Bauxite: Difference between revisions

'''Bauxite''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɔː|k|s|aɪ|t|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Bauxite.wav}}) is a [[sedimentary rock]] with a relatively high [[aluminium]] content. It is the world's main source of [[aluminium]] and [[gallium]]. Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium [[mineral]]s [[gibbsite]] ({{chem2|Al(OH)3}}), [[boehmite]] (γ-AlO(OH)), and [[diaspore]] (α-AlO(OH)), [[Mixture|mixed]] with the two [[iron oxide]]s [[goethite]] (FeO(OH)) and [[haematite]] ({{chem2|Fe2O3}}), the aluminium [[Clay minerals|clay mineral]] [[kaolinite]] ({{chem2|Al2Si2O5(OH)4}}) and small amounts of [[anatase]] ({{chem2|TiO2}}) and [[ilmenite]] ({{chem2|FeTiO3}} or {{chem2|FeO*TiO2}}).<ref>{{cite book | author=Geological Survey (U.S.) | title=Geological Survey Professional Paper | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | issue=v. 1076, pt. 2 | year=1986 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMVUAAAAYAAJ&pg=SL2-PA20 | page=2-PA20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.clays.org/GLOSSARY/Clay_Glossary.htm | title=The Clay Minerals Society Glossary for Clay Science Project | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416024036/http://www.clays.org/GLOSSARY/Clay_Glossary.htm | archive-date=2016-04-16}}</ref>

In 1821, the [[French people|French]] [[geologist]] [[Pierre Berthier]] discovered bauxite near the village of [[Les Baux-de-Provence|Les Baux]] in [[Provence]], southern [[France]].<ref>P. Berthier (1821) [https://books.google.com/books?id=53wkLqfF6tQC&pg=PA531 "Analyse de l'alumine hydratée des Beaux, département des Bouches-du-Rhóne"] (Analysis of hydrated alumina from Les Beaux, department of the Mouths-of-the-Rhone), ''Annales des mines'', 1st series,  '''6''' :  531–534. Notes:

Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but, {{As of|1982|lc=y}}, there was no consensus.<ref name="BatdossyKarst1982">{{cite book | title=Karst Bauxites | publisher=Elsevier | author=Bárdossy, G. | year=1982 | location=Amsterdam | page=16 | isbn=978-0-444-99727-2}}</ref>

{{Main|List of countries by bauxite production}}

[[File:Bauxite being digested by washing with hot Sodium Hydroxide.webm|thumb|Bauxite being digested by washing with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide at {{convert|175|C}} under pressure at National Aluminium Company, Nalconagar, India.]]

Bauxite is the main source of the rare metal [[gallium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1272/pdf/ofr2013-1272.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1272/pdf/ofr2013-1272.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Compilation of Gallium Resource Data for Bauxite Deposits Author: USGS |access-date=2017-12-01}}</ref>

The social and environmental impacts of bauxite extraction are well documented. Most of the world's bauxite deposits can be found within {{convert|1|to|20|m}} of the earths surface.<ref name="Ky-2017">{{cite journal | last1=Ky | first1=Lee | last2=Ly | first2=Ho | last3=Kh | first3=Tan | last4=Yy | first4=Tham | last5=Sp | first5=Ling | last6=Am | first6=Qureshi | last7=T | first7=Ponnudurai | last8=R | first8=Nordin | title=Environmental and Occupational Health Impact of Bauxite Mining in Malaysia: A Review | journal=IIUM Medical Journal Malaysia | volume=16 | issue=2 | date=2017-12-01 | issn=2735-2285 | doi=10.31436/imjm.v16i2.346}}</ref><ref name="Annandale-2021">{{cite journal | last1=Annandale | first1=Mark | last2=Meadows | first2=John | last3=Erskine | first3=Peter | title=Indigenous forest livelihoods and bauxite mining: A case-study from northern Australia | journal=Journal of Environmental Management | volume=294 | date=2021 | doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113014 | page=113014| pmid=34144319 | bibcode=2021JEnvM.29413014A }}</ref> [[Surface mining|Strip mining]] is the most common technique used for extracting shallow bauxite.<ref name="Annandale-2021" /> This process involves removing the vegetation, top soil, and [[overburden]] to expose the bauxite ore.<ref name="Annandale-2021" /> The overlying soil is typically stockpiled in order to [[Mine reclamation|rehabilitate]] the mine once operations have finished.<ref name="Annandale-2021" /> During the strip mining process, the biodiversity and habitat once present in the area is completely lost and the hydrological and soil characteristics in the region are permanently altered.<ref name="Annandale-2021" /> Other environmental impacts of bauxite mining include [[Soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[air pollution]], and [[water pollution]].<ref name="Ky-2017" />

Red mud is a highly [[alkalinity|alkaline]] sludge, with a high pH around 13, that is a byproduct of the [[Bayer process]].<ref name="Morris-2013">{{cite thesis| last=Morris | first=Jason | title=The Vietnamese Bauxite Mining Controversy: the Emergence of a New Oppositional Politics |id={{ProQuest|<!-- add ProQuest data here}} -->}} | url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/8a1c0a23799a8e21aac0251e164580cd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |year=2013 |degree=PhD}}</ref> It contains several compounds such as [[Sodium aluminosilicate|sodium aluminoscilicate]], [[calcium titanate]], monohydrate aluminium, and trihydrate aluminium that do not break down in nature. When improperly stored, red mud can contaminate soil and water, which can result in [[local extinction]] of all life. Red mud was responsible for killing all life in the Marcal River in Hungary after a spill occurred in 2010. When red mud dries, it turns into dust that can cause lung disease, cancer and birth defects.<ref name="Morris-2013" />

In the tropical regions of Asia, central Africa, South America and northern Australia, there has been an increase of bauxite mines on traditional and indigenous lands.<ref name="Annandale-2021" /> This has resulted in a number of negative social impacts on local and indigenous peoples.<ref name="Dibattista-2023">{{cite journal | last1=Dibattista | first1=Ilaria | last2=Camara | first2=Abdoul Rachid | last3=Molderez | first3=Ingrid | last4=Benassai | first4=Edoardo Maria | last5=Palozza | first5=Francesco | title=Socio-environmental impact of mining activities in Guinea: The case of bauxite extraction in the region of Boké | journal=Journal of Cleaner Production | volume=387 | date=2023 | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135720 | page=135720| bibcode=2023JCPro.38735720D | url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/20.500.12942/710098 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the [[Boké Region|Boké]] Region of Guinea, there has been a significant increase in bauxite mining pressure on the local population. This has resulted in potable water issues, air pollution, food contamination, and land [[expropriation]] disputes due to improper compensation.<ref name="Dibattista-2023" />

The [[Atewa Range Forest Reserve|Atewa]] range in Ghana, classified as an ecologically important forest reserve with an area of {{convert|17,400|ha}}, has been is a recent site of conflict and controversy surrounding bauxite mining.<ref name="Purwins-2022">{{cite journal | last=Purwins | first=Sebastian | title=Bauxite mining at Atewa Forest Reserve, Ghana: a political ecology of a conservation-exploitation conflict | journal=GeoJournal | volume=87 | issue=2 | date=2022 | issn=0343-2521 | pmid=32989342 | pmc=7512217 | doi=10.1007/s10708-020-10303-3 | pages=1085–1097| bibcode=2022GeoJo..87.1085P }}</ref> The forest reserve is one of the only two upland evergreen forests in Ghana, and makes up a significant portion of the remaining 20% of forested habitat left in Ghana. The Atewa range falls under the jurisdiction of [[Akyem Abuakwa]] Traditional Area and is overseen by the king known as Okyenhene.<ref name="Purwins-2022" /> In 2013, an NGO called A Rocha Ghana held a summit with the forestry and water resource commission, the minister of lands, the minister of the environment, and other important stakeholders. They came to the conclusion that no future government should mine bauxite in the region because the reserve is environmentally and culturally significant.<ref name="Purwins-2022" /> In 2016, the government along with NGO's began the process of upgrading the reserved to a national park. However, that year an election took place, and before it became official, the newly elected National Patriotic Party (NPP) rejected the plan.<ref name="Purwins-2022" /> In 2017, the government of Ghana signed a [[Memorandum of understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] with China to develop new bauxite mining infrastructure in Ghana. Although there was no official plan to mine the Atewa Forest Reserve, tensions between local communities, NGO and the government began to rise. In 2019, tensions began to reach a peak when the government presented the ''Ghana Integrated Bauxite and Aluminium Development Authority Act'' that would create the legal framework required to develop and establish an integrated bauxite industry.<ref name="Purwins-2022" /> In may of that year, the government began drilling deep holes in the reserve. These actions sparked several protests, including a {{convert|95|km|adj=on}} march from the reserve to the presidential palace, an informational billboard campaign led by A Rocha Ghana, and a youth march.<ref name="Purwins-2022" /> In 2020, A Rocha Ghana also sued the government over the drilling in the reserve after they failed to provide a statement explaining their actions.<ref name="Purwins-2022" />

In early 2009, the Vietnamese Government proposed a plan to mine remote regions of the central highlands.<ref name="Morris-2013" /> This proposal was highly controversial and sparked a nationwide debate and the most significant domestic conflict since the [[Vietnam War]]. Government scientists, journalists, religious leaders, retired high level state officials, and [[General Võ Nguyên Giáp]], the military leader of anti-colonial revolution, were among the many people across Vietnamese society who opposed the governments plans.<ref name="Morris-2013" /> In an attempt to stop the spread of information across the globe, the government banned domestic reporters from reporting on bauxite mining. However, reporters turned to Vietnamese language websites and blogs where the reporting and discussion continued. On April 12, 2009, several well-respected Vietnamese scholars started a petition against the mining of bauxite that was signed by 135 accomplished and well known "Intellectuals".<ref name="Morris-2013" /> This petition helped unite the scattered anti-bauxite movement into a unified opposition against the state. These acts of governmental defiance were met with repressive state actions. Many domestic online reporters were arrested, and legislative action was taken to repress scientific research.<ref name="Morris-2013" />

* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/ USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506220703/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/ |date=May 6, 2009 }}