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imported>Wound theology add ethnoscience navbox with fixed link (ethnoastronomy -> archaeoastronomy) |
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{{Short description|Interdisciplinary study of astronomies in cultures}} | {{Short description|Interdisciplinary study of astronomies in cultures}} | ||
{{ | {{About|how ancient people view the sky|archaeology in space|Space archaeology|studies of the early universe|Stellar archaeology|other uses}} | ||
[[File:Newgrange, Ireland 001.jpg|thumb|The rising [[Sun]] illuminates the inner chamber of [[Newgrange]], [[Ireland]], only at the [[winter solstice]].]] | [[File:Newgrange, Ireland 001.jpg|thumb|The rising [[Sun]] illuminates the inner chamber of [[Newgrange]], [[Ireland]], only at the [[winter solstice]].]] | ||
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Aveni states that one of the strengths of the brown methodology is that it can explore astronomies invisible to statistical analysis and offers the astronomy of the [[Inca]]s as another example. The empire of the Incas was conceptually divided using ''ceques'', radial routes emanating from the capital at [[Cusco]]. Thus there are alignments in all directions which would suggest there is little of astronomical significance, However, ethnohistorical records show that the various directions do have cosmological and astronomical significance with various points in the landscape being significant at different times of the year.<ref>Aveni 1989:5</ref><ref>Bauer and Dearborn 1995</ref> In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the history of astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the [[Han dynasty]], in the second century BC.<ref>Xu ''et al.'' 2000:1–7</ref> | Aveni states that one of the strengths of the brown methodology is that it can explore astronomies invisible to statistical analysis and offers the astronomy of the [[Inca]]s as another example. The empire of the Incas was conceptually divided using ''ceques'', radial routes emanating from the capital at [[Cusco]]. Thus there are alignments in all directions which would suggest there is little of astronomical significance, However, ethnohistorical records show that the various directions do have cosmological and astronomical significance with various points in the landscape being significant at different times of the year.<ref>Aveni 1989:5</ref><ref>Bauer and Dearborn 1995</ref> In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the history of astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the [[Han dynasty]], in the second century BC.<ref>Xu ''et al.'' 2000:1–7</ref> | ||
A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are.<ref>Schaefer 2006a:42–48</ref><ref>Schaefer 2006b</ref> Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy.<ref>Iwaniszewski 2003</ref> Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like [[analogy]] and [[homology (anthropology)|homology]] and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area<ref>{{cite journal|last1=González-García|first1=A. César|last2=Šprajc|first2=Ivan|title=Astronomical significance of architectural orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports|date=2016|volume=9|pages=191–202|doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.020|bibcode=2016JArSR...9..191G }}</ref> and in other parts of Mesoamerica.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Šprajc|first1=Ivan|title=Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica|journal=Journal of Archaeological Research|volume=26|issue=2|pages=197–251|doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z|year=2018|s2cid=149439162}}</ref> | A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are.<ref>Schaefer 2006a:42–48</ref><ref>Schaefer 2006b</ref> Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy.<ref>Iwaniszewski 2003</ref> Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like [[analogy]] and [[homology (anthropology)|homology]] and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area<ref>{{cite journal|last1=González-García|first1=A. César|last2=Šprajc|first2=Ivan|title=Astronomical significance of architectural orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports|date=2016|volume=9|pages=191–202|doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.07.020|bibcode=2016JArSR...9..191G |hdl=10261/392571 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> and in other parts of Mesoamerica.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Šprajc|first1=Ivan|title=Astronomy, Architecture, and Landscape in Prehispanic Mesoamerica|journal=Journal of Archaeological Research|volume=26|issue=2|pages=197–251|doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z|year=2018|s2cid=149439162}}</ref> | ||
== Source materials == | == Source materials == | ||
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=== Artifacts === | === Artifacts === | ||
[[Image:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|thumb|The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)]]For artifacts such as the [[Nebra skydisk|Sky Disc of Nebra]], alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos,<ref>Scholsser 2002</ref><ref>Meller 2004</ref> the analysis would be similar to typical [[Archaeology# | [[Image:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|thumb|The Antikythera mechanism (main fragment)]]For artifacts such as the [[Nebra skydisk|Sky Disc of Nebra]], alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos,<ref>Scholsser 2002</ref><ref>Meller 2004</ref> the analysis would be similar to typical [[Archaeology#Posts-excavation analysis|post-excavation analysis]] as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists. | ||
A more mundane example is the presence of [[astrological symbol]]s found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but [[Carol van Driel-Murray]] has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings.<ref>van Driel-Murray 2002</ref> This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dr Richard Pearson|title=The History of Astronomy|publisher=Astro Publication|year=2020|isbn= | A more mundane example is the presence of [[astrological symbol]]s found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but [[Carol van Driel-Murray]] has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings.<ref>van Driel-Murray 2002</ref> This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dr Richard Pearson|title=The History of Astronomy|publisher=Astro Publication|year=2020|isbn=978-0-244-86650-1|location=United Kingdom|page=7}}</ref> | ||
Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the [[Antikythera mechanism]]. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read.<ref>T. Freeth ''et al.'' 2006</ref> | Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the [[Antikythera mechanism]]. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read.<ref>T. Freeth ''et al.'' 2006</ref> | ||
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{{Main|Declination}} | {{Main|Declination}} | ||
To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed | To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced, a coordinate system is needed, and the stars provide such a system. On a clear night observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole can be observed. This point is +90° of the North Celestial Pole or −90° observing the Southern Celestial Pole.<ref name = "byuqqi">Ruggles 1999:18</ref> The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as ''declination''. The arc connecting the points on the horizon due East and due West (if the horizon is flat) and all points midway between the Celestial Poles is the Celestial Equator which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say whether a specific body can be seen in that direction. | ||
{{clear}} | {{clear}} | ||
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There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the [[constellation]]s. The Barasana of the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]] plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees.<ref>Hoskin 1999:15–16</ref> The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce.<ref>Hugh-Jones 1982:191–93</ref> | There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the [[constellation]]s. The Barasana of the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]] plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees.<ref>Hoskin 1999:15–16</ref> The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce.<ref>Hugh-Jones 1982:191–93</ref> | ||
The Northern [[Dene]] peoples of Alaska and northwestern Canada recognize [[Traveller constellations (Dene)|Traveller constellations]] that incorporate large portions of the night sky. These constellations represent a culture hero known as the Traveller who, according to oral tradition, journeyed around the world before his spirit became embodied in the stars. The constellations are composed of multiple smaller star groups named using body-part terminology, with the [[Milky Way]] identified as the Traveller's trail.<ref name="CannonArctic">{{cite journal | | The Northern [[Dene]] peoples of Alaska and northwestern Canada recognize [[Traveller constellations (Dene)|Traveller constellations]] that incorporate large portions of the night sky. These constellations represent a culture hero known as the Traveller who, according to oral tradition, journeyed around the world before his spirit became embodied in the stars. The constellations are composed of multiple smaller star groups named using body-part terminology, with the [[Milky Way]] identified as the Traveller's trail.<ref name="CannonArctic">{{cite journal |last1=Cannon |first1=Chris M. |last2=Justin |first2=Wilson |last3=Herbert |first3=Paul |last4=Hubbard |first4=Charles |last5=Neyelle |first5=Charlie |title=Northern Dene Constellations as Worldview Projections with Case Studies from the Ahtna, Gwich'in, and Sahtúot'ı̨nę |journal=Arctic Anthropology |volume=56 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.3368/aa.56.2.1}}</ref> Knowledge of these constellations is traditionally acquired through personal discovery rather than direct instruction, and they serve roles in navigation, timekeeping, and spiritual practice.<ref name="CannonFootsteps">{{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Chris M. |title=In the Footsteps of the Traveller: The Astronomy of Northern Dene |year=2025 |publisher=University of Manitoba Press |location=Winnipeg |isbn=978-1-77284-100-8}}</ref> | ||
A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate.<ref>Schaefer 2002</ref><ref>Blomberg 2003, esp p. 76</ref> | A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate.<ref>Schaefer 2002</ref><ref>Blomberg 2003, esp p. 76</ref> | ||
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{{Main|Newgrange}} | {{Main|Newgrange}} | ||
Newgrange is a passage tomb in the Republic of Ireland dating from around 3,300 to 2,900 BC<ref>Eogan 1991</ref> For a few days around the Winter Solstice light shines along the central passageway into the heart of the tomb. What makes this notable is not that light shines in the passageway, but that it does not do so through the main entrance. Instead it enters via a hollow box above the main doorway discovered by Michael O'Kelly.<ref>O'Kelly 1982:123–24</ref> It is this roofbox which strongly indicates that the tomb was built with an astronomical aspect in mind. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Newgrange as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility.<ref name = credibility/> Clive Ruggles notes:{{blockquote|...[F]ew people—archaeologists or astronomers—have doubted that a powerful astronomical symbolism was deliberately incorporated into the monument, demonstrating that a connection between astronomy and funerary ritual, at the very least, merits further investigation.<ref name = "byuqqi"/>}} | Newgrange is a passage tomb in the Republic of Ireland dating from around 3,300 to 2,900 BC<ref>Eogan 1991</ref> For a few days around the Winter Solstice light shines along the central passageway into the heart of the tomb. What makes this notable is not that light shines in the passageway, but that it does not do so through the main entrance. Instead it enters via a hollow box above the main doorway discovered by [[Michael J. O'Kelly|Michael O'Kelly]].<ref>O'Kelly 1982:123–24</ref> It is this roofbox which strongly indicates that the tomb was built with an astronomical aspect in mind. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Newgrange as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility.<ref name = credibility/> Clive Ruggles notes:{{blockquote|...[F]ew people—archaeologists or astronomers—have doubted that a powerful astronomical symbolism was deliberately incorporated into the monument, demonstrating that a connection between astronomy and funerary ritual, at the very least, merits further investigation.<ref name = "byuqqi"/>}} | ||
=== Egypt === | === Egypt === | ||
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{{Main|Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge}} | {{Main|Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge}} | ||
Many astronomical alignments have been claimed for Stonehenge, a complex of [[megalith]]s and [[Earthworks (archaeology)|earthwork]]s in the [[Salisbury Plain]] of England. The most famous of these is the midsummer alignment, where the Sun rises over the Heel Stone. However, this interpretation has been challenged by some archaeologists who argue that the midwinter alignment, where the viewer is outside Stonehenge and sees the Sun setting in the henge, is the more significant alignment, and the midsummer alignment may be a coincidence due to local topography.<ref>Parker Pearson ''et al.'' 2007</ref> In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Stonehenge as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility.<ref name = credibility >{{Cite book | last1 = Ruggles | first1 = C.L.N. | author-link = Clive Ruggles | last2 = Cotte | first2 = M. | chapter = Conclusion: Astronomical Heritage in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: Developing a Professional and Rational Approach | editor1-last = Ruggles | editor1-first = C.L.N. | editor2-last = Cotte | editor2-first = M. | title = Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: A Thematic Study | place = Paris | publisher = ICOMOS / IAU | date = 2010 | pages = 271–2 | url = http://openarchive.icomos.org/267/1/ICOMOS_IAU_Thematic_Study_Heritage_Sites_Astronomy_2010.pdf | isbn = 978-2-918086-01-7 | Many astronomical alignments have been claimed for Stonehenge, a complex of [[megalith]]s and [[Earthworks (archaeology)|earthwork]]s in the [[Salisbury Plain]] of England. The most famous of these is the midsummer alignment, where the Sun rises over the Heel Stone. However, this interpretation has been challenged by some archaeologists who argue that the midwinter alignment, where the viewer is outside Stonehenge and sees the Sun setting in the henge, is the more significant alignment, and the midsummer alignment may be a coincidence due to local topography.<ref>Parker Pearson ''et al.'' 2007</ref> In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Stonehenge as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility.<ref name = credibility >{{Cite book | last1 = Ruggles | first1 = C.L.N. | author-link = Clive Ruggles | last2 = Cotte | first2 = M. | chapter = Conclusion: Astronomical Heritage in the Context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: Developing a Professional and Rational Approach | editor1-last = Ruggles | editor1-first = C.L.N. | editor2-last = Cotte | editor2-first = M. | title = Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: A Thematic Study | place = Paris | publisher = ICOMOS / IAU | date = 2010 | pages = 271–2 | url = http://openarchive.icomos.org/267/1/ICOMOS_IAU_Thematic_Study_Heritage_Sites_Astronomy_2010.pdf | isbn = 978-2-918086-01-7 |access-date = 2018-01-21 | archive-date = 2016-03-18 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160318101617/http://openarchive.icomos.org/267/1/ICOMOS_IAU_Thematic_Study_Heritage_Sites_Astronomy_2010.pdf | url-status = live}} Their four credibility levels are (1) Generally accepted, (2) Debated among specialists, (3) Unproven, and (4) Completely refuted.</ref> | ||
As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. [[Anthony Aveni]] notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received.<ref>Aveni 1997:65–66</ref> | As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. [[Anthony Aveni]] notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received.<ref>Aveni 1997:65–66</ref> | ||
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=== Lascaux Cave === | === Lascaux Cave === | ||
[[File:Lascaux 01.jpg|thumb |According to Rappenglueck, the eyes of the bull, the bird, and the bird-man may represent the three stars Vega, Altair, and Deneb commonly known as the [[Summer Triangle]].]] | [[File:Lascaux 01.jpg|thumb |According to Rappenglueck, the eyes of the bull, the bird, and the bird-man may represent the three stars Vega, Altair, and Deneb commonly known as the [[Summer Triangle]].]] | ||
In recent years, new research has suggested that the [[Lascaux]] cave paintings in France may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Michael Rappenglueck of | In recent years, new research has suggested that the [[Lascaux]] cave paintings in France may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Michael Rappenglueck of [[LMU Munich]] argues that some of the non-figurative dot clusters and dots within some of the figurative images correlate with the constellations of [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]], the [[Pleiades]] and the grouping known as the "[[Summer Triangle]]".<ref name=bbcnews_starmap>{{cite news|last=Whitehouse|first=David|title=Ice Age star map discovered|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/871930.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=30 December 2012|date=9 August 2000|archive-date=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707183828/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/871930.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Based on her own study of the astronomical significance of Bronze Age [[petroglyphs]] in the [[Vallée des Merveilles]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Vallée des Merveilles |publisher=Archeociel |url=http://www.archeociel.com/nouvelle.htm |language=fr |access-date=1 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218140644/http://www.archeociel.com/nouvelle.htm |archive-date=2010-12-18 }}</ref> and her extensive survey of other prehistoric cave painting sites in the region—most of which appear to have been selected because the interiors are illuminated by the setting Sun on the day of the [[winter solstice]]—French researcher Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez has further proposed that the gallery of figurative images in the Great Hall represents an extensive star map and that key points on major figures in the group correspond to stars in the main [[constellation]]s as they appeared in the Paleolithic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archeociel: Chantal Jègues Wolkiewiez|url=http://www.archeociel.com|language=fr|access-date=1 January 2011|archive-date=17 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217235319/http://www.archeociel.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Lascaux cave: a Prehistoric sky-map...|url=http://issuu.com/lightmediation/docs/the_lascaux_cave___a_prehistoric_sky-map_3390?mode=embed&documentId=080926150256-7f1d39d0e87c4e28a7515a2712d1e473&layout=grey|publisher=lightmeditation<!-- this is a blog -->|access-date=1 January 2011|archive-date=15 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815075606/http://issuu.com/lightmediation/docs/the_lascaux_cave___a_prehistoric_sky-map_3390?mode=embed&documentId=080926150256-7f1d39d0e87c4e28a7515a2712d1e473&layout=grey|url-status=live}}</ref> Applying phylogenetics to myths of the Cosmic Hunt, Julien d'Huy suggested that the palaeolithic version of this story could be the following: there is an animal that is a horned herbivore, especially an elk. One human pursues this ungulate. The hunt locates or gets to the sky. The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation. It forms the Big Dipper. This story may be represented in the famous Lascaux shaft 'scene'<ref>Julien d'Huy. 2012. [https://www.academia.edu/3226058/2012._Un_ours_dans_les_%C3%A9toiles_recherche_phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique_sur_un_mythe_pr%C3%A9historique._-_Pr%C3%A9histoire_du_sud-ouest_20_1_91-106 Un ours dans les étoiles: recherche phylogénétique sur un mythe préhistorique.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503165125/http://www.academia.edu/3226058/2012._Un_ours_dans_les_%C3%A9toiles_recherche_phylog%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique_sur_un_mythe_pr%C3%A9historique._-_Pr%C3%A9histoire_du_sud-ouest_20_1_91-106 |date=2018-05-03 }}. ''Préhistoire du sud-ouest'', 20 (1), 91–106; Julien d'Huy. 2013. [https://www.academia.edu/3045718/2013._A_Cosmic_Hunt_in_the_Berber_sky_a_phylogenetic_reconstruction_of_Palaeolithic_mythology._-_Les_Cahiers_de_lAARS_15_93-106 A Cosmic Hunt in the Berber sky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711110017/http://www.academia.edu/3045718/2013._A_Cosmic_Hunt_in_the_Berber_sky_a_phylogenetic_reconstruction_of_Palaeolithic_mythology._-_Les_Cahiers_de_lAARS_15_93-106 |date=2015-07-11 }}. ''Les Cahiers de l'AARS'', 16, 93–106</ref> | ||
== Fringe archaeoastronomy == | == Fringe archaeoastronomy == | ||
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* {{cite journal|author= Dearborn, D.S.P.|author2= Seddon, M.F.|author3= Bauer, B.S.|name-list-style= amp |date=1998|title= The Sanctuary of Titicaca: Where the Sun Returns to Earth|journal=Latin American Antiquity|volume= 9|pages=240–58|doi= 10.2307/971730|issue= 3|jstor= 971730|s2cid= 163867549}} | * {{cite journal|author= Dearborn, D.S.P.|author2= Seddon, M.F.|author3= Bauer, B.S.|name-list-style= amp |date=1998|title= The Sanctuary of Titicaca: Where the Sun Returns to Earth|journal=Latin American Antiquity|volume= 9|pages=240–58|doi= 10.2307/971730|issue= 3|jstor= 971730|s2cid= 163867549}} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=Eogan, G.|date=1991|title=Prehistoric and Early Historic Cultural Change at Brugh na Bóinne|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy|volume=91C|pages=105–132}} | * {{cite journal|author=Eogan, G.|date=1991|title=Prehistoric and Early Historic Cultural Change at Brugh na Bóinne|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy|volume=91C|pages=105–132}} | ||
* {{cite journal |author=Fairall, A. |author-link=Anthony Patrick Fairall |date=1999 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Orion_Fairall.html |title=Precession and the layout of the Ancient Egyptian pyramids |journal=[[Astronomy & Geophysics]] |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=3.4 |access-date=2008-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228144915/http://www.antiquityofman.com/Orion_Fairall.html |archive-date=2008-02-28 | * {{cite journal |author=Fairall, A. |author-link=Anthony Patrick Fairall |date=1999 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Orion_Fairall.html |title=Precession and the layout of the Ancient Egyptian pyramids |journal=[[Astronomy & Geophysics]] |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=3.4 |access-date=2008-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228144915/http://www.antiquityofman.com/Orion_Fairall.html |archive-date=2008-02-28 |doi=10.1093/astrog/40.3.3.4 |doi-access=free }} <!-- The linked web version gives the source incompletely as Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society --> | ||
* {{cite journal|author=Fell, B.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_3.html|title=Christian Messages in Old Irish Script Deciphered from Rock Carvings in W. VA.|journal=Wonderful West Virginia|issue=47|pages=12–19|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509080053/http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_3.html|archive-date=9 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status=live}} | * {{cite journal|author=Fell, B.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_3.html|title=Christian Messages in Old Irish Script Deciphered from Rock Carvings in W. VA.|journal=Wonderful West Virginia|issue=47|pages=12–19|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509080053/http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_3.html|archive-date=9 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status=live}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Fisher, V.B.|date=2006|chapter=Ignoring Archaeoastronomy: A Dying Tradition in American Archaeology| title=Viewing the Sky Through Past and Present Cultures; Selected Papers from the Oxford VII International Conference on Archaeoastronomy|editor=Todd W. Bostwick|editor2=Bryan Bates|series=Pueblo Grande Museum Anthropological Papers |volume= 15|publisher= City of Phoenix Parks and Recreation Department|pages=1–10|isbn= 978-1-882572-38-0}} | * {{cite book|author=Fisher, V.B.|date=2006|chapter=Ignoring Archaeoastronomy: A Dying Tradition in American Archaeology| title=Viewing the Sky Through Past and Present Cultures; Selected Papers from the Oxford VII International Conference on Archaeoastronomy|editor=Todd W. Bostwick|editor2=Bryan Bates|series=Pueblo Grande Museum Anthropological Papers |volume= 15|publisher= City of Phoenix Parks and Recreation Department|pages=1–10|isbn= 978-1-882572-38-0}} | ||
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* {{cite book|author=Krupp, E.C.|date=1988|chapter=Light in the Temples|title=Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom|editor=C.L.N. Ruggles|publisher=CUP|pages=473–99|isbn=978-0-521-33381-8}} | * {{cite book|author=Krupp, E.C.|date=1988|chapter=Light in the Temples|title=Records in Stone: Papers in Memory of Alexander Thom|editor=C.L.N. Ruggles|publisher=CUP|pages=473–99|isbn=978-0-521-33381-8}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Krupp, E.C.|date=1997a|title=Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-471-32975-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/skywatchersshama0000krup}} | * {{cite book|author=Krupp, E.C.|date=1997a|title=Skywatchers, Shamans and Kings|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-471-32975-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/skywatchersshama0000krup}} | ||
* {{cite journal |author=Krupp, E.C. |author-link=Ed Krupp |title=Rambling Through the Skies: Pyramid Marketing SchemesPyramid Marketing Schemes |journal=Sky and Telescope |date=February 1997 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_pyramid_marketing_schemes.html |volume=94 |issue=2 | | * {{cite journal |author=Krupp, E.C. |author-link=Ed Krupp |title=Rambling Through the Skies: Pyramid Marketing SchemesPyramid Marketing Schemes |journal=Sky and Telescope |date=February 1997 |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_pyramid_marketing_schemes.html |volume=94 |issue=2 |page=64 |access-date=2008-03-17 |archive-date=2017-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824170418/http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_pyramid_marketing_schemes.html }} | ||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Krupp | first1 = E. C. | author-link1 = Ed Krupp | last2 = Billo | first2 = Evelyn | last3 = Mark | first3 = Robert | date = 2010 | title = Star Trek: Recovery and Review of the First Alleged Supernova Rock Art | journal = Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture | volume = 23 | pages = 35–43 }} | * {{cite journal | last1 = Krupp | first1 = E. C. | author-link1 = Ed Krupp | last2 = Billo | first2 = Evelyn | last3 = Mark | first3 = Robert | date = 2010 | title = Star Trek: Recovery and Review of the First Alleged Supernova Rock Art | journal = Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture | volume = 23 | pages = 35–43 }} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=Lesser, W.H.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/lesser_cult_arch.html|title=Cult Archaeology Strikes Again: A Case for Pre-Columbian Irishmen in the Mountain State?|journal=West Virginia Archeologist|volume=35|pages=48–52|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-date=2014-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028111706/http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/lesser_cult_arch.html | * {{cite journal|author=Lesser, W.H.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/lesser_cult_arch.html|title=Cult Archaeology Strikes Again: A Case for Pre-Columbian Irishmen in the Mountain State?|journal=West Virginia Archeologist|volume=35|pages=48–52|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-date=2014-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028111706/http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/lesser_cult_arch.html}} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=1990|title=Calendars and Symbolism: Functions of Observation in Hopi Astronomy|journal=Archaeoastronomy: Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy | volume=21 | issue = 15 | pages=S1–S16 |bibcode = 1990JHAS...21....1M|doi=10.1177/002182869002101502|s2cid=118003590}} | * {{cite journal|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=1990|title=Calendars and Symbolism: Functions of Observation in Hopi Astronomy|journal=Archaeoastronomy: Supplement to the Journal for the History of Astronomy | volume=21 | issue = 15 | pages=S1–S16 |bibcode = 1990JHAS...21....1M|doi=10.1177/002182869002101502|s2cid=118003590}} | ||
* {{cite journal|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=2000|title=The Inconstant Moon: Lunar Astronomies in Different Cultures|journal=Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture|volume=15|pages=14–31|bibcode = 2000Arch...15...14M }} | * {{cite journal|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=2000|title=The Inconstant Moon: Lunar Astronomies in Different Cultures|journal=Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture|volume=15|pages=14–31|bibcode = 2000Arch...15...14M }} | ||
* {{cite book|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=2001|chapter=Etnoscienza dei Pueblo|title=Storia della Scienza, vol. 2, Cina, India, Americhe, Sec. 3, "Le Civilta Precolombiane"|editor=Sandro Petruccioli |publisher= | * {{cite book|author=McCluskey, S.C.|date=2001|chapter=Etnoscienza dei Pueblo|title=Storia della Scienza, vol. 2, Cina, India, Americhe, Sec. 3, "Le Civilta Precolombiane"|editor=Sandro Petruccioli |location=Rome |publisher=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana|pages=1002–09}} | ||
* {{cite journal |author=McCluskey, S.C. |date=2004 |title=The Study of Astronomies in Cultures as Reflected in Dissertations and Theses |journal=Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture |volume=16 |pages=20–25}} | * {{cite journal |author=McCluskey, S.C. |date=2004 |title=The Study of Astronomies in Cultures as Reflected in Dissertations and Theses |journal=Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture |volume=16 |pages=20–25}} | ||
* {{cite book |author=McCluskey, S.C. |date=2005 |chapter=Different Astronomies, Different Cultures and the Question of Cultural Relativism |title=Current Studies in Archaeoastronomy: Conversations Across Time and Space |editor=John W. Fountain |editor2=Rolf M. Sinclair |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |pages=69–79 |isbn=978-0-89089-771-3}} | * {{cite book |author=McCluskey, S.C. |date=2005 |chapter=Different Astronomies, Different Cultures and the Question of Cultural Relativism |title=Current Studies in Archaeoastronomy: Conversations Across Time and Space |editor=John W. Fountain |editor2=Rolf M. Sinclair |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |pages=69–79 |isbn=978-0-89089-771-3}} | ||
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* {{cite journal|author=Pyle, R.L.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_1.html|title=A Message from the Past|journal=Wonderful West Virginia|issue=47|pages=3–6|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511190245/http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_1.html|archive-date=11 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status=live}} | * {{cite journal|author=Pyle, R.L.|date=1983|url=http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_1.html|title=A Message from the Past|journal=Wonderful West Virginia|issue=47|pages=3–6|access-date=2008-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511190245/http://cwva.org/wwvrunes/wwvrunes_1.html|archive-date=11 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|url-status=live}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Robins M.|author2=Ewing E.|name-list-style=amp|date=1989|chapter=The Sun is in His House: Summer Solstice at San Carlos Mesa|title=Rock Art Papers, vol. 6|editor=Ken Hedges|series=San Diego Museum Papers|volume=24|publisher=San Diego Museum}} | * {{cite book|author=Robins M.|author2=Ewing E.|name-list-style=amp|date=1989|chapter=The Sun is in His House: Summer Solstice at San Carlos Mesa|title=Rock Art Papers, vol. 6|editor=Ken Hedges|series=San Diego Museum Papers|volume=24|publisher=San Diego Museum}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/destructioni%20of%20Serapeum.html |title=The destruction of the Serapeum |access-date=2008-03-22 |author=Rufinus |author-link=Tyrannius Rufinus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406071455/http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/destructioni%20of%20Serapeum.html |archive-date=6 April 2008 | * {{cite web |url=http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/destructioni%20of%20Serapeum.html |title=The destruction of the Serapeum |access-date=2008-03-22 |author=Rufinus |author-link=Tyrannius Rufinus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406071455/http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/destructioni%20of%20Serapeum.html |archive-date=6 April 2008 }} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Ruggles, C.L.N.|date=1993|title=Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s|publisher=Group D Publications|isbn=978-1-874152-01-9}} | * {{cite book|author=Ruggles, C.L.N.|date=1993|title=Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s|publisher=Group D Publications|isbn=978-1-874152-01-9}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Ruggles, C.L.N.|date=1999|title=Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland|publisher= Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07814-5}} | * {{cite book|author=Ruggles, C.L.N.|date=1999|title=Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland|publisher= Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07814-5}} | ||
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* {{cite journal|author=Spence, K|date=16 November 2000|title=Ancient Egyptian Chronoology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids |journal=Nature |volume= 408|pages=320–24 |doi=10.1038/35042510 |pmid=11099032 |issue=6810|bibcode = 2000Natur.408..320S |s2cid=4327498}} | * {{cite journal|author=Spence, K|date=16 November 2000|title=Ancient Egyptian Chronoology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids |journal=Nature |volume= 408|pages=320–24 |doi=10.1038/35042510 |pmid=11099032 |issue=6810|bibcode = 2000Natur.408..320S |s2cid=4327498}} | ||
* Šprajc, Ivan (2015). Governor's Palace at Uxmal. In: ''Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy'', ed. by Clive L. N. Ruggles, New York: Springer, pp. 773–81 | * Šprajc, Ivan (2015). Governor's Palace at Uxmal. In: ''Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy'', ed. by Clive L. N. Ruggles, New York: Springer, pp. 773–81 | ||
* {{cite journal |author=Šprajc | * {{cite journal |author-last1=Šprajc |author-first1=Ivan |author-first2=Takeshi |author-last2=Inomata |author-first3=Anthony F. |author-last3=Aveni |year=2023 |title=Origin of Mesoamerican astronomy and calendar: Evidence from the Olmec and Maya regions |journal=[[Science Advances (journal)|Science Advances]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=eabq7675 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abq7675 |pmid=36608125 |pmc=9821873 |bibcode=2023SciA....9.7675S }} | ||
* Šprajc, Ivan, and Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava (2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033349/http://www.iifilologicas.unam.mx/estculmaya/uploads/volumenes/xli/4%20Astronom%C3%ADa%20en%20la%20arquitectura.%20Sprajc-S%C3%A1nchez.pdf Astronomía en la arquitectura de Chichén Itzá: una reevaluación]. ''Estudios de Cultura Maya'' XLI: 31–60. | * Šprajc, Ivan, and Pedro Francisco Sánchez Nava (2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033349/http://www.iifilologicas.unam.mx/estculmaya/uploads/volumenes/xli/4%20Astronom%C3%ADa%20en%20la%20arquitectura.%20Sprajc-S%C3%A1nchez.pdf Astronomía en la arquitectura de Chichén Itzá: una reevaluación]. ''Estudios de Cultura Maya'' XLI: 31–60. | ||
* {{cite book|author=Thom, A.|date=1967|title=Megalithic Sites in Britain|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-813148-9}} | * {{cite book|author=Thom, A.|date=1967|title=Megalithic Sites in Britain|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-813148-9}} | ||
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* {{cite journal|author=Turton, D.|author2=Ruggles, C.L.N.|name-list-style=amp|date=1978|title=Agreeing to Disagree: The Measurement of Duration in a Southwestern Ethiopian Community|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=19|pages=585–600|doi=10.1086/202140|issue=3|s2cid=143448703}} | * {{cite journal|author=Turton, D.|author2=Ruggles, C.L.N.|name-list-style=amp|date=1978|title=Agreeing to Disagree: The Measurement of Duration in a Southwestern Ethiopian Community|journal=[[Current Anthropology]]|volume=19|pages=585–600|doi=10.1086/202140|issue=3|s2cid=143448703}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Urton, G.|date=1981|title=At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology|publisher=University of Texas|isbn=978-0-292-70349-0}} | * {{cite book|author=Urton, G.|date=1981|title=At the crossroads of the earth and the sky: an Andean cosmology|publisher=University of Texas|isbn=978-0-292-70349-0}} | ||
* {{cite | * {{cite journal|author-last=van Driel-Murray |author-first=C.|author-link=Carol van Driel-Murray|date=2002 |title=Regarding the Stars |issue=TRAC 2001: Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Glasgow 2001|journal=Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal |display-editors=4|editor=M Carruthers|editor2=C. van Driel-Murray|editor3=A. Gardner|editor4= J. Lucas|editor5=L. Revell|editor-link5=Louise Revell|editor6=E. Swift |publisher=Oxbow Books|pages=96–103 | isbn= 978-1-84217-075-5 |doi=10.16995/TRAC2001_96_103 |doi-access=free}} | ||
* {{cite web |url=http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/solstice_2002.html |title=The Observations of the 2002 Winter Solstice at Luther Elkins Petroglyph (46 Wm 3) |access-date=2008-03-22 |author=Wise, R.B. |date=2003 |publisher=Council for West Virginia Archaeology |archive-date=2008-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509170042/http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/solstice_2002.html | * {{cite web |url=http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/solstice_2002.html |title=The Observations of the 2002 Winter Solstice at Luther Elkins Petroglyph (46 Wm 3) |access-date=2008-03-22 |author=Wise, R.B. |date=2003 |publisher=Council for West Virginia Archaeology |archive-date=2008-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509170042/http://cwva.org/ogam_rebutal/solstice_2002.html }} | ||
* {{cite book | author=Williamson, Ray A.|date=1987|chapter=Light and Shadow, Ritual, and Astronomy in Anasazi Structures | title=Astronomy and Ceremony in the Prehistoric Southwest|editor=John B. Carlson|editor2=W. James Judge | series = Papers of the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology | volume = 2 | location = Albuquerque, NM |pages=71–88|isbn= 978-0-912535-03-6}} | * {{cite book | author=Williamson, Ray A.|date=1987|chapter=Light and Shadow, Ritual, and Astronomy in Anasazi Structures | title=Astronomy and Ceremony in the Prehistoric Southwest|editor=John B. Carlson|editor2=W. James Judge | series = Papers of the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology | volume = 2 | location = Albuquerque, NM |publisher=Maxwell Museum of Anthropology |pages=71–88|isbn= 978-0-912535-03-6}} | ||
* {{cite journal |author=Witzel, M. |date=May 2001 |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703d.txt |title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Text |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=§28–30 | * {{cite journal |author=Witzel, M. |date=May 2001 |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703d.txt |title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Text |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=§28–30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328113612/http://ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0703/ejvs0703d.txt |archive-date=2008-03-28 }} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Xu, Z. |author2=Pankenier, D.W. |author3=Jiang, Y.|name-list-style=amp|date=2000|title=East Asian Archaeoastronomy: Historical Records of Astronomical Observations of China, Japan and Korea|publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publ.|isbn=978-90-5699-302-3|location=Amsterdam}} | * {{cite book|author=Xu, Z. |author2=Pankenier, D.W. |author3=Jiang, Y.|name-list-style=amp|date=2000|title=East Asian Archaeoastronomy: Historical Records of Astronomical Observations of China, Japan and Korea|publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publ.|isbn=978-90-5699-302-3|location=Amsterdam}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Young, M.J.|date=2005|chapter=Ethnoastronomy and the Problem of Interpretation: A Zuni Example|title=Songs from the Sky: Indigenous and Cosmological Traditions of the World|editor=Von Del Chamberlain|editor2=John Carlson|editor3=M. Jane Young|publisher=Ocarina Books|isbn=978-0-9540867-2-5 }} | * {{cite book|author=Young, M.J.|date=2005|chapter=Ethnoastronomy and the Problem of Interpretation: A Zuni Example|title=Songs from the Sky: Indigenous and Cosmological Traditions of the World|editor=Von Del Chamberlain|editor2=John Carlson|editor3=M. Jane Young|publisher=Ocarina Books|isbn=978-0-9540867-2-5 }} | ||
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{{Library resources box}} | {{Library resources box}} | ||
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Ruggles|editor1-first=Clive L. N.|editor1-link=Clive Ruggles|title=The Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy|date=2015|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4614-6140-1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8 |bibcode=2015hae..book.....R |oclc=1128937529}} | * {{cite book|editor1-last=Ruggles|editor1-first=Clive L. N.|editor1-link=Clive Ruggles|title=The Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy|date=2015|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4614-6140-1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8 |bibcode=2015hae..book.....R |oclc=1128937529}} | ||
* {{cite book|author=Magli, Giulio.|date=2020|title=Archaeoastronomy. Introduction to the science of stars and stones.|publisher=Springer, NY |isbn= | * {{cite book|author=Magli, Giulio.|date=2020|title=Archaeoastronomy. Introduction to the science of stars and stones.|publisher=Springer, NY |isbn=978-3-030-45146-2 |oclc=1144089346}} | ||
== External links == | == External links == | ||
| Line 468: | Line 466: | ||
{{Prehistoric technology}} | {{Prehistoric technology}} | ||
{{Archaeology}} | {{Archaeology}} | ||
{{Ethnoscience}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||