Clitoris: Difference between revisions

| Caption    = Human clitoris. [[Pubic hair]] has been deliberately removed to show anatomical detail. Location of (1) [[clitoral hood]] and (2) [[#Glans|clitoral glans]] (the [[#Body|clitoral body]] is beneath the hood).

In [[amniote]]s, the '''clitoris''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Clitoris pronunciation 1.ogg|ˈ|k|l|ɪ|t|ər|ɪ|s}} {{respell|KLIT|ər|iss}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=Clitoris pronunciation 2.ogg|k|l|ɪ|ˈ|t|ɔər|ɪ|s}} {{respell|klih|TOR|iss}}; {{plural form}}: '''clitorises''' or '''clitorides''') is a female [[sex organ]].<ref name="Goodman_Roughgarden_Wingfield" /> In humans, it is the [[vulva]]'s most [[erogenous zone|erogenous]] area and generally the primary anatomical source of female [[Human sexuality|sexual]] pleasure.<ref name="Rodgers_O'Connell_Greenberg_Weiten_Carroll" /> The clitoris is a complex structure, and its size and sensitivity can vary. The visible portion, the glans, of the clitoris is typically roughly the size and shape of a pea and is estimated to have at least 8,000 [[Nerve|nerve endings]].<ref name="Carroll_Di Marino" /><ref name="ohsu/10-000-nerve">

* Peters, B; Uloko, M; Isabey, P; [https://www1.statusplus.net/misc/prog-management/v2/general/abstract/5850?persons=4928&pm=23 How many Nerve Fibers Innervate the Human Clitoris? A Histomorphometric Evaluation of the Dorsal Nerve of the Clitoris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102083626/https://www1.statusplus.net/misc/prog-management/v2/general/abstract/5850?persons=4928&pm=23 |date=2 November 2022 }} 2 p.m. ET 27 October 2022, 23rd annual joint scientific meeting of Sexual Medicine Society of North America and [[International Society for Sexual Medicine]]</ref>

The clitoris is [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to the [[Human penis|penis]] in males.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tortora |first1=Gerard J |last2=Anagnostakos |first2=Nicholas P |title=Principles of anatomy and physiology |date=1987 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-046669-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat05tort/page/727 727]–728 |edition=5th |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofanat05tort |url-access=registration }}</ref>

 

The clitoris, its [[vestibular bulbs|bulbs]], labia minora, and [[urethra]] involve two histologically distinct types of vascular tissue (tissue related to [[blood vessel]]s), the first of which is [[trabecula]]ted, [[erectile tissue]] innervated by the [[cavernous nerves]]. The trabeculated tissue has a [[Spongy tissue|spongy appearance]]; along with blood, it fills the large, dilated vascular spaces of the clitoris and the bulbs. Beneath the [[epithelium]] of the vascular areas is [[Smooth muscle tissue|smooth muscle]].<ref name="Ginger" /> As indicated by Yang et{{nbsp}}al.'s research, it may also be that the urethral [[Lumen (anatomy)|lumen]] (the inner open space or cavity of the urethra), which is surrounded by a spongy tissue, has tissue that "is grossly distinct from the vascular tissue of the clitoris and bulbs, and on macroscopic observation, is paler than the dark tissue" of the clitoris and bulbs.<ref name="Yang" /> The second type of vascular tissue is non-erectile, which may consist of blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle.<ref name="Ginger" />

Highly [[Nerve|innervated]], the '''clitoral glans''' (''glans'' means "acorn" in [[Latin]]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Hodgson|first=Charles|title = Carnal Knowledge: A Navel Gazer's Dictionary of Anatomy, Etymology, and Trivia | publisher = St. Martin's Publishing Group |year = 2015|page=179|isbn= 978-1-46689-043-5 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=g5nYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA179}}</ref> also known as the "head" or "tip",<ref>{{cite book|last=Kinsey|first=Alfred C.|title = Sexual Behavior in the Human Female | publisher = Indiana University Press |year = 1998|page=574|isbn= 978-0-25333-411-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9GpBB61LV14C&pg=PA574}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Waters|first=Sophie|title = Seeing the Gynecologist | publisher = Rosen Publishing Group |year = 2007|page=17|isbn= 978-1-40421-948-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p_FzX7mR8dkC&pg=PA17}}</ref> exists at the top of the clitoral body as a [[Fiber|fibro-vascular]] cap<ref name="Ginger" /> and is usually the size and shape of a pea, although it is sometimes much larger or smaller. The glans is separated from the clitoral body by a ridge of tissue called the ''corona''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Iglesia|first=Cheryl B.|title = Medical and Advanced Surgical Management of Pelvic Floor Disorders, An Issue of Obstetrics and Gynecology | publisher = Elselvier Health Sciences |year = 2016|page=35|isbn= 978-0-32341-656-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=J0zGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Quicke|first=Donald Lambert Jesse|title = Female Arousal and Orgasm: Anatomy, Physiology, Behaviour and Evolution | publisher = Bentham Science Publishers |year = 2023|page=65|isbn= 978-9-81512-464-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MaPsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref> The clitoral glans is estimated to have 8,000 and possibly 10,000 or more [[sensory nerve]] endings, making it the most sensitive [[erogenous zone]].<ref name="Carroll_Di Marino" /><ref name="ohsu/10-000-nerve" /> The glans also has numerous [[genital corpuscle]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Olausson |first1=Håkan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ5DDQAAQBAJ&dq=glans&pg=PA306 |title=Affective Touch and the Neurophysiology of CT Afferents |last2=Wessberg |first2=Johan |last3=Morrison |first3=India |last4=McGlone |first4=Francis |date=2016-10-14 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4939-6418-5 |language=en}}</ref> Research conflicts on whether the glans is composed of erectile or non-erectile tissue. Some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans.<ref name="O'Connell" /><ref name="Ginger" /> They state that the clitoral glans and labia minora have blood vessels that are dispersed within a fibrous matrix and have only a minimal amount of smooth muscle,<ref name="Ginger" /> or that the clitoral glans is "a midline, densely neural, non-erectile structure".<ref name="O'Connell" /> The clitoral glans is homologous to the male [[glans penis|penile glans]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chapple|first1=Christopher R.|last2=Steers|first2=William D.|title = Practical Urology: Essential Principles and Practice | publisher = Springer London |year = 2011|page=67|access-date = September 29, 2023 |isbn= 978-1-84882-034-0 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=A9m8TkdCUqEC&pg=PA67}}</ref>

Clitoroplasty, a sex reassignment surgery for [[trans women]], involves the construction of a clitoris from penile tissue.<ref name=Koch>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Anne L.|title=It Never Goes Away: Gender Transition at a Mature Age|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2019|page=89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BXCCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|isbn=978-0-81359-839-0}}</ref>

People taking hormones or other medications as part of a gender transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth; individual desires and the difficulties of [[phalloplasty]] (construction of a penis) often result in the retention of the original genitalia with the enlarged clitoris as a penis analog ([[metoidioplasty]]).<ref name="Şenaylı" /><ref name="Brandes_Lehmiller" /> However, the clitoris cannot reach the size of the penis through hormones.<ref name="Brandes_Lehmiller" /> A{{nbsp}}surgery to add function to the clitoris, such as metoidioplasty, is an alternative to phalloplasty that permits the retention of sexual sensation in the clitoris.<ref name="Brandes_Lehmiller" />

 

What is often referred to as a "clitoris piercing" is the more common (and significantly less complicated) [[clitoral hood piercing]]. Since piercing the clitoris is difficult and very painful, piercing the clitoral hood is more common than piercing the clitoral shaft or glans, owing to the small percentage of people who are anatomically suited for it.<ref name="Morris_Pitts-Taylor" /> Clitoral hood piercings are usually channeled in the form of vertical piercings, and, to a lesser extent, horizontal piercings. The [[triangle piercing]] is a very deep horizontal hood piercing and is done behind the clitoris as opposed to in front of it. For styles such as the [[Isabella piercing]], which passes through the clitoral shaft but is placed deep at the base, they provide unique stimulation and still require the proper genital build. The Isabella starts between the clitoral glans and the urethra, exiting at the top of the clitoral hood; this piercing is highly risky concerning the damage that may occur because of intersecting nerves.<ref name="Morris_Pitts-Taylor" /> (See [[Clitoral index]].)

Although the clitoris (and clitoral prepuce/[[Clitoral hood#Other animals|sheath]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kitalyi |first1=A. |last2=Owen |first2=E.|last3=Jayasuria |first3=N. |last4=Smith |first4=T. |publisher=5m publishing |year=2020 |title=Livestock and Wealth Creation: Improving the Husbandry of Animals Kept By Resource-Poor People in Developing Countries |page=337 |isbn=978-1-91045-577-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9jsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT337}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hodges |first1=Frederick Mansfield |last2=Denniston |first2=George C. |last3=Milos |first3=Marilyn Fayre |publisher=Springer US |year=2007 |title=Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal, and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice |page=19 |isbn=978-0-58539-937-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0EyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19}}</ref> exists in all [[mammal]] species,<ref name="Balcombe" /> there are few detailed studies of the anatomy of the clitoris in non-humans.<ref name="Martin-Alguacil" /> Studies have been done on the clitoris of [[cat]]s, [[sheep]] and [[Mouse|mice]].<ref name="Kawatani"/><ref name="Smith"/><ref name="Martin-Alguacil"/> Some mammals have [[Preputial gland|clitoral glands]]. The clitoris is especially developed in [[fossa (animal)|fossas]],<ref name="Hawkins" /> non-human [[ape]]s, [[lemur]]s, [[Mole (animal)|moles]],<ref name="Sinclair" /> and often contains a small bone known as the [[os clitoridis]].<ref name="Angier_Hall_Goodman" /> Many species of [[Talpidae|talpid]] moles exhibit peniform clitorises that are tunneled by the urethra and are found to have erectile tissue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Jiménez |first1 = R. |last2 = Barrionuevo |first2 = F.J. |last3 = Burgos |first3 = M. |date = 2013 |title = Natural Exceptions to Normal Gonad Development in Mammals |journal = Sexual Development |volume = 7 |issue = 1–3 |pages = 147–162 |doi = 10.1159/000338768 |pmid = 22626995 |s2cid = 8721211 |issn = 1661-5433 }}</ref> The clitoris is contained in [[Fossa (anatomy)|fossa]], which is a small pouch of tissue in horses and dogs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kustritz |first=Margaret V. Root|title= The Dog Breeder's Guide to Successful Breeding and Health Management |publisher=Saunders Elsevier|year=2006 |page=116 |isbn= 978-1-41603-139-0 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rqIa-9jew_MC&pg=PA116}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Budras |first1=Klaus-Dieter |last2=Sack |first2=W. O. |last3=Rock |first3=Sabine |last4=Wünsche |first4=Anita |last5=Henschel |first5=Ekkehard |title=Anatomy of the Horse: An Illustrated Text |publisher=Wiley |year=2003 |page=76 |isbn=978-3-89993-003-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CUFN_K0AHgsC&pg=PA76}}</ref> The clitoris is found in other [[Amniote|amniotic]] creatures<ref>{{cite book|last=Prum|first=Richard O.|publisher = University of Chicago Press|year=2023|title= Performance All the Way Down: Genes, Development, and Sexual Difference |page=219|isbn= 978-0-22682-978-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KTMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219}}</ref> including [[reptile]]s such as [[turtle]]s and [[crocodilia]]ns,<ref name="Fishbeck" /> and [[bird]]s such as [[ratite]]s (e.g., cassowaries, ostriches)<ref name="Kotpal" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=McAloose|first1=Denise|last2=St. Leger|first2=Judy|last3=Terio|first3=Karen A.|title = Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals | publisher = Elsevier Science |year = 2018|page=633|isbn= 978-0-12809-219-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rUwADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA633}}</ref> and [[Anatidae|anatids]] (e.g., swans, ducks).<ref>{{cite book|last=Maxwell|first=Kenneth E.|title = The Sex Imperative: An Evolutionary Tale of Sexual Survival | publisher = Springer US |year = 2013|page=99|isbn= 978-1-48995-988-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dnf1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99}}</ref> The [[Hemipenis#Hemiclitoris|hemiclitoris]] is one-half of a paired structure in [[squamates]] (lizards and snakes). Some [[Intersex (biology)|intersex]] female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are [[grizzly bear]]s, [[brown bear]]s, [[American black bear]]s and [[polar bear]]s. Although the bears have been described as having "a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears' population),<ref name="Girshick_Roughgarden" /> scientists state that female [[spotted hyena]]s are the only non-intersex female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening, and whose sexual anatomy is distinct from usual intersex cases.<ref name="Glickman" />

[[File:Spotted hyena in Kenya.jpg|thumb|With a [[Genitourinary system|urogenital system]] in which the female urinates, mates and gives birth via an enlarged, erectile clitoris, female spotted hyenas are the only female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening.<ref name="Glickman" />]]

 

 

}}<!-- end of reflist -->

* {{cite journal |last = Puppo |first = Vincenzo |title = Anatomy of the Clitoris: Revision and Clarifications about the Anatomical Terms for the Clitoris Proposed (without Scientific Bases) by Helen O'Connell, Emmanuele Jannini, and Odile Buisson |journal = ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume = 2011 |issue = ID 261464 |date = September 2011 |pmid = 21941661 |doi = 10.5402/2011/261464 |pmc = 3175415 |page = 261464 |doi-access = free }}

* {{cite journal |last1 = Szykman |first1 = Micaela |last2 = Engh |first2 = Anne |last3 = Van Horn |first3 = Russell |last4 = Holekamp |first4 = Kay |last5 = Boydston |first5 = Erin |year = 2007 |title = Courtship and mating in free-living spotted hyenas |journal = Behaviour |volume = 144 |issue = 7 |pages = 815–846 |jstor = 4536481 |doi = 10.1163/156853907781476418 |url = http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~bowles/Dominance/Papers/SzykmanetalHyenaMatingBehaviour2007.pdf |citeseerx = 10.1.1.630.5755 |access-date = 26 June 2012 |archive-date = 30 November 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121130193631/http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~bowles/Dominance/Papers/SzykmanetalHyenaMatingBehaviour2007.pdf |url-status = live }}

{{Refbegin|30em }}

* {{cite book |last = Acton |first = Ashton |title = Issues in Sexuality and Sexual Behavior Research: 2011 Edition |publisher = [[ScholarlyEditions]] |isbn = 978-1-4649-6686-6 |year = 2012 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=amNcvrLCGZEC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165213/https://books.google.com/books?id=amNcvrLCGZEC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Adams |first = J. N. |title = The Latin Sexual Vocabulary |publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year = 1982 }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Andersen |first1 = Margaret L. |first2 = Howard Francis |last2 = Taylor |title = Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society |isbn = 978-0-495-00742-5 |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2007 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UILcQZS6Bi4C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613090815/http://books.google.com/books?id=UILcQZS6Bi4C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=January 3, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Andriole |first = Gerald L. Jr. |title = Year Book of Urology 2013 |publisher = [[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |year = 2013 |isbn = 978-1-4557-7316-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=USLhAQAAQBAJ |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 18 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191218135352/https://books.google.com/books?id=USLhAQAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Angier |first = Natalie |author-link = Natalie Angier |title = Woman: An Intimate Geography |publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |isbn = 978-0-395-69130-4 |year = 1999 |url = https://archive.org/details/womanintimategeo00angi_0 |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Alexander |first = Ivy M |title = Women's Health Care in Advanced Practice Nursing, Second Edition |publisher = [[Springer Publishing Company]] |isbn = 978-0-8261-9004-8 |year = 2017 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8S4oDwAAQBAJ |access-date = 19 April 2018 |archive-date = 26 January 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126150802/https://books.google.com/books?id=8S4oDwAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=April 19, 2018 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Archer |first1 = John |first2 = Barbara |last2 = Lloyd |title = Sex and Gender |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-521-63533-2 |url = https://archive.org/details/sexgender0000arch_l8q2 |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=August 25, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Bagemihl |first = Bruce |author-link = Bruce Bagemihl |title = Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity |publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |isbn = 978-1-4668-0927-7 |year = 2000 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tmFJ1LhbVWcC&pg=PT690 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613162139/http://books.google.com/books?id=tmFJ1LhbVWcC&pg=PT690 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Balcombe |first = Jonathan |title = Pleasurable Kingdom: Animals and the Nature of Feeling Good |publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |isbn = 978-1-4039-8602-3 |year = 2007 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JTb7_XfgelYC&pg=PA111 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615061205/http://books.google.com/books?id=JTb7_XfgelYC&pg=PA111 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Balcombe |first = Jonathan Peter |author-link = Jonathan Balcombe |title = The Exultant Ark: A Pictorial Tour of Animal Pleasure |publisher = [[University of California Press]] |isbn = 978-0-520-26024-5 |year = 2011 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tz9mSyTWh0oC&pg=PA88 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 27 May 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130527214645/http://books.google.com/books?id=tz9mSyTWh0oC&pg=PA88 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Balon |first1 = Richard |last2 = Segraves |first2 = Robert Taylor |title = Clinical Manual of Sexual Disorders |publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Pub]] |isbn = 978-1-58562-905-3 |year = 2009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165207/https://books.google.com/books?id=YuP3Hb0TMLQC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Basavanthappa |first = BT |title = Textbook of Midwifery and Reproductive Health Nursing |isbn = 978-81-8061-799-7 |publisher = [[Jaypee Brothers|Jaypee Brothers Publishers]] |year = 2006 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wemr8eOB9w4C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 17 June 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160617103127/https://books.google.com/books?id=wemr8eOB9w4C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 21, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Blackledge |first = Catherine |title = The Story of V: A Natural History of Female Sexuality |isbn = 978-0-8135-3455-8 |publisher = [[Rutgers University Press]] |year = 2003 |url = https://archive.org/details/storyofv00cath |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=June 23, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |author=Boston Women's Health Book Collective |title=Our bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women |url=https://archive.org/details/ourbodiesourselv1979bost |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-671-22145-4 |ref={{SfnRef|Boston Women's Health|1976}} }}

* {{cite book |last = Blumberg |first = Mark S. |title = Freaks of Nature: And what they tell us about evolution and development |publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-19-988994-5 |year = 2009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7bN6_n7g7H4C&pg=PA233 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615032142/http://books.google.com/books?id=7bN6_n7g7H4C&pg=PA233 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 23, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Brandes |first1 = Steven B. |last2 = Morey |first2 = Allen F. |title = Advanced Male Urethral and Genital Reconstructive Surgery |publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn = 978-1-4614-7708-2 |year = 2013 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cRYJAgAAQBAJ |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 24 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191224141031/https://books.google.com/books?id=cRYJAgAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Carroll |first = Janell L. |title = Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5f8mQx7ULs4C&pg=PP1 |isbn = 978-0-495-60274-3 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613133216/http://books.google.com/books?id=5f8mQx7ULs4C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=December 19, 2010  -->

* {{cite book |last = Carroll |first = Janell L. |title = Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2012 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RY0n2CGS5EcC&pg=PP1 |isbn = 978-1-111-83581-1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022634/http://books.google.com/books?id=RY0n2CGS5EcC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=September 12, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Carroll |first = Janell L. |title = Discovery Series: Human Sexuality |edition = 1st |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2013<!-- NOTE: Copyright date is 2013 inside of the book. --> |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gU3SZSh-eXsC |isbn = 978-1-111-84189-8 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 31 December 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131231143704/http://books.google.com/books?id=gU3SZSh-eXsC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2015-10-21 -->

* {{cite book |last = Casper |first = Regina C. |title = Women's Health: Hormones, Emotions and Behavior |isbn = 978-0-521-06020-2 |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] |year = 2008 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3UjzYoYez80C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613162715/http://books.google.com/books?id=3UjzYoYez80C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 17, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Cavendish |first = Marshall |title = Sex and Society |volume = 2 |isbn = 978-0-7614-7907-9 |publisher = [[Marshall Cavendish|Marshall Cavendish Corporation]] |year = 2010 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YtsxeWE7VD0C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613171128/http://books.google.com/books?id=YtsxeWE7VD0C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date= August 17, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Chalker |first = Rebecca |year = 2002 |orig-date = 2000 |title = The Clitoral Truth |publisher = Seven Seas Press |isbn = 978-1-58322-473-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m3m3_Uq8qWkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 5 June 2020 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165206/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3m3_Uq8qWkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-11-27  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Chapple |first1 = C. R. |first2 = William D. |last2 = Steers |year = 2010 |title = Practical Urology: Essential Principles and Practice |publisher = Springer |isbn = 978-1-84882-033-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A9m8TkdCUqEC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615011338/http://books.google.com/books?id=A9m8TkdCUqEC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 27, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Collins |first1 = Eve |last2 = Drake |first2 = Mandy |last3 = Deacon |first3 = Maureen |title = The Physical Care of People with Mental Health Problems: A Guide For Best Practice |isbn = 978-1-4462-7468-2 |publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] |year = 2013 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cgnTlyXxoy8C&q=source |access-date = 19 October 2020 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165211/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgnTlyXxoy8C&q=source |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 4, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Crawford |first1 = Mary |first2 = Rhoda |last2 = Unger |date = 2004 |title = Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology |edition = 4th |location = Boston |publisher = McGraw Hill }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Crooks |first1 = Robert |first2 = Karla |last2 = Baur |title = Our Sexuality |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-0-495-81294-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MpRnPtmdRVwC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613201752/http://books.google.com/books?id=MpRnPtmdRVwC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 30, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Cunningham |first = F Gary |title = Williams Obstetrics: 22nd Edition |isbn = 978-0-07-150125-5 |publisher = [[McGraw Hill Professional]] |year = 2005 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZjuYaK9eUC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 21 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191221233606/https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZjuYaK9eUC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 7, 2014  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Dennerstein |first1 = Dorraine |first2 = Lorraine |last2 = Dennerstein |first3 = Graham D |last3 = Burrows |title = Handbook of psychosomatic obstetrics and gynaecology |publisher = [[Elsevier|Elsevier Biomedical Press]] |year = 1983 |isbn = 978-0-444-80444-0 }}

* {{cite book |last = Di Marino |first = Vincent |title = Anatomic Study of the Clitoris and the Bulbo-Clitoral Organ |publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |year = 2014 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wKMpBAAAQBAJ&q=gbs_navlinks_s |isbn = 978-3-319-04894-9 |access-date = 19 October 2020 |archive-date = 6 September 2014 |archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140906050741/https://books.google.com/books?id=wKMpBAAAQBAJ&dq=gbs_navlinks_s |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=September 4, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Dixson |first = Alan F. |title = Primate Sexuality: Comparative Studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Humans |isbn = 978-0-19-954464-6 |publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |year = 2012 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SY-PyKNQglIC&pg=PA364 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 11 May 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130511061400/http://books.google.com/books?id=SY-PyKNQglIC&pg=PA364 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Drenth |first = Jelto |title = The Origin of the World: Science and Fiction of the Vagina |isbn = 978-1-86189-210-2 |publisher = [[Reaktion Books]] |year = 2005 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aauFT9jPNRoC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 21 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191221203331/https://books.google.com/books?id=aauFT9jPNRoC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 7, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Fahs |first = Breanne |title = Performing Sex: The Making and Unmaking of Women's Erotic Lives |isbn = 978-1-4384-3781-1 |publisher = [[SUNY Press]] |year = 2011 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wuUhNGPf86oC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613224936/http://books.google.com/books?id=wuUhNGPf86oC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Farage |first1 = Miranda A. |last2 = Maibach |first2 = Howard I. |title = The Vulva: Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology |isbn = 978-1-4200-0531-8 |publisher = [[CRC Press]] |year = 2013 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=beenEjKmvPwC&q=The+crura+meet+the+fourchette |access-date = 19 October 2020 |archive-date = 26 January 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126031457/https://books.google.com/books?id=beenEjKmvPwC&q=The+crura+meet+the+fourchette |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 7, 2013  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Fishbeck |first1 = Dale W. |last2 = Sebastiani |first2 = Aurora |title = Comparative Anatomy: Manual of Vertebrate Dissection |isbn = 978-1-61731-439-1 |publisher = Morton Publishing Company |year = 2015 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-cFnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 }} <!-- |access-date=September 11, 2016  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Flaherty |first1 = Joseph A. |first2 = John Marcell |last2 = Davis |first3 = Philip G. |last3 = Janicak |title = Psychiatry: Diagnosis & therapy. A Lange clinical manual |isbn = 978-0-8385-1267-8 |publisher = Appleton & Lange |year = 1993 |url = https://archive.org/details/psychiatrydiagno00flah }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Fogel |first1 = Ingram |first2 = Fugate |last2 = Woods |title = Women's Health Care in Advanced Practice Nursing |publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer Publishing Company]] |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0-8261-0235-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BSgd9XZe7fkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613173817/http://books.google.com/books?id=BSgd9XZe7fkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-09-17  -->

* {{cite book |last = Francoeur |first = Robert T. |year = 2000 |title = The Complete Dictionary of Sexology |publisher = The Continuum Publishing Company |isbn = 978-0-8264-0672-9 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/completedictiona0000unse_w1u0 }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Frayser |first1 = Suzanne G. |first2 = Thomas J |last2 = Whitby |title = Studies in Human Sexuality: A Selected Guide |publisher = [[ABC-CLIO|Libraries Unlimited]] |year = 1995 |isbn = 978-1-56308-131-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZArPH0nFGo0C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614014123/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZArPH0nFGo0C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 7, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Freberg |first = Laura A. |title = Discovering Biological Psychology |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2009 |isbn = 978-0-547-17779-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-zyTMXAjzQsC&pg=PA300 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613181757/http://books.google.com/books?id=-zyTMXAjzQsC&pg=PA300 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-11-07  -->

* {{cite book |last = Fuller |first = Linda K |title = African Women's Unique Vulnerabilities to HIV/AIDS: Communication Perspectives and Promises |isbn = 978-1-4039-8405-0 |publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year = 2008 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4RgldGBrVwIC&pg=PA45 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613213733/http://books.google.com/books?id=4RgldGBrVwIC&pg=PA45 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-11-20  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Ghaem-Maghami |first1 = Sadaf |last2 = Souter |first2 = William Patrick |editor-first = Pat |editor-last = Price |editor-first2 = Karol |editor-last2 = Sikora |chapter = Carcinoma of the vagina and vulva |title = Treatment of Cancer |date = 2014 |publisher = CRC Press |isbn = 978-1-4822-1494-9 }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Ginger |first1 = V A T |last2 = Yang |first2 = C C |editor-last = Mulhall |editor-first = John P. |editor2-first = Luca |editor2-last = Incrocci |editor3-first = Irwin |editor3-last = Goldstein |editor4-first = Ray |editor4-last = Rosen |title = Cancer and Sexual Health |chapter = Chapter 2: Functional Anatomy of the Female Sex Organs |isbn = 978-1-60761-915-4 |publisher = [[Springer Publishing]] |year = 2011 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GpIadil3YsQC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 5 June 2020 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165220/https://books.google.com/books?id=GpIadil3YsQC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 23, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Girshick |first1 = Lori B. |first2 = Jamison |last2 = Green |title = Transgender Voices: Beyond Women and Men |publisher = [[University Press of New England]] |isbn = 978-1-58465-683-8 |year = 2009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu8TKksSx0QC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613232351/http://books.google.com/books?id=Gu8TKksSx0QC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 23, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Goodman |first = S. |editor-last = Wilson |editor-first = D |editor2-last = Mittermeier |editor2-first = R |chapter = Family Eupleridae (Madagascar Carnivores) |title = Handbook of the Mammals of the World. ''Vol. 1: Carnivores'' |year = 2009 |publisher = Lynx Edicions |isbn = 978-84-96553-49-1 |chapter-url = http://www.lynxeds.com/hmw/species-accounts/hmw-1-species-accounts-red-panda-ailurus-fulgens |access-date = 26 June 2012 |archive-date = 25 July 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725081653/http://www.lynxeds.com/hmw/species-accounts/hmw-1-species-accounts-red-panda-ailurus-fulgens }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Gordon |first1 = David A. |last2 = Katlic |first2 = Mark R |title = Pelvic Floor Dysfunction and Pelvic Surgery in the Elderly: An Integrated Approach |publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn = 978-1-4939-6554-0 |year = 2017 |page = 259 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F4olDwAAQBAJ }}<!-- |access-date=February 8, 2018  -->

* {{cite book |last = Gould |first = Stephen Jay |author-link = Stephen Jay Gould |title = The Structure of Evolutionary Theory |publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-674-00613-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nhIl7e61WOUC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614214253/http://books.google.com/books?id=nhIl7e61WOUC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Greenberg |first1 = Jerrold S. |first2 = Clint E. |last2 = Bruess |first3 = Sarah C |last3 = Conklin |title = Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality |publisher = Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn = 978-0-7637-7660-2 |year = 2010 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1NC5R0RozBYC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613231741/http://books.google.com/books?id=1NC5R0RozBYC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 15, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Halberstam |first = Judith |author-link = Judith Halberstam |title = Female Masculinity |publisher = [[Duke University Press]] |year = 1998 |isbn = 978-0-8223-2243-6 |url = https://archive.org/details/femalemasculinit00judi |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=September 9, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Hall |first = Brian Keith |title = Bones and Cartilage: Developmental and Evolutionary Skeletal Biology |publisher = [[University of California Press]] |isbn = 978-0-12-319060-4 |year = 2005 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=y-RWPGDONlIC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613161808/http://books.google.com/books?id=y-RWPGDONlIC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 22, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Heffner |first = Linda |year = 2001 |title = Human Reproduction at a Glance |publisher = Blackwell Sciences |isbn = 978-0-632-05461-9 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/humanreproductio0000heff }}

* {{cite book |last = Hite |first = Shere |author-link = Shere Hite |title = The Hite Report: A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality |publisher = [[Seven Stories Press]] |year = 2003 |location = New York |isbn = 978-1-58322-569-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s3OZaVn2wfkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615051514/http://books.google.com/books?id=s3OZaVn2wfkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-03-02  -->

* {{cite book |last = Hooper |first = Anne |title = Sex Q & A |publisher = Penguin |year = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-7566-6347-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HDuF0Wbez-AC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613142436/http://books.google.com/books?id=HDuF0Wbez-AC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 30, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Hyde |first = Janet Shibley |title = Understanding Human Sexuality |isbn = 978-0-07-298636-5 |publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]] |year = 2006 }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Jones |first1 = Richard E. |last2 = Lopez |first2 = Kristin H. |year = 2013 |title = Human Reproductive Biology |publisher = [[Academic Press]] |isbn = 978-0-12-382185-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M4kEdSnS-pkC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 9 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210809234119/https://books.google.com/books?id=M4kEdSnS-pkC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=March 22, 2014  -->

* {{cite book |last = Irvine |first = Janice M. |year = 2005 |title = Disorders of desire: sexuality and gender in modern American sexology |publisher = [[Temple University Press]] |isbn = 978-1-59213-151-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uIJXT7ZCTCsC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614000225/http://books.google.com/books?id=uIJXT7ZCTCsC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Kahn |first1 = Ada P. |first2 = Jan |last2 = Fawcett |title = The Encyclopedia of Mental Health |publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]] |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0-8160-6454-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tTFYIh-HcYYC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615004827/http://books.google.com/books?id=tTFYIh-HcYYC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 14, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Helen Singer |title = The Evaluation of Sexual Disorders: Psychological and Medical Aspects |publisher = [[Psychology Press]] |year = 1983 |isbn = 978-0-87630-329-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WCqMzcAka54C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615021937/http://books.google.com/books?id=WCqMzcAka54C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Kaufman |first1 = Raymond H |last2 = Faro |first2 = Sebastian |last3 = Brown |first3 = Dale |title = Benign Diseases of the Vulva And Vagina |publisher = [[Elsevier Mosby]] |isbn = 978-0-323-01474-8 |year = 2005 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=t5BsAAAAMAAJ |quote = The external genitalia of a female fetus may become masculinized if exposed to excess androgens in utero. ... Besides enlargement, congenital abnormalities of the clitoris may also include agenesis or hypoplasia. ... After the 13th to 14th weeks of gestation, androgen exposure produces clitoromegaly alone. |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 23 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191223062603/https://books.google.com/books?id=t5BsAAAAMAAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Komisaruk |first1 = Barry R. |last2 = Whipple |first2 = Beverly |first3 = Sara |last3 = Nasserzadeh |first4 = Carlos |last4 = Beyer-Flores |author-link2 = Beverly Whipple |title = The Orgasm Answer Guide |isbn = 978-0-8018-9396-4 |publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year = 2009 |url = https://archive.org/details/orgasmanswerguid00komi |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=November 6, 2011  -->

* {{cite book |last = Kotpal |first = R. L. |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m-eQUEUjG2UC&pg=PA394 |title = Modern Text Book of Zoology: Vertebrates |publisher = Rastogi Publications |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-81-7133-891-7 }}

* {{cite book |last = Krychman |first = Michael L. |title = 100 Questions & Answers About Women's Sexual Wellness and Vitality: A Practical Guide for the Woman Seeking Sexual Fulfillment |publisher = [[Jones & Bartlett Learning|Jones & Bartlett Publishers]] |year = 2009 |isbn = 978-0-7637-8697-7 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kW64xtC4dBcC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615043540/http://books.google.com/books?id=kW64xtC4dBcC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-08-30  -->

* {{cite book |last = Labuski |first = Christine |title = It Hurts Down There: The Bodily Imaginaries of Female Genital Pain |publisher = [[SUNY Press]] |year = 2015 |isbn = 978-1-4384-5885-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l4F2CgAAQBAJ |access-date = 7 June 2018 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165221/https://books.google.com/books?id=l4F2CgAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 7, 2018 -->

* {{cite book |last = Lehmiller |first = Justin J. |title = The Psychology of Human Sexuality |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] |year = 2013 |isbn = 978-1-118-35129-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YS1IAgAAQBAJ |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 18 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191218133144/https://books.google.com/books?id=YS1IAgAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last = Libertino |first = John A. |year = 1998 |title = Reconstructive urologic surgery |publisher = Mosby |isbn = 978-0-8016-7802-8 }}

* {{cite book |last = Lief |first = Harold I. |editor-last = Berger |editor-first = Milton Miles |chapter = Discussion of the Paper by Helen Singer Kalplan |title = Women Beyond Freud: New Concepts of Feminine Psychology |isbn = 978-0-87630-709-0 |publisher = [[Psychology Press]] |year = 1994 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=By3n48Gqt_kC&pg=PP1 |url = https://archive.org/details/womenbeyondfreud00milt }} <!-- |access-date=July 22, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Llord |first1 = J |first2 = D |last2 = Uchil |editor-first = Sabaratnam |editor-last = Arulkumaran |editor2-first = Lesley |editor2-last = Regan |editor3-first = Aris |editor3-last = Papageorghiou |editor4-first = Ash |editor4-last = Monga |editor5-first = David |editor5-last = Farquharson |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lRaWcRYx_7YC&pg=PP1 |chapter = 12: Reproduction: Ambiguous Genitalia |title = Oxford Desk Reference: Obstetrics and Gynaecology |publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |date = 2011 |isbn = 978-0-19-162087-4 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 2 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160502024357/https://books.google.com/books?id=lRaWcRYx_7YC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 10, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Lloyd |first = Elisabeth Anne |author-link = Elisabeth Lloyd |title = The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution |isbn = 978-0-674-01706-1 |publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] |year = 2005 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6GFNvA6TvlwC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613221632/http://books.google.com/books?id=6GFNvA6TvlwC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live |oclc = 432675780 }} <!-- |access-date=January 5, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Merz |first1 = Eberhard |first2 = F. |last2 = Bahlmann |title = Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume = 1 |publisher = [[Thieme Medical Publishers]] |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-1-58890-147-7 }}

* {{cite book |last1 = McAnulty |first1 = Richard D. |first2 = M. Michele |last2 = Burnette |title = Exploring human sexuality: making healthy decisions |publisher = [[Allyn & Bacon]] |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-205-38059-6 }}

* {{cite book |last = Miller |first = Geoffrey |author-link = Geoffrey Miller (psychologist) |title = The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature |publisher = [[Random House|Random House Digital]] |year = 2011 |isbn = 978-0-307-81374-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QG-8PbZb4csC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614014140/http://books.google.com/books?id=QG-8PbZb4csC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Momoh |first = Comfort |author-link = Comfort Momoh |chapter = 1: Female Genital Mutilation |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dVjIP0RfVAMC&pg=PP1 |title = Female Genital Mutilation |editor-last = Momoh |editor-first = Comfort |publisher = Radcliffe Publishing |year = 2005 |isbn = 978-1-85775-693-7 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615031319/http://books.google.com/books?id=dVjIP0RfVAMC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Morris |first = Desmond |author-link = Desmond Morris |title = The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body |isbn = 978-0-312-33853-4 |publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year = 2007 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wa9zntiEKeAC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 10 December 2014 |archive-date = 18 May 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150518015653/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wa9zntiEKeAC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=December 10, 2014  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Morganstern |first1 = Steven |first2 = Allen |last2 = Abrahams |title = The Prostate Sourcebook |isbn = 978-1-56565-871-4 |publisher = [[McGraw-Hill|McGraw-Hill Professional]] |year = 1998 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VRJTq11Zjh0C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615032636/http://books.google.com/books?id=VRJTq11Zjh0C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 21, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Neil |first1 = L. |last2 = Sigal |first2 = Pete |last3 = Chuchiak, IV |first3 = John F. |title = Sexual Encounters/Sexual Collisions: Alternative Sexualities in Colonial Mesoamerica |publisher = [[Duke University Press]] |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-8223-6670-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fTA4yyo4YCYC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 19 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191219065733/https://books.google.com/books?id=fTA4yyo4YCYC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 7, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = O'Connell |first1 = Helen E. |author1-link=Helen O'Connell (urologist) |first2 = Kalavampara V |last2 = Sanjeevan |editor-last = Goldstein |editor-first = Irwin Joseph |title = Women's Sexual Function and Dysfunction: Study, Diagnosis and Treatment |publisher = [[Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis US]] |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-1-84214-263-9 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=T5P_5UwqYhoC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 2 January 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210102115232/https://books.google.com/books?id=T5P_5UwqYhoC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 15, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Pitts-Taylor |first = Victoria |title = Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body |publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn = 978-0-313-34145-8 |year = 2008 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=66u24WAyO_YC&q=Cultural+Encyclopedia+of+the+Body |access-date = 19 October 2020 |archive-date = 26 January 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126150752/https://books.google.com/books?id=66u24WAyO_YC&q=Cultural+Encyclopedia+of+the+Body |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=May 12, 2013 -->

* {{cite book |last = Pomeroy |first = Wardell Baxter |title = Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research 1982 |publisher = [[Yale University Press]] |year = 1982 |orig-date = 1972 |isbn = 978-0-300-02916-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kRtDUxZSx7EC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613153126/http://books.google.com/books?id=kRtDUxZSx7EC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 28, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Porst |first1 = Hartmut |last2 = Buvat |first2 = Jacques |title = Standard Practice in Sexual Medicine |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-1-4051-7872-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S4GJio79XOUC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 22 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191222154607/https://books.google.com/books?id=S4GJio79XOUC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 3, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Reinisch |first1 = June M |first2 = Ruth |last2 = Beasley |title = The Kinsey Institute New Report on Sex |publisher = Macmillan |year = 1991 |isbn = 978-0-312-06386-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KsW6wPiXEd0C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614204231/http://books.google.com/books?id=KsW6wPiXEd0C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 10, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Roberts |first = Keath |title = Lotus Illustrated Dictionary of Sex |publisher = Lotus Press |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-81-89093-59-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zDS9kC03x2IC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615030340/http://books.google.com/books?id=zDS9kC03x2IC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=August 17, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Rosenthal |first = Martha |title = Human Sexuality: From Cells to Society |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2012 |isbn = 978-0-618-75571-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614011449/http://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=September 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Rosenzweig |first1 = Mark R. |first2 = Arnold L. |last2 = Leiman |author3-link = Marc Breedlove |first3 = Marc |last3 = Breedlove |title = Biological psychology |publisher = [[Sinauer Associates]] |isbn = 978-0-87893-775-2 |year = 1996 |url = https://archive.org/details/biologicalpsycho00rose }}

* {{cite book |last = Rosevear |first = Donovan Reginald |year = 1974 |title = The carnivores of West Africa |location = London |publisher = Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History) |isbn = 978-0-565-00723-2 |url = https://archive.org/details/carnivoresofwest00rose }} <!-- |access-date=November 9, 2013 -->

* {{cite book |last = Roughgarden |first = Joan |year = 2004 |title = Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People |publisher = [[University of California Press]] |isbn = 978-0-520-24073-5 |url = https://archive.org/details/evolutionsrainbo00roug |url-access = registration }} <!-- |access-date=November 9, 2013 -->

* {{cite book |last = Saladin |first = Kenneth S. |title = Human anatomy |isbn = 978-0-07-298636-5 |publisher = [[McGraw-Hill|McGraw-Hill Higher Education]] |year = 2010 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul4QAQAAMAAJ |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615003325/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ul4QAQAAMAAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 19, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Seidman |first1 = Steven |first2 = Nancy L. |last2 = Fischer |first3 = Chet |last3 = Meeks |title = Handbook of the New Sexuality Studies |isbn = 978-0-415-38648-7 |publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]] |year = 2006 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qkp65to1wn8C&pg=PA112 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615025555/http://books.google.com/books?id=qkp65to1wn8C&pg=PA112 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-11-20  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Schatzberg |first1 = Alan F. |last2 = Cole |first2 = Jonathan O. |last3 = DeBattista |first3 = Charles |title = Manual of Clinical Psychopharmacology |volume = 1 |publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Pub]] |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-1-58562-377-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=D3zz1NCm3qcC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165213/https://books.google.com/books?id=D3zz1NCm3qcC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 4, 2014 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Schünke |first1 = Michael |first2 = Erik |last2 = Schulte |first3 = Lawrence M. |last3 = Ross |first4 = Edward D. |last4 = Lamperti |first5 = Udo |last5 = Schumacher |title = Thieme Atlas of Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System |volume = 1 |publisher = [[Thieme Medical Publishers]] |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-3-13-142081-7 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9TgTaGt6UC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613224311/http://books.google.com/books?id=NK9TgTaGt6UC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Schuenke |first1 = Michael |first2 = Erik |last2 = Schulte |first3 = Udo |last3 = Schumacher |year = 2010 |title = General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System |publisher = [[Thieme Medical Publishers]] |isbn = 978-1-60406-287-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FcpVUrdYk9sC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613235834/http://books.google.com/books?id=FcpVUrdYk9sC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 27, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Schwartz |first1 = Pepper |first2 = Martha |last2 = Kempner |year = 2015 |title = 50 Great Myths of Human Sexuality |publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn = 978-0-470-67433-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p0goBgAAQBAJ |access-date = 11 March 2018 |archive-date = 21 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191221201902/https://books.google.com/books?id=p0goBgAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=March 11, 2018 -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Shrage |first1 = Laurie J. |last2 = Stewart |first2 = Robert Scott |year = 2015 |title = Philosophizing About Sex |publisher = [[Broadview Press]] |isbn = 978-1-77048-536-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RysEBgAAQBAJ |access-date = 7 June 2018 |archive-date = 17 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210717165212/https://books.google.com/books?id=RysEBgAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=June 6, 2018 -->

* {{cite book |last = Sloane |first = Ethel |title = Biology of Women |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-7668-1142-3 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kqcYyk7zlHYC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613202222/http://books.google.com/books?id=kqcYyk7zlHYC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-08-25  -->

* {{cite book |last = Swancutt |first = Diana M |editor-last = Penner |editor-first = Todd C. |editor2-first = Caroline Vander |editor2-last = Stichele |title = Mapping gender in ancient religious discourses |chapter = Still before sexuality: "Greek" androgyny, the Roman imperial politics of masculinity and the Roman invention of the ''Tribas'' |publisher = Brill |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-90-04-15447-6 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2udV9fAz1UkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 13 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130613180803/http://books.google.com/books?id=2udV9fAz1UkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=September 9, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Taormino |first = Tristan |author-link = Tristan Taormino |title = The Big Book of Sex Toys |publisher = Quiver |year = 2009 |isbn = 978-1-59233-355-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hfly-iMkWRkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 30 April 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160430062109/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hfly-iMkWRkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-08-25  -->

* {{cite book |last1 = Tavris |first1 = Carol |last2 = Wade |first2 = Carole |last3 = Offir |first3 = Carole |title = The longest war: sex differences in perspective |publisher = [[University of Michigan]] |year = 1984 |isbn = 978-0-15-551186-6 |url = https://archive.org/details/longestwarsexdif00tavr }}

* {{cite book |last1 = Weiten |first1 = Wayne |first2 = Dana S. |last2 = Dunn |first3 = Elizabeth Yost |last3 = Hammer |title = Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st century |isbn = 978-1-111-18663-0 |publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] |year = 2011 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CGu96TeAZo0C&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 2 January 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140102164122/http://books.google.com/books?id=CGu96TeAZo0C&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 9, 201 -->

* {{cite book |last = Westheimer |first = Ruth |author-link = Ruth Westheimer |title = Encyclopedia of sex |publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]] |year = 2000 |isbn = 978-0-8264-1240-9 }}

* {{cite book |last = Wilkinson |first = Edward J. |title = Wilkinson and Stone Atlas of Vulvar Disease |publisher = [[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]] |year = 2012 |isbn = 978-1-4511-7853-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UNCvfblD1qgC |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 21 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191221035117/https://books.google.com/books?id=UNCvfblD1qgC |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 28, 2012  -->

* {{cite book |last = Williams |first = Linda |title = Screening Sex |publisher = [[Duke University Press]] |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0-8223-4285-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UHPEp2AbYxcC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615040323/http://books.google.com/books?id=UHPEp2AbYxcC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=2012-11-28  -->

* {{cite book |last = Wingfield |first = John C |editor-last = Neill |editor-first = Jimmy D |year = 2006 |chapter = Communicative Behaviors Hormone–Behavior Interactions, and Reproduction in Vertebrates |title = Physiology of Reproduction |volume = 2 |isbn = 978-0-12-515402-4 |publisher = [[Gulf Professional Publishing]] |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=11f2zMjqqVkC&pg=PP1 |access-date = 27 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130614235749/http://books.google.com/books?id=11f2zMjqqVkC&pg=PP1 |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=November 27, 2012 -->

* {{cite book |last = Wood |first = Rachel |year = 2017 |title = Consumer Sexualities: Women and Sex Shopping |publisher = [[Routledge]] |isbn = 978-1-315-44750-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GFsvDwAAQBAJ |access-date = 11 March 2018 |archive-date = 20 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191220031956/https://books.google.com/books?id=GFsvDwAAQBAJ |url-status = live }} <!-- |access-date=March 11, 2018 -->