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imported>Kilvin the Futz-y Enterovirus linked to "general dictionary". seeing as that a redirect to a later section, perhaps bolding needs to be used. |
imported>Qwfp →Other types: no Easter eggs thanks |
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[[File:Compact OED ahoy2 (cropped).png|thumb|Dictionary definition entries]] | [[File:Compact OED ahoy2 (cropped).png|thumb|Dictionary definition entries]] | ||
A '''dictionary''' is a listing of [[lexeme]] | A '''dictionary''' is a listing of [[word]]s or [[lexeme]]s—typically [[Lemma (morphology)|base forms]]—from the [[lexicon]] of one or more specific [[language]]s, often arranged [[Alphabetical order|alphabetically]] (or by [[Semitic root|consonantal root]] for [[Semitic languages]] or [[radical-and-stroke sorting|radical and stroke]] for [[Logogram|logographic]] languages), which may include information on [[definition]]s, usage, [[etymologies]], [[pronunciation]]s, [[Bilingual dictionary|translation]], etc.<ref>https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1342243.pdf Dictionary uses research article</ref><ref name = Web1>Webster's New World College Dictionary, Fourth Edition, 2002</ref><ref name="thought">{{cite web |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-dictionary-1690450 |title=The Features, Functions, and Limitations of Dictionaries |last=Nordquist |first=Richard |date=9 August 2019 |website=ThoughtCo |access-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526182451/https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-dictionary-1690450 |archive-date=26 May 2022}}</ref><ref name="britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/dictionary |title=Dictionary |website=Britannica |access-date=13 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708010534/https://www.britannica.com/summary/dictionary |archive-date=8 July 2022}}</ref> It is a [[Lexicography|lexicographical]] reference that shows inter-relationships among the data.<ref>https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/English_dictionary_%28IA_englishdictionar00john%29.pdf. Public domain reference</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author = Nielsen, Sandro |year = 2008 |title = The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Naming and Use | journal = Lexikos |volume = 18 |issn= 1684-4904 |pages = 170–189}}</ref> | ||
A broad distinction is made between [[general dictionary|general]] and [[specialized dictionaries]]. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a comprehensive range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether [[lexicology]] and [[terminology]] are two different fields of study.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} In theory, general dictionaries are supposed{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} to be [[Semasiology|semasiological]], mapping word to [[definition]], while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be [[Onomasiology|onomasiological]], first identifying [[concept]]s and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.<ref name="Sterkenburg2003">A Practical Guide to Lexicography, Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 155–157</ref> There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance [[bilingual dictionary|bilingual (translation) dictionaries]], dictionaries of [[synonym]]s ([[thesaurus|thesauri]]), and [[rhyming]] dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose [[monolingual dictionary]].<ref name=Sintro>A Practical Guide to Lexicography, Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 3–4</ref> | A broad distinction is made between [[general dictionary|general]] and [[specialized dictionaries]]. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a comprehensive range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether [[lexicology]] and [[terminology]] are two different fields of study.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} In theory, general dictionaries are supposed{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} to be [[Semasiology|semasiological]], mapping word to [[definition]], while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be [[Onomasiology|onomasiological]], first identifying [[concept]]s and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types.<ref name="Sterkenburg2003">A Practical Guide to Lexicography, Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 155–157</ref> There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance [[bilingual dictionary|bilingual (translation) dictionaries]], dictionaries of [[synonym]]s ([[thesaurus|thesauri]]), and [[rhyming]] dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose [[monolingual dictionary]].<ref name=Sintro>A Practical Guide to Lexicography, Sterkenburg 2003, pp. 3–4</ref> | ||
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==History== | ==History== | ||
[[File: | [[File:Library of Ashurbanipal synonym list tablet.jpg|thumb|left|The oldest known dictionaries are cuneiform tablets such as this synonyms list from the [[Library of Ashurbanipal]].]] | ||
The oldest known dictionaries were [[cuneiform]] tablets with bilingual [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]–[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] wordlists, discovered in [[Ebla]] (modern [[Syria]]) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the [[Akkadian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=DCCLT – Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Lexical Texts |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401062333/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="imlqdg">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Dictionary – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html#p3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029091932/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7lgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT347 |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Lexicography |date=24 February 2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-18172-4 |language=en}}</ref> The early 2nd millennium BCE ''[[Urra=hubullu]]'' glossary is the canonical [[Babylonia]]n version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A [[Chinese dictionary]], the {{Circa|3rd century BCE}} ''[[Erya]]'', is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; some sources cite the ''[[Shizhoupian]]'' (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of [[Chinese character]]s from [[Zhou dynasty]] bronzes.{{citation needed |reason=The Wikipedia article about the Shizhoupian does not contain any mention of Zhou dynasty bronzes or calligraphy. |date=September 2022}} [[Philitas of Cos]] (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary ''Disorderly Words'' (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ''{{transliteration|el|ISO|Átaktoi glôssai}}'') which explained the meanings of rare [[Homer]]ic and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Peter Bing |title= The unruly tongue: Philitas of Cos as scholar and poet |journal= Classical Philology |volume=98 |issue=4 |year=2003 |pages=330–348 |doi=10.1086/422370|s2cid= 162304317 }}</ref> [[Apollonius the Sophist]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.<ref name = "imlqdg"/> The first [[Sanskrit]] dictionary, the [[Amarakosha|Amarakośa]], was written by [[Amarasimha]] {{Circa|4th century CE}}. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the first [[Japanese dictionaries#Early Japanese lexicography|Japanese dictionary]] was the long-lost 682 CE ''Niina'' glossary of Chinese characters. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi's]] 8th century ''[[Kitab al-'Ayn]]'' is considered the first dictionary of [[Arabic]].<ref>Sellheim, R., "al-K̲h̲alīl b. Aḥmad", in: ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 4 June 2023</ref> The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the {{Circa|835 CE}} ''[[Tenrei Banshō Meigi]]'', was also a glossary of written Chinese. In ''[[Frahang-i Pahlavig]]'', [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Heterogram (linguistics)|heterograms]] are listed together with their translation in the [[Middle Persian]] language and phonetic transcription in the [[Pazend]] alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, [[Sanas Cormaic]], contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid]]-[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari|Mahmud Kashgari]] finished his work "[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk|Divan-u Lügat'it Türk]]", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially [[Middle Turkic languages|Karakhanid Turkic]]. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language.<ref>Besim Atalay, Divanü Lügat-it Türk Dizini, TTK Basımevi, Ankara, 1986</ref> [[Al-Zamakhshari]] wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler [[Atsiz]].<ref>Zeki Velidi Togan, Zimahşeri'nin Doğu Türkçesi İle Mukaddimetül Edeb'i</ref> In the 14th century, the [[Codex Cumanicus]] was finished and it served as a dictionary about the [[Cumans|Cuman]]-Turkic language. While in [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]], Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] and [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcoman]] languages spoken in Egypt and the [[Levant]].<ref>Ahmet Caferoğlu, Kitab Al Idrak Li Lisan Al Atrak, 1931</ref> A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in [[old Anatolian Turkish]] from the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] period and not the late medieval [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period.<ref>Bahşāyiş Bin Çalıça, Bahşayiş Lügati: Hazırlayan: Fikret TURAN, Ankara 2017,</ref> In India around 1320, [[Amir Khusro]] compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] words.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rashid|first=Omar|title=Chasing Khusro|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/books/article3672990.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=5 August 2012|archive-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925124056/https://www.thehindu.com/books/chasing-khusro/article3672990.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | The oldest known dictionaries were [[cuneiform]] tablets with bilingual [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]–[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] wordlists, discovered in [[Ebla]] (modern [[Syria]]) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the [[Akkadian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=DCCLT – Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Lexical Texts |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |access-date=1 March 2022 |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401062333/http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/intro/lexical_intro.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="imlqdg">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Dictionary – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html#p3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029091932/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573731/Dictionary.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Howard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7lgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT347 |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Lexicography |date=24 February 2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-18172-4 |language=en}}</ref> The early 2nd millennium BCE ''[[Urra=hubullu]]'' glossary is the canonical [[Babylonia]]n version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A [[Chinese dictionary]], the {{Circa|3rd century BCE}} ''[[Erya]]'', is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; some sources cite the ''[[Shizhoupian]]'' (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of [[Chinese character]]s from [[Zhou dynasty]] bronzes.{{citation needed |reason=The Wikipedia article about the Shizhoupian does not contain any mention of Zhou dynasty bronzes or calligraphy. |date=September 2022}} [[Philitas of Cos]] (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary ''Disorderly Words'' (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, ''{{transliteration|el|ISO|Átaktoi glôssai}}'') which explained the meanings of rare [[Homer]]ic and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Peter Bing |title= The unruly tongue: Philitas of Cos as scholar and poet |journal= Classical Philology |volume=98 |issue=4 |year=2003 |pages=330–348 |doi=10.1086/422370|s2cid= 162304317 }}</ref> [[Apollonius the Sophist]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon.<ref name = "imlqdg"/> The first [[Sanskrit]] dictionary, the [[Amarakosha|Amarakośa]], was written by [[Amarasimha]] {{Circa|4th century CE}}. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}, the first [[Japanese dictionaries#Early Japanese lexicography|Japanese dictionary]] was the long-lost 682 CE ''Niina'' glossary of Chinese characters. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi's]] 8th century ''[[Kitab al-'Ayn]]'' is considered the first dictionary of [[Arabic]].<ref>Sellheim, R., "al-K̲h̲alīl b. Aḥmad", in: ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 4 June 2023</ref> The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the {{Circa|835 CE}} ''[[Tenrei Banshō Meigi]]'', was also a glossary of written Chinese. In ''[[Frahang-i Pahlavig]]'', [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Heterogram (linguistics)|heterograms]] are listed together with their translation in the [[Middle Persian]] language and phonetic transcription in the [[Pazend]] alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, [[Sanas Cormaic]], contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid]]-[[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari|Mahmud Kashgari]] finished his work "[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk|Divan-u Lügat'it Türk]]", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially [[Middle Turkic languages|Karakhanid Turkic]]. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]].<ref>Besim Atalay, Divanü Lügat-it Türk Dizini, TTK Basımevi, Ankara, 1986</ref> [[Al-Zamakhshari]] wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler [[Atsiz]].<ref>Zeki Velidi Togan, Zimahşeri'nin Doğu Türkçesi İle Mukaddimetül Edeb'i</ref> In the 14th century, the [[Codex Cumanicus]] was finished and it served as a dictionary about the [[Cumans|Cuman]]-Turkic language. While in [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]], Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] and [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turcoman]] languages spoken in Egypt and the [[Levant]].<ref>Ahmet Caferoğlu, Kitab Al Idrak Li Lisan Al Atrak, 1931</ref> A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in [[old Anatolian Turkish]] from the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] period and not the late medieval [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period.<ref>Bahşāyiş Bin Çalıça, Bahşayiş Lügati: Hazırlayan: Fikret TURAN, Ankara 2017,</ref> In India around 1320, [[Amir Khusro]] compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] words.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rashid|first=Omar|title=Chasing Khusro|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/books/article3672990.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=5 August 2012|archive-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925124056/https://www.thehindu.com/books/chasing-khusro/article3672990.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
[[File:Catalano latinum 1696 Gazophylacium Dictionary published in Barcelona.jpg|thumb|Catalan-Latin dictionary from the year 1696 with more than 1000 pages. Gazophylacium Dictionary. ]] | |||
[[Arabic]] dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the [[root (linguistics)|radicals]], or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]], while most general use dictionaries, such as the ''Lisan al-`Arab'' (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and ''al-Qamus al-Muhit'' (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The ''Qamus al-Muhit'' is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the ''Lisan'' and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref>"Ḳāmūs", J. Eckmann, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Brill</ref> | [[Arabic]] dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the [[root (linguistics)|radicals]], or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the [[Qur'an]] and [[hadith]], while most general use dictionaries, such as the ''Lisan al-`Arab'' (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and ''al-Qamus al-Muhit'' (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The ''Qamus al-Muhit'' is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the ''Lisan'' and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref>"Ḳāmūs", J. Eckmann, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', 2nd ed., Brill</ref> | ||
[[File:Vocabolario degli accademici della crusca, prima edizione per giovanni alberti, venezia 1612, 01.jpg|thumb|300px | [[File:Vocabolario degli accademici della crusca, prima edizione per giovanni alberti, venezia 1612, 01.jpg|thumb|left|300px|1612 ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]'']] | ||
In medieval Europe, [[glossary|glossaries]] with equivalents for Latin words in [[vernacular]] or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the [[Leiden Glossary]]). The ''[[Catholicon (1286)|Catholicon]]'' (1287) by [[John of Genoa|Johannes Balbus]], a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 [[Ambrogio Calepino]]'s ''Dictionarium'' was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 [[Robert Estienne]] published the ''Thesaurus linguae latinae'' and in 1572 his son [[Henri Estienne]] published the ''[[Thesaurus linguae graecae]]'', which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was [[Sebastián Covarrubias]]'s ''[[Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española]]'', published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.<ref>''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', edición integral e ilustrada de Ignacio Arellano y Rafael Zafra, Madrid, Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2006, pg. XLIX.</ref> In 1612 the first edition of the ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]'', for [[italian language|Italian]], was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in [[Rotterdam]] was published, posthumously, the ''Dictionnaire Universel'' by [[Antoine Furetière]] for [[french language|French]]. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]}} (still published, with the ninth edition not complete {{As of|2021|lc=y}}). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the ''Vocabulario portughez e latino'' written by Raphael Bluteau. The [[Royal Spanish Academy]] published the first edition of the {{Lang|es|[[Diccionario de la lengua española]]}} (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their ''Diccionario de Autoridades'', which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The ''Totius Latinitatis lexicon'' by [[Egidio Forcellini]] was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published. | In medieval Europe, [[glossary|glossaries]] with equivalents for Latin words in [[vernacular]] or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the [[Leiden Glossary]]). The ''[[Catholicon (1286)|Catholicon]]'' (1287) by [[John of Genoa|Johannes Balbus]], a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 [[Ambrogio Calepino]]'s ''Dictionarium'' was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 [[Robert Estienne]] published the ''Thesaurus linguae latinae'' and in 1572 his son [[Henri Estienne]] published the ''[[Thesaurus linguae graecae]]'', which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was [[Sebastián Covarrubias]]'s ''[[Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española]]'', published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain.<ref>''Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española'', edición integral e ilustrada de Ignacio Arellano y Rafael Zafra, Madrid, Iberoamericana-Vervuert, 2006, pg. XLIX.</ref> In 1612 the first edition of the ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]'', for [[italian language|Italian]], was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in [[Rotterdam]] was published, posthumously, the ''Dictionnaire Universel'' by [[Antoine Furetière]] for [[french language|French]]. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de l'Académie française]]}} (still published, with the ninth edition not complete {{As of|2021|lc=y}}). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the ''Vocabulario portughez e latino'' written by Raphael Bluteau. The [[Royal Spanish Academy]] published the first edition of the {{Lang|es|[[Diccionario de la lengua española]]}} (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their ''Diccionario de Autoridades'', which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The ''Totius Latinitatis lexicon'' by [[Egidio Forcellini]] was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published. | ||
[[File:Nouveau Dictionnaire Larousse page.JPG|thumb|The French-language ''[[Petit Larousse]]'' is an example of an illustrated dictionary.]] | |||
The first edition of ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'' by [[Henry George Liddell]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the [[Deutsches Wörterbuch]] by the [[Brothers Grimm]]; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the ''Dizionario della lingua italiana'' by [[Niccolò Tommaseo]]. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of ''A magyar nyelv szótára'' (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. [[Émile Littré]] published the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)|Dictionnaire de la langue française]]}} between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the ''[[Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal]]'' which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 [[Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl]] published the ''[[Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]]''. The [[Duden]] dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the [[prescriptive]] source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordbok]]'' was taken in 1787.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|title=OSA – Om svar anhålles|website=g3.spraakdata.gu.se|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=2 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302142155/http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|url-status=live}}</ref> | The first edition of ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'' by [[Henry George Liddell]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the [[Deutsches Wörterbuch]] by the [[Brothers Grimm]]; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the ''Dizionario della lingua italiana'' by [[Niccolò Tommaseo]]. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of ''A magyar nyelv szótára'' (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. [[Émile Littré]] published the {{Lang|fr|[[Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)|Dictionnaire de la langue française]]}} between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the ''[[Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal]]'' which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 [[Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl]] published the ''[[Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]]''. The [[Duden]] dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the [[prescriptive]] source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the ''[[Svenska Akademiens ordbok]]'' was taken in 1787.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|title=OSA – Om svar anhålles|website=g3.spraakdata.gu.se|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=2 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302142155/http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
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* [[Reverse dictionary]] ([[Conceptual dictionary]]) | * [[Reverse dictionary]] ([[Conceptual dictionary]]) | ||
* [[Visual dictionary]] | * [[Visual dictionary]] | ||
* [[Phonetic dictionary]] | * [[Phonetic dictionary]] | ||
* ''[[The Devil's Dictionary]]'' | |||
==Pronunciation== | ==Pronunciation== | ||
{{Main|Pronunciation respelling for English}} | {{Main|Pronunciation respelling for English}} | ||
In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word ''dictionary'' might be followed by the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] spelling {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|k|ʃ|ə|n|ər|i}} (in British English) or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|k|ʃ|ə|n|ɛr|i}} (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own [[pronunciation respelling]] systems with [[diacritic]]s, for example ''dictionary'' is respelled as "dĭk'''′'''shə-nĕr′ē" in the [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary]].{{refn|{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|dictionary}}}} The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, ''dictionary'' may be respelled as {{respell|DIK|shə|nerr|ee}}. Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken. | In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word ''dictionary'' might be followed by the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] spelling {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|k|ʃ|ə|n|ər|i}} (in British English) or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|k|ʃ|ə|n|ɛr|i}} (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own [[pronunciation respelling]] systems with [[diacritic]]s, for example ''dictionary'' is respelled as "dĭk'''′'''shə-nĕr′ē" in the [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary]].{{refn|{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|dictionary}}}} The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, ''dictionary'' may be respelled as {{respell|DIK|shə|nər|ee}} or {{respell|DIK|shə|nerr|ee}} on Wikipedia. Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken. | ||
==Examples== | ==Examples== | ||
| Line 174: | Line 176: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
* {{cite book | | * Atkins, B. T. S. & Rundell, Michael (2008) ''The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography'', Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-927771-1}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/data/b_history.html | * {{cite book |editor1-last=Bergenholtz |editor1-first=Henning |editor1-link=Henning Bergenholtz |editor2-last=Tarp |editor2-first=Sven |year=1995 |title=Manual of Specialised Lexicography: The Preparation of Specialised Dictionaries |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=90-272-1612-6}} | ||
* {{cite web |last1=Erdmann |first1=Peter |last2=Cho |first2=See-Young |title=A Brief History of English Lexicography |url=http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/data/b_history.html |access-date=17 December 2010 |publisher=Technische Universität Berlin | |||
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309181613/http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html |archive-date=9 March 2008}} | |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309181613/http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/b_history.html |archive-date=9 March 2008}} | ||
* {{cite book | * {{cite book |last=Landau |first=Sidney I. |author-link=Sidney I. Landau |year=2001 |orig-year=1984 |title=Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-78040-3}} | ||
* {{cite book | * {{cite book |last=Nielsen|first=Sandro|author-link=Sandro Nielsen |year=1994 |title=The Bilingual LSP Dictionary: Principles and Practice for Legal Language |location=Tübingen, Germany |publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag |isbn=3-8233-4533-8}} | ||
* {{Cite journal |author = Nielsen, Sandro | | * {{Cite journal |author=Nielsen, Sandro |date=November 2008 |title=The Effect of Lexicographical Information Costs on Dictionary Making and Use |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231545079 |journal=Lexikos |volume=18 |pages=170–189 |doi=10.5788/18-0-483 |issn=1684-4904|doi-access=free }} | ||
* | * {{cite book |editor-last=van Sterkenburg |editor-first=P. G. J. |year=2003 |title=A Practical Guide to Lexicography |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-58811-381-8}} | ||
* {{cite book |title= | * {{cite book |last=Winchester |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Winchester |year=1998 |title=The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary |title-link=The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary |location=New York |publisher=HarperPerennial |isbn=0-06-099486-X}} (Published in the UK as ''The Surgeon of Crowthorne''.) | ||
== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
* Guy Jean | * {{Cite book |last=Fatsis |first=Stefan |year=2025 |title=Unabridged: The Thrill of (and Threat to) the Modern Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=By2IEQAAQBAJ |edition=First hardcover |location=New York |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |isbn=9780802165824 |oclc=1528593889 |access-date=25 November 2025}} | ||
* Forgue, Guy Jean (November 1983). "[https://www.persee.fr/doc/rfea_0397-7870_1983_num_18_1_1144 The Norm in American English]", ''Revue Française d'Etudes Americaines''. Vol. 8 Issue 18, pp. 451–461. An international appreciation of the importance of Webster's dictionaries in setting the norms of the English language. | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||