oriente_lux_-_Ein_Diskussionsbeitrag_zur_Stellung_der_fruhen_Kupfermetallurgie_Sudosteuropas}}</ref>

The cemetery of [[Chega Sofla]], from the same timeframe, provides a lot of similar material, with many sophisticated metal objects.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moghaddam |first=Abbas |url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/catalog/book/837/version/734 |title=Pearls, Politics and Pistachios: Essays in Anthropology and Memories on the Occasion of Susan Pollock's 65th Birthday |last2=Miri |first2=Negin |date=2021-06-23 |publisher=Propylaeum |isbn=978-3-96929-036-1 |editor-last=Abar |editor-first=Aydin |location=Heidelberg |pages=47–60 |language=en |chapter=Tol-e Chega Sofla Cemetery: A Phenomenon in the Context of Late 5th Millennium Southwest Iran |doi=10.11588/propylaeum.837.c10734 |editor-last2=D’Anna |editor-first2=Maria Bianca |editor-last3=Cyrus |editor-first3=Georg |display-editors=2 |chapter-url=https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de//propylaeum/catalog/book/837/chapter/10734}}</ref> Chega Sofla is located in the same geographical area.

==== Ceramic objects ====
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
Louvre Suse I Boisseau décor géométrique 1 14012018.jpg
Louvre Suse I Nécropole du tell de l'Acropole Coupe décor géométrique, SB 3175 1 14012018.jpg
File:Master of animals, Susa I.jpg|[[Master of animals]], Susa I, Louvre Sb 2246.
File:Sun and deities, Susa I.jpg|Sun and deities, Susa I, Louvre
</gallery>

=== Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BC) ===

Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the [[Uruk period]]. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, [[proto-writing]], [[cylinder seal]]s with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture is found at Susa. The comparative [[periodization]] of Susa and Uruk at this time remains disputed among scholars with some research indicating that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=58}}

The nature and extent of Uruk influence in Susa is also disputed. Daniel T. Potts argues that the influence from the highland Iranian [[Khuzestan province|Khuzestan]] area in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the [[alluvial plains]]. Potts also stresses that Susa did not simply borrow the writing and numerical systems of Uruk wholesale, but were adopted only partially and selectively as needed.

Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, raising questions about its influence. Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says,  "the Susanians are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life.  They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain".

Others emphasize Susa's relative independence. They deny that Susa was a colony of Uruk: it maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts.{{sfn|Potts|1999|pp=58–61}} An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and [[Godin Tepe]] at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of the [[Proto-Cuneiform]] and proto-elamite scripts.<ref>F. Desset, An Architectural Pattern in Late Fourth-Millennium BC Western Iran: A New Link Between Susa, Tal-I Malyan, and Godin Tepe, Iran, vol. 52, iss. 1, pp. 1–18, 2014</ref>  Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, notes that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lawler |first=Andrew |date=2003-11-07 |title=Uruk: Spreading Fashion or Empire? |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.302.5647.977 |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5647 |pages=977–978 |doi=10.1126/science.302.5647.977|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple (composite of two imprints of the same cylinder seal).jpg|King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800–3100 BC), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2020|p=101}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cheng |first1=Jack |last2=Feldman |first2=Marian |title=Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by her Students |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2085-9 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-mvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |language=en}}</ref>
File:Accountancy clay envelope Louvre Sb1932.jpg|Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BC). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. [[The Louvre]]
File:Susa II, work in the granaries (composite).jpg|Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2020|p=93}}
File:Susa II King-Priest with bow and arrow.jpg|Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2020|p=101}}
File:Susa II, prisoners.jpg|Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2020|p=97}}
File:Orant statuette-Sb 69-P5280684-gradient.jpg|Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.{{sfn|Álvarez-Mon|2020|p=101}} 
</gallery>

=== Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BC) ===

{{main|Proto-Elamite}}

Susa III (3100–2700&nbsp;BC) is also known as the '[[Proto-Elamite]]' period.<ref>D. T. Potts, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7lK6l7oF_ccC&pg=PA743 ''A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East.''] Volume 94 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons, 2012 {{ISBN|1405189886}} p. 743</ref> At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of [[Elam]] civilization.

Ambiguous reference to Elam ({{langx|sux|{{cuneiform|4|𒉏}}|translit=NIM}}) appear also in this period in [[Sumer]]ian records. Susa enters recorded history in the [[Early Dynastic Period of Sumer|Early Dynastic period of Sumer]]. A battle between [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and Susa is recorded in 2700&nbsp;BC, when [[En-me-barage-si]] is said to have "made the land of Elam submit".<ref>Per [[Sumerian King List]]</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="100px" perrow="4">
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 1484.jpg|Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC. [[Louvre Museum]], reference Sb 1484
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379.jpg|Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166.jpg|Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166
File:P1180316 Louvre Suse III tablette économique Sb15200 rwk.jpg|Economical tablet in [[Proto-Elamite script]], Suse III, [[Louvre Museum]], reference Sb 15200, circa 3100–2850 BC
</gallery>

===Elamites===
[[File:Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi Shushaki in the "Table au Lion", Louvre Museum.jpg|thumb|left|''Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi Shushaki'' ({{lang|elx|{{cuneiform|elx|𒅤𒊭𒀭𒈹𒂞 𒑐𒋼𒋛 𒈹𒂞𒆠}}}}), "[[Puzur-Inshushinak]] [[Ensi (Sumerian)|Ensi]] (Governor) of Susa", in the "Table au Lion", dated 2100 BC, Louvre Museum.<ref>Translation of the Akkadian portion into French, in {{cite book |title=Mémoires |date=1899 |publisher=P. Geuthner |location=Paris |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mmoires04franuoft/page/4 4]–7 |url=https://archive.org/details/mmoires04franuoft}}</ref>]]
In the [[Sumer]]ian period, Susa was the capital of a state called '''Susiana''' (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern [[Khūzestān Province]] centered on the [[Karun|Karun River]]. Control of Susiana shifted between [[Elam]], Sumer, and [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]].

During the [[List of Elamite kings|Elamite monarchy]], many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aruz|first1=Joan|last2=Fino|first2=Elisabetta Valtz|date=2001|title=Ancient near Eastern Art|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=59|issue=1|pages=8|doi=10.2307/3269163|issn=0026-1521|jstor=3269163}}</ref> This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia.

The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mikołajczak|first=Tytus K.|date=2011|title=Elam and Persia. Edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011. pp. xviii + 493. $89.50 (cloth).|journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume=72|issue=2|pages=284–289|doi=10.1086/671453|issn=0022-2968}}</ref> Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated by [[Sargon the Great]] into his [[Akkadian Empire]] in approximately 2330&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Foster |first=Benjamin R. |date=1993-06-01 |title=International“ Trade at Sargonic Susa (Susa in the Sargonic Period III) |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1524/aofo.1993.20.1.59/html |journal=Altorientalische Forschungen |language=de |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=59–68 |doi=10.1524/aofo.1993.20.1.59 |issn=2196-6761}}</ref>
[[File:Elam cool.jpg|thumb|Silver cup from [[Marvdasht]], Iran, with a linear-Elamite inscription from the time of Kutik-Inshushinak. [[National Museum of Iran]]]]

The main goddess of the city was [[Nanaya]], who had a significant temple in Susa.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=364}}

====Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BC)====
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 250|caption_align = center
| align     = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1    = Dynastic list Awan Siwashi Louvre Sb17729.jpg
| image2    = Awan Kings List Sb 17729 (transcription).jpg
| footer    = Dynastic list of twelve kings of Awan dynasty and twelve kings of the [[Shimashki Dynasty]], 1800–1600 BC, Susa, [[Louvre Museum]] Sb 17729.<ref>{{cite web |title=Awan King List |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/dynastic-list-kings-awan-and-simashki |access-date=2 August 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803163644/https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/dynastic-list-kings-awan-and-simashki |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=SCHEIL |first1=V. |title=Dynasties Élamites d'Awan et de Simaš |journal=Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale |date=1931 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–46 |jstor=23283945 |issn=0373-6032}}</ref>
}}
The [[Old Elamite period]] began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by [[Enmebaragesi]], the [[Sumer]]ian king of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of [[Awan dynasty|Awan]] (or ''Avan''; c. 2400–2100 BC) and [[Shimashki Dynasty|Simashki]] (c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Old Babylonian period]]. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and [[Hamazi]]; and likewise, several of the stronger [[Sumer]]ian rulers, such as [[Eannatum]] of [[Lagash]] and [[Lugal-Anne-Mundu|Lugal-anne-mundu]] of [[Adab (city)|Adab]], are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.

====Kutik-Inshushinak====
Susa was the capital of an [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] province until ca. 2100&nbsp;BC, when its governor, [[Kutik-Inshushinak]], rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the [[Awan dynasty]] according to the Susa kinglist.{{sfn|Potts|1999|p=122}} He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king of [[Elam]]. He encouraged the use of the [[Linear Elamite]] script, that remains undeciphered.

The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under [[Kindattu]] in ca. 2004&nbsp;BC. At this time, Susa was ruled by Elam again and became its capital under the Shimashki dynasty.

===Indus-Susa relations (2400–2100 BC)===
Numerous artifacts of [[Indus Valley civilization]] origin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals and [[etched carnelian beads]], pointing to [[Indus-Mesopotamia relations]] during this period.<ref name="Site officiel du musée du Louvre">{{cite web |date=2022-10-04 |title=sceau cylindre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=13544 |website=[[Louvre]]}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927|date=1996|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120611795|page=425|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C&pg=PA425|language=en}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="100px" perrow="4">
File:Susa seal with Indus signs.jpg|Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2400–2100 BC. Elongated buffalo with line of standard [[Indus script]] signs. [[Tell (archaeology)|Tell]] of the Susa acropolis. [[Louvre Museum]], reference Sb 2425.<ref name="Site officiel du musée du Louvre"/><ref name=":2" /> Indus script numbering convention per [[Asko Parpola]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Corpus by Asko Parpola|url=http://www.mohenjodaroonline.net/index.php/indus-script/corpus-by-asko-parpola|website=Mohenjodaro|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>Also, for another numbering scheme: {{cite book|last1=Mahadevan|first1=Iravatham|title=The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan|date=1987|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|pages=32–36|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan/The%20Indus%20Script.%20Text%2C%20Concordance%20and%20Tables%20-Iravathan%20Mahadevan#page/n41/mode/2up|language=en}}</ref>
File:Indus round seal with impression Elongated buffalo with Harappan scrpit imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb5614.jpg|Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2340–2200 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. [[Louvre Museum]], reference Sb 5614<ref>{{Cite web |title=Louvre Museum - cachet -2340 / -2200 (Akkad) - Lieu de création : Vallée de l'Indus - Lieu de découverte : Suse - SB 5614; AS 15374 |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010179441}}</ref>
File:Indus carnelian beads with white design imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb 13099.jpg|Indian [[carnelian]] beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. [[Louvre Museum]], reference Sb 17751.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guimet|first1=Musée|title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan|date=2016|publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique|isbn=9782402052467|pages=354–355|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.|page=395|url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n419|language=en}}</ref> These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of [[Dholavira]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nandagopal|first1=Prabhakar|title=Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat)|publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1-78491-917-7|url=https://www.academia.edu/37860117|language=en|date=2018-08-13|archive-date=20 January 2022|access-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120032858/https://www.academia.edu/37860117|url-status=dead}}</ref>
File:Indus bracelet made of Fasciolaria Trapezium or Xandus Pyrum imported front and back with inscribed chevron to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb14473.jpg|Indus bracelet, front and back, made of ''[[Pleuroploca trapezium]]'' or ''[[Turbinella pyrum]]'' imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.<ref>{{cite web|title=Louvre Museum Official Website|url=http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not&idNotice=13532|website=cartelen.louvre.fr}}</ref> This type of bracelet was manufactured in [[Mohenjo-daro]], [[Lothal]] and [[Balakot]].<ref name="FeniXX réédition numérique">{{cite book|last1=Guimet|first1=Musée|title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan|date=2016|publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique|isbn=9782402052467|page=355|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355|language=fr}}</ref> The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.<ref>{{cite book|title=Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.|page=398|url=https://archive.org/details/ArtOfTheFirstCitiesTheThirdMillenniumB.C.FromTheMediterraneanToTheIndusEditedByJ/page/n422|language=en}}</ref>
File:Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.jpg|Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.
Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2600-1700 BCE, SB 13099.jpg|Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2400–2100 BC. Louvre - SB 13099; N 601.
</gallery>

====Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BC)====
[[File:Susa, Middle-Elamite basrelief of warrior gods 1600-1100 BCE.jpg|thumb|Middle-Elamite basrelief of warrior gods, Susa, 1600–1100 BC]]
Around 1500 BC, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400&nbsp;BC, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at [[Chogha Zanbil]], {{convert|30|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-east of Susa.

In ca. 1175&nbsp;BC, the Elamites under [[Shutruk-Nahhunte]] plundered the original [[stele]] bearing the ''[[Code of Hammurabi]]'' and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901. [[Nebuchadnezzar I]] of the [[Babylonia]]n empire plundered Susa around fifty years later.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Goatfishes Louvre Sb19.jpg|An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BC.
File:Tchogha_Zanbil.jpg|The Ziggurat at [[Chogha Zanbil]] was built by Elamite king [[Untash-Napirisha]] circa 1300 BC.
File:Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BCE.jpg|Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BC
</gallery>

====Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100–540 BC)====

=====Neo-Assyrians=====
{{main|Battle of Susa}}

In 647&nbsp;BC, [[Neo-Assyrian]] king [[Ashurbanipal]] leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by [[Austen Henry Layard]] in [[Nineveh]] reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries:

<blockquote>
"Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed the [[ziggurat]] of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt."<ref>"Persians: Masters of Empire" {{ISBN|0-8094-9104-4}} p. 7-8</ref>
</blockquote>

Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BC and lasted till [[Medes|Median]] capture of Susa in 617 BC.

===Achaemenid Period===

[[File:National Meusem Darafsh 6 (42).JPG|thumb|left|[[Egyptian statue of Darius the Great|Statue of Darius the Great]], [[National Museum of Iran]]]]
[[File:Archers frieze Darius 1st Palace Suse Louvre AOD 488 a.jpg|thumb|Archers frieze from [[Darius' palace at Susa]]. Detail of the beginning of the frieze]]
[[File:Darius I statue list of subject countries.jpg|thumb|The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of [[Darius the Great]], on the base of his Statue.]]

Susa underwent a major [[political]] and [[ethnocultural]] transition when it became part of the Persian [[Achaemenid]] empire between 540 and 539&nbsp;BC when it was captured by [[Cyrus the Great]] during his conquest of [[Elam]] (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2004.003-Tavernier.pdf |title=Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology|last=Tavernier|first=Jan|page=27}}</ref> The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |url=https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-4 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |date=1988 |publisher=Cambridge university press |isbn=978-0-521-22804-6 |editor-last=Boardman |editor-first=John |volume=IV — Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean |location=Cambridge New York Melbourne |pages=112–138 |chapter=Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes}}</ref>

It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.<ref>Tolini, Gauthier, ''Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus'', Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s'engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l'armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l'affrontement armé." [http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf p. 10] (PDF)</ref> Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.<ref>The Harran Stelae H2 – A, and the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] (Seventeenth year) show that Nabonidus had been in Babylon before 10 October 539, because he had already returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of Nissanu 1 [4 April], 539&nbsp;BC.</ref>
Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time. [[Strabo]] stated that Cyrus made Susa an imperial capital though there was no new construction in that period so this is in dispute.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waters |first=Matt |date=2008 |title=Cyrus and Susa |url=https://shs.cairn.info/journal-revue-d-assyriologie-2008-1-page-115 |journal=Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale |language=en |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=115–118 |doi=10.3917/assy.102.0115 |issn=0373-6032}}</ref>

Under Cyrus' son [[Cambyses II]], Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of [[Pasargadae]] as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule, [[Darius the Great]] began a major building program in Susa and [[Persepolis]], which included building a large [[Palace of Darius in Susa|palace]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Unvala |first=J. M. |date=1929 |title=The Palace of Darius the Great and the apadana of Artaxerxes II in Susa. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/palace-of-darius-the-great-and-the-apadana-of-artaxerxes-ii-in-susa/8E22AE0099D023328749B28C17C8616E |journal=Bulletin of SOAS |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=229–234 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00122645 |issn=1474-0699 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> During this time he describes his new capital in an inscription:

"This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40&nbsp;cubits in depth, another part 20&nbsp;cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Roland G. |date=1933 |title=The Record of Darius's Palace at Susa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/593186 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.2307/593186 |issn=0003-0279 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The city forms the setting of ''[[The Persians]]'' (472&nbsp;BC), an [[Classical Athens|Athenian]] [[tragedy]] by the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] playwright [[Aeschylus]] that is the oldest surviving play in the [[history of theatre]].

The [[Book of Esther]], which is the basis for the Jewish holiday of [[Purim]], is said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. The [[King Ahasuerus]] mentioned in that book may refer to [[Xerxes I]] (486-465&nbsp;BC).

=== Seleucid period ===

[[File:The weddings at Susa, Alexander to Stateira and Hephaistion to Drypetis (late 19th century engraving).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The marriages of [[Stateira II]] to [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] and her sister, [[Drypteis]], to [[Hephaestion]] at Susa in 324 BC, as depicted in a late-19th-century engraving.]]

[[Alexander the Great]] invaded the Achaemenid empire and the satrap of Susa surrendered to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Venetis |first=Evangelos |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0199390427 |editor-last=Daryaee |editor-first=Touraj |pages=148 |chapter=Iran at the Time of Alexander the Great and the Seleucids}}</ref> Susa lost much of its importance afterwards. In 324&nbsp;BC, Alexander met [[Nearchus]] here, who explored the Persian Gulf{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}} as he returned from the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in Susa with a [[Susa weddings|mass wedding]] between the [[Persians]] and [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van Oppen de Rutter |first=Branko F. |date=2014 |title=The Susa Marriages — a Historiographical Note |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44079985 |journal=Ancient Society |volume=44 |pages=25–41 |issn=0066-1619 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The city retained its importance under the [[Seleucid]]s for approximately one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial capital to [[Seleucia|Seleucia on the Tigris]] to become the regional capital of the [[satrapy]] of Susiana.<ref>{{cite book |last= Capdetrey |first= Laurent |title= Le Pouvoir Séleucide |location= Rennes |publisher= Presses universitaires de Rennes |year= 2007 | pages= 252 |isbn= 978-2-753505-24-7}}</ref> Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade in Susa,<ref>{{Citation|last1=Boyce|first1=Mary|date=1 January 1991|work=A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule|pages=35–48|publisher=Brill|language=en|doi=10.1163/9789004293915_004|isbn=9789004293915|last2=Grenet|first2=Frantz|title=On the Western Edge of the Iranian Plateau: Susa and Elymais}}</ref> using [[Charax Spasinu|Charax Spasinou]] as its port.

The city was named '''Seleucia on the Eulaeus''' or '''Seleucia ad Eulaeum'''.

[[Seleucus I Nicator]] minted coins there in substantial quantities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marest-Caffey |first1=Laure |title=Seleukos I's Victory Coinage of Susa Revisited: A Die Study and Commentary |journal=American Journal of Numismatics |date=2016 |volume=28 |pages=1–63}}</ref> Susa is rich in Greek inscriptions,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=EPIGRAPHY ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/epigraphy-ii/ |last=Huyse |first=Philip |date=1998-12-15 |volume=VIII |pages=488–490}}</ref> perhaps indicating a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated.

=== Parthian period ===

Around 147&nbsp;BC Susa and the adjacent [[Elymais]] broke free from the [[Seleucid Empire]]. The city was at least temporarily ruled by the rulers of the Elymais with [[Kamnaskires II Nikephoros]] minting coins there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule, but starting with [[Phraates II]] (about 138–127 BC) to [[Gotarzes II of Parthia|Gotarzes II]] (about 40–51 AD) almost all rulers of the [[Parthian Empire]] coined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuing [[Parthia]]n period.<ref>{{cite book |last= Hill |first= John E. |title= Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE |location= Charleston |publisher= BookSurge |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-1-4392-2134-1}}</ref> From second half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.{{sfn|Potts|1999|401}}<ref>{{cite book |last= Le Rider |first= Georges |author-link= Georges Le Rider |title= Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran XXXVIII: Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes |location= Paris |year= 1965 | pages= 349–430 }}</ref>

Susa was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] kings, as the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] sacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297&nbsp;AD. Susa was briefly captured in 116&nbsp;AD by the Roman emperor [[Trajan]] during the course of his [[Trajan's Parthian campaign|
Parthian campaign]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rawlinson |first=George |title=Parthia |publisher=Cosimo |year=1893 |isbn=978-1-60206-136-1 |location=New York |publication-date=2007 |pages=310}}</ref> Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wenke |first=Robert J. |date=1981 |title=Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/602592 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=303–315 |doi=10.2307/602592 |issn=0003-0279 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Sassanid period ===

Susa was conquered and destroyed in 224&nbsp;AD by the Sassanid [[Ardashir I]], but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily a royal residence. According to a later tradition, [[Shapur I]] is said to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition is uncertain and perhaps refers more to [[Shapur II]].

Under the Sassanids, following the founding of [[Gundeshapur]] Susa slowly lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares.
Susa was also still very significant economically and a trading center, especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian saint has been found.

During the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Neusner |first= Jacob |title=  Babylonian Jewry And Shapur Ii's Persecution of Christianity From 339 to 379&nbsp;CE |journal= Hebrew Union College Annual |volume= 43 |pages= 77–102 |publisher= Hebrew Union College Press |year = 1972 }}</ref> Shapur II also imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans.  Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa, the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants.{{sfn|Harper|Aruz|Talon|1992|p=162}} He later had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers, which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans in Amida in 359.  The weaver produced silk brocade.{{sfn|Potts|1999|418–419}} He renamed it ''Eran-Khwarrah-Shapur'' ("Iran's glory [built by] Shapur").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=ŠĀPUR II |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shapur-ii |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |edition=online}}</ref>

=== Islamic period ===

During the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] an Arab army invaded [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]] under the command of [[Abu Musa al-Ash'ari]]. After taking most of the smaller fortified towns the army captured [[Shushtar|Tustar]] in 642 before proceeding to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the tomb of the Jewish prophet [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]].
Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell. In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only a ''dajjal'' was fated to capture the city. A ''dajjal'' is an Islamic term for an ''[[Al-Masih ad-Dajjal]]'', a false messiah, compatible to the [[Antichrist]] in Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver" or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus a ''dajjal''. Abu Musa agreed to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached, Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate to take the city.<ref name= Crawford>{{cite book |last= Crawford |first= Peter |title= The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |location= Barnsley |publisher= Pen & Sword Military |year= 2013 | pages= 183–184 |isbn= 978-1-84884-612-8}}</ref>

In the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city wall that only an ''[[Al-Masih ad-Dajjal]]'' could capture the city, and since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and it fell open.<ref name= Kennedy >{{cite book |last= Kennedy |first= Hugh |title= The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In |location= London |publisher= Weidenfeld & Nicolson |year= 2007 | pages= 128–129 |isbn= 978-0-297-84657-4}}</ref>
 
Following their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian nobles.<ref name= Kennedy />

Once the city was taken, as Daniel ({{langx|ar|دانيال|Danyal}}) was not mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliph [[Umar]] ordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed.<ref name= Kennedy /> In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.<ref name= Kennedy />

Following the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiege [[Gundeshapur]].<ref name= Crawford/>

Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size.<ref>{{cite book |last= Amiet |first= Pierre |title= Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran: Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967 |location= Paris |publisher= P. Geuthner |year= 1972 }}</ref> A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue.
The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its [[Islamic ceramics from the Susa site|rich ceramics]]. [[Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)]] had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the [[Church of the East]] between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).

In 1218, the city was razed by invading [[Mongols]] and was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to [[Dezful]].<ref>{{cite book |author= M. Streck, [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth]] |title= Encyclopaedia of Islam, San-Sze |volume=IX |year= 1997 |pages= 898–899 |publisher=Brill |location= Leiden|isbn=9789004104228|title-link= Encyclopaedia of Islam }}</ref>

=== Today ===

Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of [[Shush, Iran|Shush]] to the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital of [[Shush County]] in Iran's [[Khuzestan]] province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.

== World Heritage listing ==

In July 2015, it was inscribed on the list of [[World Heritage Site]]s by [[UNESCO]].<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web |title= Susa |publisher= UNESCO |date= 2015 |url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1455 |access-date= 15 April 2019}}</ref>

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:ArtabanIIIGreekLetter.JPG|Letter in Greek of the Parthian king [[Artabanus II of Parthia|Artabanus II]] to the inhabitants of Susa in the 1st century AD (the city retained Greek institutions since the time of the [[Seleucid empire]]). [[Louvre Museum]].<ref>Epigraphy of Later Parthia, «Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei», 7, 2013, pp. 276-284 [https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Letter-in-Greek-of-king-Artaban-II-to-the-inhabitants-of-Susa-Louvre-Museum_fig1_335679719]</ref>
File:Rose cup Susa Louvre MAOS53.jpg|Glazed clay cup: Cup with rose petals, 8th–9th centuries
File:Unidentified selucid anthropoid sarcophagus.jpg|Anthropoid [[sarcophagus]]
File:Lion Darius Palace Louvre Sb3298.jpg|Lion on a decorative panel from [[Palace of Darius at Susa|Darius I the Great's palace]]
File:Male head wearing a head-band resembling king of Syria Antiochus III (223–187 BC), late 1st century BC–early 1st century AD, Louvre Museum (7462828632).jpg|Marble head representing [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] King [[Antiochus III]] who was born near Susa around 242 BC.<ref name=" Jonsson, David J. 2005 566 ">{{cite book|author= Jonsson, David J.|title= The Clash of Ideologies|publisher= Xulon Press|year= 2005|page=566|isbn= 978-1-59781-039-5|quote= Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Iran. }}</ref>
File:Palmtree vase Susa Louvre MAOS383.jpg|Glazed clay vase: Vase with palmtrees, 8th–9th centuries
File:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|Winged [[sphinx]] from the palace of [[Darius the Great]] at Susa.
File:Daniel Barry Kent.JPG|[[Tomb of Daniel]]
File:Ninhursag1.jpg|[[Ninhursag]] with the spirit of the forests next to the seven-spiked cosmic tree of life. Relief from Susa.
File:Tomb of Daniel.jpg|19th-century engraving of [[Tomb of Daniel|Daniel's tomb]] in Susa, from ''Voyage en Perse Modern''e, by Flandin and Coste.
File:Archers frieze Darius 1st Palace Suse Louvre AOD 488 a.jpg|Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze, left. [[Louvre Museum]]
File:Torque Susa Louvre Sb2760.jpg|Ribbed [[torc]] with lion heads, Achaemenid artwork, excavated by [[Jacques de Morgan]], 1901, found in the [[Acropole Tomb]]
File:Shush Castle.JPG|Shush Castle, 2011
File:Children in Susa.JPG|Children in Susa
File:Terracotta herm Louvre Sb785.jpg|[[Herma|Herm]] pillar with Hermes, from the well of the "Dungeon" in Susa.
</gallery>

== See also ==

{{Portal|Iran}}
*[[Abulites]]
*[[Achaemenid architecture]]
*[[Choqa Zanbil]]
*[[Elamite Empire|Elam]]
*[[History of Iran]]
*[[Islamic ceramics from the Susa site|Islamic ceramics of the Susa site]]
*[[List of cities of the ancient Near East]]
*[[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities]]
*[[Muslim conquest of Khuzestan]]
*[[Short chronology timeline]]

== Notes ==

{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Álvarez-Mon |first1=Javier |title=The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-03485-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxHaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT101 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1= Harper |first1= Prudence |last2= Aruz |first2= Joan |last3= Tallon |first3= Frangoise |title= The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre |location= New York |publisher= The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year= 1992 |url= https://archive.org/stream/RoyalCityofSusaAncientNearEasternTreasuresintheLouvre/RoyalCityofSusaAncientNearEasternTreasuresintheLouvre_djvu.txt }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hinz |first1=Walther |author-link1=:de:Walther Hinz |last2=Koch |first2=Heidemarie |author-link2=Heidemarie Koch |date=1987 |title=Elamisches Wörterbuch |trans-title=Elamite Wordbook |volume=2 |language=de |url=https://archive.org/details/ElamischesWorterbuch.2 |location=[[Berlin]], [[Germany]] |publisher=[[:de:Dietrich Reimer Verlag|Dietrich Reimer Verlag]] |page= |isbn= }}
* {{Cite book |last= Potts |first= Daniel T. |title= The archaeology of Elam: Formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state  |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1999 |location= Cambridge |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofela0000pott |url-access=registration |isbn= 978-0-521-56496-0}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |last= Bosworth |first= C. E. |title= The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods |year= 1975 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |isbn= 978-0-521-20093-6 }}
* [https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/paleo_0153-9345_1988_num_14_1_4439.pdf]{{Dead link|date=December 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}Charvát, Petr, "Archaeology and social history: the Susa sealings, ca. 4000-2340 BC.", Paléorient,  57-63, 1988
* Clawson, H. Phelps, "Pottery of Susa I", Parnassus, vol. 11, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;26–27, 1939
* {{cite book |last= Daryaee |first= Touraj |author-link= Touraj Daryaee |title= Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire |year= 2014 |publisher= I.B.Tauris |isbn= 978-0857716668}}
*{{cite book |last= Jalalipour |first= Saeid |title= The Arab Conquest of Persia: The Khūzistān Province before and after the Muslims Triumph |url= http://www.sasanika.org/wp-content/uploads/GardPaper11-The-Arab-Conquest-of-Persia-The-Kh%23U00c5zist%23U00c4-n-Province.pdf |year= 2014 |publisher= Sasanika }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* Le Breton, L., "The Early Periods at Susa, Mesopotamian Relations", Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;79–124, 1957
* Pelzel, Suzanne M., "Dating the Early Dynastic Votive Plaques from Susa", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;1–15, 1977
* Jean Perrot, "Le Palais de Darius à Suse. Une résidence royale sur la route de Persépolis à Babylone", SORBONNE PUPS, Paris, 2010 {{isbn|978-2840506812}}
* Poebel, Arno, "The Acropolis of Susa in the Elamite Inscriptions", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 49, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;125–40, 1933
* UNVALA, J. M., "Three Panels from Susa", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 25, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;179–85, 1928
* {{cite book |last1= Westenholtz |first1= J. G. |last2= Guthartz |first2= L. Taylor |title= Royal Cities of the Biblical World |location= Jerusalem |publisher= Rubin Mass |year= 1996 |isbn= 978-9657027011}}
* Woolley, C. Leonard, "The Painted Pottery of Susa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;35–50, 1928

=== Excavation reports ===

Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans.

* Pierre Amiet, "Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967", Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran, Paris 1972.
* Elizabeth Carter, "Suse, Ville Royale", Paléorient, vol. 4, pp.&nbsp;197–211, 1979 DOI: 10.3406/paleo.1978.4222
* Elizabeth Carter, "The Susa Sequence – 3000–2000 B. C. Susa, Ville Royale I", American Journal of Archaeology,  vol. 83, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;451–454, 1979
* Elizabeth Carter, "Excavations  in  Ville-Royale-I  at  Susa:  The  third  Millennium B.C.", Cahiers  de  la  DAFI, vol. 11, pp.&nbsp;11–139, 1980
* Roman Ghirshman, "Cinq campagnes de fouilles a Suse (1946–1951)", In: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale 46, pp 1–18, 1952
* Ghirshman, Roman, and M. J. STEVE, "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1964-1965: Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 13, pp.&nbsp;3–32, 1966
* GHIRSHMAN, R., "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1965-1966 Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 15, pp.&nbsp;3–27, 1967
* [[Florence Malbran-Labat]], "Les inscriptions royales de Suse: briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l'empire néo-élamite", Paris 1995.
* Laurianne Martinez-Sève, "Les figurines de Suse", Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris 2002, {{ISBN|2-7118-4324-6}}.
* de Mecquenem, R., "LES DERNIERS RÉSULTATS DES FOUILLES DE SUSE", Revue Des Arts Asiatiques, vol. 6, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;73–88, 1929
* de MECQUENEM, R., "FOUILLES DE SUSE: CAMPAGNES DES ANNÉES 1914-1921-1922", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 19, no. 3, pp.&nbsp;109–40, 1922
* [https://archive.org/download/histoireettrava00morggoog/histoireettrava00morggoog.pdf] Jacques de Morgan, "Histoire et travaux de la Délégation en Perse du Ministère de l'instruction publique, 1897-1905", E. Leroux, 1905
* Jacques de Morgan, G. Jéquier, G. Lampre, "Fouilles à Suse, 1897–1898 et 1898–1899", Paris 1900
* Perrot, Jean, et al., "Recherches Archéologiques a Suse et En Susiane En 1969 et En 1970", Syria, vol. 48, no. 1/2, pp.&nbsp;21–51, 1971
* [[Georges Le Rider]], "Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes: les trouvailles monétaires et l'histoire de la ville", Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran, Paris 1965.
* Vincent Scheil, "Inscriptions of Achéménides à Suse. Actes juridiques susiens", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse, vol. 21–24, Paris 1929–1933.
* Agnes Spycket, "Les figurines de Suse", Paris 1992.
* Marie-Joseph Steve, Hermann Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse. Nouvelles fouilles (rapport préliminaire)", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse vol. 46, Leiden 1971.

{{Commons category|Susa}}

==External links==
{{refbegin}}
* [https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/early-works-on-the-acropolis-at-susa/ "Early Works on the Acropolis at Susa" Expedition Magazine 10.4 1968]
* [https://resources.metmuseum.org/resources/metpublications/pdf/Royal_City_of_Susa_Ancient_Near_Eastern_Treasures_in_the_Louvre.pdf Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre - Metropolitan Museum - 1992]
* [https://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/iran-aerial-survey-flights#10G11_72dpi.png Aerial views of Susa at the Oriental Institute]
* [https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/search_results.php?SearchMode=Text&PrimaryPublication=&MuseumNumber=&Provenience=susa&Period=&TextSearch=&ObjectID=&requestFrom=Submit+Query Digital Images of Cuneiform Tablets from Susa – CDLI]
*Hamid-Reza Hosseini, [http://www.jadidonline.com/story/10032009/frnk/susa_shush ''Shush at the foot of Louvre''] (''Shush dar dāman-e [[Louvre]]''), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009.
*[https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/475900/Archaeological-findings-may-push-back-Susa-s-history-by-millennia Archaeological findings may push back Susa's history by millennia - Tehran Times - August 21, 2022]
{{refend}}

{{Iranian Architecture}}
{{Khuzestan Province}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Iran}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Susa| ]]
[[Category:Achaemenid cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iran]]
[[Category:Book of Esther]]
[[Category:Book of Ezra locations]]
[[Category:Book of Nehemiah locations]]
[[Category:Book of Daniel locations]]
[[Category:Elam]]
[[Category:Elamite cities]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Khuzestan province]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible cities]]
[[Category:Parthian cities]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Sasanian cities]]
[[Category:Seleucid colonies]]
[[Category:Shush County]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Iran]]
[[Category:Uruk period]]
[[Category:Book of Jubilees]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures on the Iran National Heritage List]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 5th millennium BC]]
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[[Category:1218 disestablishments]]
[[Category:1218 disestablishments in Asia]]