Athena: Difference between revisions

{{short description|Goddess of wisdom and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology}}

{{redirect-several|Athena|Athene|Athina}}

{{good article}}

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| symbol = [[Aegis]], helmet, spear, armor, [[Gorgoneion]], chariot, [[distaff]]

| parents = [[Zeus]] alone, or Zeus and [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]{{efn|In other traditions, Athena's father is sometimes listed as [[Pallas (Giant)|Pallas]], [[Cyclopes|Brontes]], or [[Itonus|Itonos]]. [[Poseidon]] is also sometimes listed as her father, by the nymph Tritonis. Herodotus 4.180, Pausanias 1.14.6 }}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=121–122}}

'''Athena'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|θ|iː|n|ə}}; [[Attic Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀθηνᾶ}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnâ}}'', or {{lang|grc|Ἀθηναία}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnaía}}''; [[Epic Greek|Epic]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀθηναίη}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnaíē}}''; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀθάνα}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Athā́nā}}''}} or '''Athene''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|θ|iː|n|iː}}; [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀθήνη}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Athḗnē}}''}} often given the [[epithet]] '''Pallas''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|æ|l|ə|s}}; {{lang|grc|Παλλάς}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Pallás}}''}} is an [[ancient Greek religion|ancient Greek goddess]] associated with wisdom, warfare, and [[handicraft]]<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature |date=1995 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=9780877790426 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwHcQ4C&pg=PA81 81]}}</ref> who was later [[syncretism|syncretized]] with the [[Roman goddess]] [[Minerva]].{{sfn|Deacy|Villing|2001}} Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of [[Athens]], from which she most likely received her name.<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THIS TO SAY ATHENS WAS NAMED AFTER ATHENA. Walter Burkert, a major authority on ancient Greek religion, states: "Since -ene is a typical place-name suffix - Mykene, Pallene, Troizen(e), Messene, and Cyrene - the goddess most probably takes her name from the city; she is the Pallas of Athens, just as Hera of Argos is Here Argeie." Thank you.-->{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}} The [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis of Athens]] is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include [[Owl of Athena|owls]], [[olive trees]], snakes, and the [[Gorgoneion]]. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.

From her origin as an Aegean [[tutelary deity|palace goddess]], Athena was closely associated with the city. She was known as ''Polias'' and ''Poliouchos'' (both derived from ''[[polis]]'', meaning "city-state"), and her temples were usually located atop the fortified [[acropolis]] in the central part of the city. The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis is dedicated to her, along with numerous other temples and monuments. As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as ''Ergane''. She was also a [[Women in ancient warfare|warrior goddess]], and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as ''[[Athena Promachos]]''. Her main festival in Athens was the [[Panathenaic Games|Panathenaia]], which was celebrated during the month of [[Attic calendar|Hekatombaion]] in midsummer and was the most important festival on the Athenian calendar.

In [[Greek mythology]], Athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father [[Zeus]]. In almost all versions of the story, Athena has no mother and is born from Zeus' forehead by [[parthenogenesis]]. In a few others, such as [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', Zeus swallows his consort [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], who was pregnant with Athena; in this version, Athena is first born within Zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead. In the [[founding myth]] of Athens, Athena bested [[Poseidon]] in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree. She was known as ''[[Athena Parthenos]]'' "Athena the Virgin". In one archaic [[Attica|Attic]] myth, [[Hephaestus]] tried and failed to rape her, resulting in [[Gaia]] giving birth to [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]], an important Athenian founding hero Athena raised. She was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor; she was believed to have aided the heroes [[Perseus]], [[Heracles]], [[Bellerophon]], and [[Jason]]. Along with [[Aphrodite]] and [[Hera]], Athena was one of the three goddesses [[Judgement of Paris|whose feud]] resulted in the [[Trojan War]]. She plays an active role in the ''[[Iliad]]'', in which she assists the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] and, in the ''[[Odyssey]]'', she is the [[tutelary deity]] to [[Odysseus]].

[[File:Akropolis by Leo von Klenze.jpg|thumb|''The Acropolis at Athens'' (1846) by [[Leo von Klenze]]. Athena's name probably comes from the name of the city of [[Athens]].{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}}{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}}]]

Athena is associated with the city of [[Athens]].{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=230}} The name of the city in ancient Greek is {{Lang|grc|Ἀθῆναι}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|Athȇnai}}), a plural [[toponym]], designating the place where—according to myth—she presided over the ''Athenai'', a sisterhood devoted to her worship.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}} In ancient times, scholars argued whether Athena was named after Athens or Athens after Athena.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}} Now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city;{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=230}} the ending -''ene'' is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}} Testimonies from different cities in [[ancient Greece]] attest that similar [[city goddess]]es were worshipped in other cities{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}} and, like Athena, took their names from the cities where they were worshipped.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}} For example, in [[Mycenae]] there was a goddess called Mykene, whose sisterhood was known as ''Mykenai'',{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}} whereas at [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] an analogous deity was called Thebe, and the city was known under the plural form ''Thebai'' (or Thebes, in English, where the 's' is the plural formation).{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|1994|page=24}} The name ''Athenai'' is likely of [[Pre-Greek]] origin because it contains the presumably Pre-Greek [[morpheme]] ''*-ān-''.{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page=29}}

[[File:Seal of Inanna, 2350-2150 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Ancient [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] [[cylinder seal]] (dating {{circa}} 2334–2154 BC) depicting [[Inanna]], the goddess of war, armored and carrying weapons, resting her foot on the back of a lion{{sfn|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|pages=92, 193}}]]

Plato notes that the citizens of [[Sais]] in Egypt worshipped a goddess known as [[Neith]],{{efn|"The citizens have a deity for their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith and is asserted by them to be the same whom the Hellenes call Athena; they are great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they are in some way related to them." (''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' 21e.)}} whom he identifies with Athena.<ref>Cf. also Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 2:170–175.</ref> Neith was the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and hunting, who was also associated with weaving; her worship began during the Egyptian Pre-Dynastic period. In Greek mythology, Athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in North Africa, including Libya's [[Triton (mythology)|Triton River]] and the [[Phlegra (mythology)|Phlegraean plain]].{{efn|[[Aeschylus]], ''[[The Eumenides|Eumenides]]'', v. 292 f. Cf. the tradition that she was the daughter of Neilos: see, e.&nbsp;g. Clement of Alexandria ''Protr.'' 2.28.2; Cicero, ''[[De Natura Deorum]]'' 3.59.}} Based on these similarities, the [[Sinologist]] [[Martin Bernal]] created the "[[Black Athena]]" hypothesis, which claimed that Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with "an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia".{{sfn|Bernal|1987|pages=21, 51 ff}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=221–229}} The "Black Athena" hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century,{{sfn|Berlinerblau|1999|page=93ff}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=221–255}} but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars.{{sfn|Jasanoff|Nussbaum|1996|page=194}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages=250–255}}

{{see also|:Category:Epithets of Athena}}

| caption2          = Bust of the Velletri Pallas type, copy after a votive statue of Kresilas in Athens ({{circa|425}} BC)

Athena was known as ''Atrytone'' ({{lang|grc|Άτρυτώνη}} "the Unwearying"), ''Parthenos'' ({{lang|grc|Παρθένος}} "Virgin"), and ''Promachos'' ({{lang|grc|Πρόμαχος}} "she who fights in front"). The epithet ''Polias'' (Πολιάς "of the city"), refers to Athena's role as protectress of the city.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} The epithet ''Ergane'' (Εργάνη "the Industrious") pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} Burkert notes that the Athenians sometimes simply called Athena "the Goddess", ''hē theós'' (ἡ θεός), certainly an ancient title.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=139}} After serving as the judge at the trial of [[Orestes]] in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother [[Clytemnestra]] since he was following [[Apollo]]'s orders, Athena won the epithet ''[[Athena Areia|Areia]]'' (Αρεία).{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} Some have described Athena, along with the goddesses [[Hestia]] and [[Artemis]] as being asexual, this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, ''To Aphrodite'', where [[Aphrodite]] is described as having "no power" over the three goddesses.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Homeric hymns |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books |translator-first1=Jules |translator-last1=Cashford |isbn=0-14-043782-7 |location=London |oclc=59339816}}</ref>

In [[Homer]]'s [[Epic poetry|epic works]], Athena's most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] is ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Glaukopis}}'' ({{lang|grc|γλαυκῶπις}}), which usually is translated as, "bright-eyed" or "with gleaming eyes".<ref>{{LSJ|glaukw{{=}}pis|γλαυκῶπις|shortref}}.</ref> The word is a combination of ''{{lang|grc-Latn|glaukós}}'' ({{lang|grc|γλαυκός}}, meaning "gleaming, silvery", and later, "bluish-green" or "gray")<ref>{{LSJ|glauko/s1|γλαυκός|shortref}}.</ref> and ''{{lang|grc-Latn|ṓps}}'' ({{lang|grc|ὤψ}}, "eye, face").<ref>{{LSJ|w)/y|ὤψ|shortref}}.</ref>

In her aspect of ''Athena Polias'', Athena was venerated as the goddess of the city and the protectress of the citadel.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=140}}{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=11–15}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=15}} In Athens, the [[Plynteria]], or "Feast of the Bath", was observed every year at the end of the month of [[Thargelion]].{{sfn|Simon|1983|page=46}} The festival lasted for five days. During this period, the priestesses of Athena, or ''[[plyntrídes]]'', performed a cleansing ritual within the [[Erechtheion]], a sanctuary devoted to Athena and Poseidon.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages=46–49}} Here Athena's statue was undressed, her clothes washed, and body purified.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages=46–49}} Athena was worshipped at festivals such as [[Chalceia]] as ''Athena Ergane'',{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=1–11}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=15}} the patroness of various crafts, especially [[weaving]].{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=1–11}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=15}} She was also the patron of metalworkers and was believed to aid in the forging of armor and weapons.{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=1–11}} During the late fifth century BC, the role of goddess of philosophy became a major aspect of Athena's [[cult (religious practice)|cult]].{{sfn|Burkert|1985|pages=305–337}}

As ''[[Athena Promachos]]'', she was believed to lead soldiers into battle.{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=11–14}}{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} Athena represented the disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother [[Ares]], the patron of violence, bloodlust, and slaughter—"the raw force of war".{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages=114–115}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=123–124}} Athena was believed to only support those fighting for a just cause{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages=114–115}} and was thought to view war primarily as a means to resolve conflict.{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages=114–115}} The Greeks regarded Athena with much higher esteem than Ares.{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages=114–115}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=123–124}} Athena was especially worshipped in this role during the festivals of the [[Panathenaea]] and [[Pamboeotia]],{{sfn|Robertson|1992|pages=90–109}} both of which prominently featured displays of athletic and military prowess.{{sfn|Robertson|1992|pages=90–109}} As the patroness of heroes and warriors, Athena was believed to favor those who used cunning and intelligence rather than brute strength.{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=18}}

In her aspect as a warrior maiden, Athena was known as ''[[Athena Parthenos|Parthenos]]'' ({{lang|grc|[[:wikt:παρθένος|Παρθένος]]}} "virgin"),{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=11–14}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1986|page=121}}{{sfn|Garland|2008|page=217}} because, like her fellow goddesses [[Artemis]] and [[Hestia]], she was believed to remain perpetually a virgin.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=123}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1986|page=31}}{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages=11–14}}{{sfn|Garland|2008|page=217}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Athena's most famous temple, the [[Parthenon]] on the [[Athenian Acropolis]], takes its name from this title.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} According to [[Károly Kerényi|Karl Kerényi]], a scholar of Greek mythology, the name ''Parthenos'' is not merely an observation of Athena's virginity, but also a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Even beyond recognition, the Athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity, which they upheld as a rudiment of female behavior.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Kerényi's study and theory of Athena explains her virginal epithet as a result of her relationship to her father Zeus and a vital, cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} This role is expressed in several stories about Athena. [[Marinus of Neapolis]] reports that when Christians removed the statue of the goddess from the [[Parthenon]], a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to [[Proclus]], a devotee of Athena, and announced that the ''"Athenian Lady"'' wished to dwell with him.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marinus of Samaria, The Life of Proclus or Concerning Happiness |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/marinus_01_life_of_proclus.htm |website=tertullian.org |pages=15–55 |date=1925 |quote=Translated by Kenneth S. Guthrie (Para:30)}}</ref>

Athena was also credited with creating the pebble-based form of divination. Those pebbles were called ''[[Thriae|thriai]]'', which was also the collective name of a group of nymphs with prophetic powers. Her half-brother Apollo, however, angered and spiteful at the practitioners of an art rival to his own, complained to their father Zeus about it, with the pretext that many people took to casting pebbles, but few actually were true prophets. Zeus, sympathizing with Apollo's grievances, discredited the pebble divination by rendering the pebbles useless. Apollo's words became the basis of an ancient Greek idiom.{{sfn|Apollodorus of Athens|2016|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eFmQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT224 224]}}

Athena was not only the patron goddess of Athens, but also other cities, including [[Pergamon]],<ref name=":0" /> [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Sparta]], [[Gortyn]], [[Lindos]], and [[Larissa|Larisa]].{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} The various cults of Athena were all branches of her panhellenic cult{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} and often proctored various initiation rites of Grecian youth, such as the passage into citizenship by young men or the passage of young women into marriage.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} These cults were portals of a uniform socialization, even beyond mainland Greece.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages=1059–1073}} Athena was frequently equated with [[Aphaea]], a local goddess of the island of [[Aegina]], originally from [[Crete]] and also associated with [[Artemis]] and the nymph [[Britomartis]].{{sfn|Pilafidis-Williams|1998}} In [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]], she was assimilated with the ancient goddess Alea and worshiped as [[Athena Alea]].{{sfn|Jost|1996|pages=134–135}} Sanctuaries dedicated to Athena Alea were located in the [[Laconia]]n towns of [[Mantineia]] and [[Tegea]]. The temple of Athena Alea in Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece.{{efn|"This sanctuary had been respected from early days by all the [[Peloponnesian]]s, and afforded peculiar safety to its suppliants" (Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' iii.5.6)}} The geographer [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] was informed that the ''temenos'' had been founded by [[Aleus]].<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' viii.4.8.</ref>

Athena had a major temple on the [[Sparta#Archaeology of the classical period|Spartan Acropolis]],{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=15}} where she was venerated as Poliouchos and ''Khalkíoikos'' ("of the Brazen House", often [[latin]]ized as ''Chalcioecus'').{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=15}} This epithet may refer to the fact that cult statue held there may have been made of bronze,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}} that the walls of the temple itself may have been made of bronze,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}} or that Athena was the patron of metal-workers.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}} Bells made of terracotta and bronze were used in Sparta as part of Athena's cult.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=127}} An [[Ionic order|Ionic-style]] temple to Athena Polias was built at [[Priene]] in the fourth century BC.{{sfn|Burn|2004|page=10}} It was designed by [[Pythius of Priene|Pytheos of Priene]],{{sfn|Burn|2004|page=11}} the same architect who designed the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]].{{sfn|Burn|2004|page=11}} The temple was dedicated by [[Alexander the Great]]{{sfn|Burn|2004|pages=10–11}} and [[Priene inscription of Alexander the Great|an inscription from the temple]] declaring his dedication is now held in the [[British Museum]].{{sfn|Burn|2004|page=10}} She was worshipped as ''Athena Asia'' in [[Colchis]] – supposedly on an account of a nearby mountain with that name – from which her worship was believed to have been brought by [[Castor and Pollux]] to [[Laconia]], where a temple was built to her at [[Las (Greece)|Las]].<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.24.5</ref><ref>{{cite book

In the classical Olympian pantheon, Athena was regarded as the favorite child of Zeus, the king of the gods, born fully armed from his forehead. Since her birth, she possessed great power.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=118–120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=17–32}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages=230–231}}{{efn|[[Jane Ellen Harrison]]'s famous characterization of this myth-element as, "a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions" (Harrison 1922:302) has never been refuted nor confirmed.}} The story of her birth comes in several versions.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=118–122}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=17–19}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=121–123}} The earliest mention is in Book V of the ''Iliad'', when [[Ares]] accused Zeus of being biased in favor of Athena because "''autos egeinao''" (literally "you fathered her", but probably intended as "you gave birth to her").<ref>''Iliad'' Book V, line 880</ref>{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=18}} She usually is the daughter of Zeus, produced without a mother, and often emerged full-grown from his forehead; but there is an uncommon alternate story in which Zeus swallowed [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of counsel, while she was pregnant with Athena and when she was fully grown she emerged from his forehead.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=118–120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=17–32}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages=230–231}}{{efn|[[Jane Ellen Harrison]]'s famous characterization of this myth-element as, "a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions" (Harrison 1922:302) has never been refuted nor confirmed.}}

In the version recounted by [[Hesiod]] in his ''[[Theogony]]'', Zeus married Metis, who is described as the "wisest among gods and mortal men", and engaged in sexual intercourse with her.<ref name="HesiodTheogony929e929t">Hesiod, ''[[Theogony]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D886 885–900] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224172406/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D886 |date=24 February 2021 }}, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D901 929e-929t] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028114913/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0130:card=901 |date=28 October 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=118–119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=121–122}} After learning that Metis was pregnant, however, he became afraid that the unborn offspring would try to overthrow him, because Gaia and [[Ouranos]] had prophesied that Metis would bear a son wiser and more powerful than his father who would overthrow him.<ref name="HesiodTheogony929e929t" />{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages=118–119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=121–122}} In order to prevent this, Zeus tricked Metis into letting him swallow her, but it was too late because she had already conceived and soon gave birth to their daughter Athena, whom Metis raised inside of his mind, where she continues to give him advice as a ruler. When Athena grew up, Metis forged robes, armor, a shield and a spear for her daughter.<ref name="HesiodTheogony929e929t" />{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=121–122}} A later account of the story from the ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' of Pseudo-Apollodorus, written in the second century AD, makes Metis Zeus's unwilling sexual partner, rather than his wife.<ref name="Pseudo-Apollodorus136">Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 1.3.6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224174038/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 |date=24 February 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=122–123}} According to this version of the story, Metis transformed into many different shapes in effort to escape Zeus,<ref name="Pseudo-Apollodorus136" />{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=122–123}} but Zeus successfully raped her and swallowed her.<ref name="Pseudo-Apollodorus136" />{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=122–123}}

Athena, born a daughter instead of the son of the prophecy Hesiod described, never successfully overthrew her father Zeus as the ruler of the cosmos; but [[Homer]]' ''[[Illiad]]'' tells of an attempted overthrow, in which she, Hera and [[Poseidon]] conspired to overpower Zeus and tie him in bonds. It is only because of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]], who summoned Briareus, one of the [[Hecatoncheires]], to [[Mount Olympus]], that the other gods abandon their plans (out of fear for Briareus).<ref>Gantz, p. 59; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA82 p. 82]; [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.386-1.427 1.395–410].</ref>

In Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'', Athena, as a war goddess, inspired and fought alongside the Greek heroes; her aid was synonymous with military prowess. Zeus, the chief god, specifically assigned the sphere of war to Ares, the god of war, and Athena. Athena's moral and military superiority to Ares derived in part from the fact that she represented the intellectual and civilized side of war and the virtues of justice and skill, whereas Ares represented mere blood lust. Her superiority also derived in part from the vastly greater variety and importance of her functions and the patriotism of Homer's predecessors, Ares being of foreign origin. In the ''Iliad'', Athena was the divine form of the heroic, martial ideal: she personified excellence in close combat and glory, and was personally attended by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], the goddess of victory. The qualities that led to victory were found on the aegis, or breastplate, that Athena wore when she went to war: fear, strife, defense, and assault. [[File:Jason being saved by Athena from the dragon, Attic red-figured kylix, attributed to Douris, 480-470 BC, inv. 16545 - Museo Gregoriano Etrusco - Vatican Museums - DSC01046 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Attic red-figure kylix painting from {{circa}} 480-470 BC showing Athena observing as the [[Colchis|Colchian]] dragon disgorges the hero [[Jason]]{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=62}}]]

Pseudo-Apollodorus also records that Athena guided the hero [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in his quest to behead [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]].{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=141}}{{sfn|Kinsley|1989|page=151}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=61}} She and [[Hermes]], the god of travelers, appeared to Perseus after he set off on his quest and gifted him with tools he would need to kill the Gorgon.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=61}}<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 2.37, 38, 39</ref> Athena lent Perseus her polished bronze shield to view Medusa's reflection  without becoming petrified himself.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=61}}<ref name="Bibliotheca2.41">Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 2.41</ref> Hermes lent Perseus his [[harpe]] to behead Medusa with.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=61}}<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 2.39</ref> When Perseus swung the blade to behead Medusa, Athena guided it, allowing the blade to cut the Gorgon's head clean off.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=61}}<ref name="Bibliotheca2.41" />

In ''[[The Odyssey]]'', [[Odysseus]]' cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins Athena's favour.{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page=19}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=124}} For the first part of the poem, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from ''afar'', mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the "protectress of heroes", or, as mythologian [[Walter Friedrich Otto]] dubbed her, the "goddess of nearness", due to her mentoring and motherly probing.<ref>W. F. Otto, ''Die Gotter Griechenlands (55–77)''. Bonn: F. Cohen, 1929.</ref>{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=141}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=59}} It is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the [[Phaeacians]], where [[Nausicaa]] is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance.{{sfn|de Jong|2001|page=152}} She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca.{{sfn|de Jong|2001|pages=152–153}} Athena appears to Odysseus upon his arrival, disguised as a herdsman;{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages=31–35}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=142}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page=19}} she initially lies and tells him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead,{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages=31–35}} but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|page=35}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=142}} Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know to win back his kingdom.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages=35–43}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=142}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page=19}} She disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or Penelope,{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages=35–42}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=142}} and helps him to defeat the suitors.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages=35–42}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|pages=19–20}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=142}} Athena also appears to Odysseus's son Telemachus.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|page=499}} Her actions lead him to travel around to Odysseus's comrades and ask about his father.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages=499–500}} He hears stories about some of Odysseus's journey.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages=499–500}} Athena's push for Telemachus's journey helps him grow into the man role, that his father once held.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages=499–514}} She also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors' relatives. She instructs [[Laertes (father of Odysseus)|Laertes]] to throw his spear and to kill [[Eupeithes]], the father of [[Antinous son of Eupeithes|Antinous]].

A myth told by the early third-century BC Hellenistic poet [[Callimachus]] in his ''Hymn'' 5 begins with Athena bathing in a spring on [[Mount Helicon]] at midday with one of her favorite companions, the nymph [[Chariclo]].{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page=315}} Chariclo's son [[Tiresias]] happened to be hunting on the same mountain and came to the spring searching for water.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page=315}} He inadvertently saw Athena naked, so she struck him blind to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|pages=315–316}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page=73}} Chariclo intervened on her son's behalf and begged Athena to have mercy.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page=73}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page=316}} Athena replied that she could not restore Tiresias's eyesight,{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page=73}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page=316}} so, instead, she gave him the ability to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future.{{sfn|Edmunds|1990|page=373}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page=316}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}

The [[Gorgoneion]] appears to have originated as an [[Apotropaic magic|apotropaic]] symbol intended to ward off evil.{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages=445–447}} In a late Roman myth invented to explain the origins of the Gorgon,{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages=445–463}} [[Medusa]] is described as having been raped by Poseidon in the temple of Athena.{{sfn|Seelig|2002|page=895}} Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena transformed Medusa into a hideous monster with serpents for hair whose gaze [[Petrifaction in mythology and fiction|would turn any mortal to stone]].{{sfn|Seelig|2002|page=895-911}}

The [[fable]] of [[Arachne]] appears in the Roman poet [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' (8 AD) (vi.5–54 and 129–145),{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages=233–234}}{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page=78}}{{sfn|Norton|2013|page=166}} which is nearly the only extant source for the legend.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page=78}}{{sfn|Norton|2013|page=166}} The story does not appear to have been well known prior to Ovid's rendition of it{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page=78}} and the only earlier reference to it is a brief allusion in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Georgics]]'', (29 BC) (iv, 246) that does not mention Arachne by name.{{sfn|Norton|2013|page=166}} According to Ovid, Arachne (whose name means ''spider'' in ancient Greek<ref>{{LSJ|a)ra/xnh|ἀράχνη}}, {{LSJ|a)ra/xnhs|ἀράχνης|ref}}.</ref>) was the daughter of a famous dyer in [[Tyrian purple]] in Hypaipa of [[Lydia]], and a weaving student of Athena.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=233}} She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself and that she didn't feel grateful to the goddess for anything, despite Athena invented weaving.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=233}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}} Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities.{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages=233–234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}} Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}} Athena revelead her true form, accepted and wove the scene of her victory over [[Poseidon]] in the contest for the patronage of Athens.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}} Her tapestry also depicted the 12 Olympian gods and defeat of mythological figures who challenged their authority.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p=92}} Arachne's tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the deities' sexual affairs,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}} including [[Zeus]] being unfaithful with [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], with [[Europa (mythical)|Europa]], and with [[Danaë]].{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} It represented the unjust and discrediting behavior of the gods towards mortals.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p=92}} Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} but was outraged at Arachne's choice of subject.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} Athena then struck Arachne across the face with her staff four times.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} Arachne hanged herself in despair,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}} but Athena took pity on her and brought her back from the dead in the form of a spider.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages=64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}}

According to Book VIII (236–59) of Ovid's ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', [[Daedalus]] was so proud of his achievements as an inventor that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son [[Perdix (mythology)|Perdix]] under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. While walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish or a serpent's jaw. Imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, thus inventing the saw. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he took an opportunity, when they were together one day on the top of a high tower, to push him off, but Athena, who favors ingenuity, saw him falling and saved his life by changing him into a bird called after his name, the ''[[perdix]]'' ([[partridge]]). This bird does not build its nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights, but nestles in the [[hedge]]s, and mindful of his fall, avoids high places. For this crime, Daedalus was tried and banished. In some accounts, she leaves Daedalus with a scar in the shape of a partridge, to always remind him of his crime.{{clear}}

The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the ''[[Iliad]]'',{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=31}} but is described in depth in an [[epitome]] of the ''[[Cypria]]'', a lost poem of the [[Epic Cycle]],{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=31–32}} which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]).{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=31}} Only [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], goddess of discord, was not invited.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=31–32}} She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest"), which she threw among the goddesses.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}} Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a [[Troy|Trojan]] prince.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} After bathing in the spring of [[Mount Ida]] where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}} In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages=346–347}} Since the [[Renaissance]], however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages=346–347}} All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}} Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} and Athena offered fame and glory in battle,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page=32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} This woman was [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], who was already married to King [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta#Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period|Sparta]].{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=32–33}} Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}} The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the [[Trojan War]].{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}

Athena appears frequently in classical Greek art, including on coins and in paintings on ceramics.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=126}} She is especially prominent in works produced in Athens.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}} In classical depictions, Athena is usually portrayed standing upright, wearing a full-length [[chiton (costume)|chiton]].{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=28-32}} She is most often represented dressed in armor like a male soldier{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=126}}{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=28-32}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=230}} and wearing a [[Corinthian helmet]] raised high atop her forehead.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=32}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=230}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=126}} Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (''gorgoneion'') in the center and snakes around the edge.{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages=445–463}} Sometimes she is shown wearing the aegis as a cloak.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=126}} As Athena Promachos, she is shown brandishing a spear.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page=230}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=126}} Scenes in which Athena was represented include her birth from the head of Zeus, her battle with the [[Giants (Greek mythology)|Gigantes]], the birth of Erichthonius, and the Judgement of Paris.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}}

The ''[[Mourning Athena]]'' or ''Athena Meditating'' is a famous relief sculpture dating to around 470–460 BC{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=32}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}} that has been interpreted to represent Athena Polias.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=32}} The most famous classical depiction of Athena was the ''[[Athena Parthenos]]'', a now-lost {{cvt|11.5|m}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.worldhistory.org/article/785/athena-parthenos-by-phidias/ |title=Athena Parthenos by Phidias|encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=26 June 2019}}</ref> [[Chryselephantine|gold and ivory]] statue of her in the [[Parthenon]] created by the Athenian sculptor [[Phidias]].{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=28-32}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}} Copies reveal that this statue depicted Athena holding her shield in her left hand with [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], the winged goddess of victory, standing in her right.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}} Athena Polias is also represented in a Neo-Attic relief now held in the [[Virginia Museum of Fine Arts]],{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=32}} which depicts her holding an owl in her hand{{efn|The owl's role as a symbol of wisdom originates in this association with Athena.}} and wearing her characteristic Corinthian helmet while resting her shield against a nearby ''[[herma]]''.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page=32}} The Roman goddess Minerva adopted most of Athena's Greek iconographical associations,{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=194}} but was also integrated into the [[Capitoline Triad]].{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=194}}

Early Christian writers, such as [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Julius Firmicus Maternus|Firmicus]], denigrated Athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=141–144}} they condemned her as "immodest and immoral".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=144}} During the Middle Ages, however, many attributes of Athena were given to the [[Virgin Mary]],{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=144}} who, in fourth-century portrayals, was often depicted wearing the [[Gorgoneion]].{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=144}} Some even viewed the Virgin Mary as a warrior maiden, much like Athena Parthenos;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=144}} one anecdote tells that the Virgin Mary once appeared upon the walls of [[Constantinople]] when it was under siege by the Avars, clutching a spear and urging the people to fight.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=144–145}} During the Middle Ages, Athena became widely used as a Christian symbol and allegory, and she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=146–148}}

During the Renaissance, Athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=145–146}} allegorical paintings involving Athena were a favorite of the Italian Renaissance painters.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=145–146}} In [[Sandro Botticelli]]'s painting ''[[Pallas and the Centaur]]'', probably painted sometime in the 1480s, Athena is the personification of chastity, who is shown grasping the forelock of a centaur, who represents lust.{{sfn|Randolph|2002|page=221}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=145}} [[Andrea Mantegna]]'s 1502 painting ''[[Triumph of the Virtues (Mantegna)|Minerva Expelling the Vices from the Garden of Virtue]]'' uses Athena as the personification of Graeco-Roman learning chasing the vices of medievalism from the garden of modern scholarship.{{sfn|Brown|2007|page=1}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=145}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|pages=193–194}} Athena is also used as the personification of wisdom in [[Bartholomeus Spranger]]'s 1591 painting ''The Triumph of Wisdom'' or ''Minerva Victorious over Ignorance''.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=194}}

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Athena was used as a symbol for female rulers.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=147-148}} In his book ''A Revelation of the True Minerva'' (1582), [[Thomas Blennerhassett]] portrays [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I of England]] as a "new Minerva" and "the greatest goddesse nowe on earth".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=147}} A series of paintings by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] depict Athena as [[Marie de' Medici]]'s patron and mentor;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}} the final painting in the series goes even further and shows Marie de' Medici with Athena's iconography, as the mortal incarnation of the goddess herself.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}} The Flemish sculptor [[Jean-Pierre-Antoine Tassaert]] (Jan Peter Anton Tassaert) later portrayed [[Catherine II of Russia]] as Athena in a marble bust in 1774.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=194}} During the [[French Revolution]], statues of pagan gods were torn down all throughout France, but statues of Athena were not.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}} Instead, Athena was transformed into the personification of freedom and the republic{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}} and a statue of the goddess stood in the center of the [[Place de la Revolution]] in Paris.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}} In the years following the Revolution, artistic representations of Athena proliferated.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=148–149}}

[[Category:Agricultural goddesses]]

[[Category:Children of Zeus]]

[[Category:Textiles in folklore]]