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imported>הקניזי Added Jewish interpretation of Numbers as a relationship between Sovereign and Nation based on Rabbi Leib Mintzberg. |
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{{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}} | {{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}} | ||
[[File:Inverted nun in Leningrad Codex1.jpg|thumb|Page from the [[Leningrad Codex]] ( AD | [[File:Inverted nun in Leningrad Codex1.jpg|thumb|Page from the [[Leningrad Codex]] (AD 1008), showing part of [[Numbers 10]]]] | ||
The '''Book of Numbers''' (from [[Biblical Greek|Greek]] Ἀριθμοί, ''Arithmoi'', {{Lit|numbers}} {{langx|hbo|בְּמִדְבַּר}}, | The '''Book of Numbers''' (from [[Biblical Greek|Greek]] Ἀριθμοί, ''Arithmoi'', {{Lit|numbers}} {{langx|hbo|בְּמִדְבַּר}}, {{Lang|hbo-Latn|Bəmīḏbar}}<!--It's Bəmidbar (with a shewa), not Bamidbar (with a patach)-->, {{lit|In [the] desert}}; {{langx|la|Liber Numeri}}) is the fourth book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the fourth of five books of the Jewish [[Torah]].{{sfn|Ashley|1993|p=1}} The book has a long and complex history; its final form is possibly due to a [[Priestly source|Priestly]] redaction (i.e., editing) of a [[Yahwist]]ic source made sometime in the early [[Yehud medinata|Persian period]] (5th century BC).{{sfn|McDermott|2002|p=21}} The name of the book comes from the two censuses taken of the Israelites. | ||
Numbers is one of the better-preserved books of the [[Torah|Pentateuch]]. Fragments of the [[Ketef Hinnom scrolls]] containing verses from Numbers have been dated as far back as the late seventh or early sixth century BC. These verses are the earliest known artifacts to be found in the Hebrew Bible text.{{sfn|Lawrence|2020|p=58}} | Numbers is one of the better-preserved books of the [[Torah|Pentateuch]]. Fragments of the [[Ketef Hinnom scrolls]] containing verses from Numbers have been dated as far back as the late seventh or early sixth century BC. These verses are the earliest known artifacts to be found in the Hebrew Bible text.{{sfn|Lawrence|2020|p=58}} | ||
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Numbers begins at [[Mount Sinai]], where the [[Israelites]] have received their [[Covenant (biblical)|laws and covenant]] from [[God in Judaism|God]] and God has taken up residence among them in the [[Tabernacle|sanctuary]].{{sfn|Olson|1996|p=9}} The task before them is to take possession of the [[Promised Land]]. The people are counted and preparations are made for resuming their march. The Israelites begin the journey, but complain about the hardships along the way and about the authority of [[Moses]] and [[Aaron]]. They arrive at the borders of [[Canaan]] and send [[The Twelve Spies|twelve spies]] into the land. Upon hearing the spies' fearful report concerning the conditions in Canaan,<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|13:31-33|ESV}}</ref> the Israelites refuse to take possession of it. God condemns them to death in the wilderness until a new generation can grow up and carry out the task. Furthermore, there were some who rebelled against Moses and for these acts, God destroyed approximately 15,000 of them through various means. The book ends with the new generation of Israelites in the [[plains of Moab]] ready for the crossing of the [[Jordan River]].{{sfn|Stubbs|2009|p=19–20}} | Numbers begins at [[Mount Sinai]], where the [[Israelites]] have received their [[Covenant (biblical)|laws and covenant]] from [[God in Judaism|God]] and God has taken up residence among them in the [[Tabernacle|sanctuary]].{{sfn|Olson|1996|p=9}} The task before them is to take possession of the [[Promised Land]]. The people are counted and preparations are made for resuming their march. The Israelites begin the journey, but complain about the hardships along the way and about the authority of [[Moses]] and [[Aaron]]. They arrive at the borders of [[Canaan]] and send [[The Twelve Spies|twelve spies]] into the land. Upon hearing the spies' fearful report concerning the conditions in Canaan,<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|13:31-33|ESV}}</ref> the Israelites refuse to take possession of it. God condemns them to death in the wilderness until a new generation can grow up and carry out the task. Furthermore, there were some who rebelled against Moses and for these acts, God destroyed approximately 15,000 of them through various means. The book ends with the new generation of Israelites in the [[plains of Moab]] ready for the crossing of the [[Jordan River]].{{sfn|Stubbs|2009|p=19–20}} | ||
Numbers is the culmination of the story of [[The Exodus|Israel's exodus from oppression in Egypt]] and their [[Conquest of Canaan|journey to take possession of the land God promised their fathers]]. As such it draws to a conclusion the themes introduced in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] and played out in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] and [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]: God has promised the Israelites that they shall become a great (i.e. numerous) nation, that they will have a special relationship with him, and that they shall take possession of the land of | Numbers is the culmination of the story of [[The Exodus|Israel's exodus from oppression in Egypt]] and their [[Conquest of Canaan|journey to take possession of the land God promised their fathers]]. As such it draws to a conclusion the themes introduced in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] and played out in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] and [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]: God has promised the Israelites that they shall become a great (i.e. numerous) nation, that they will have a special relationship with him, and that they shall take possession of the land of Canaan. Numbers also demonstrates the importance of holiness, faithfulness, and trust: despite God's presence and [[Kohen|his priests]], Israel lacks in faith and the possession of the land is left to a new generation.{{sfn|McDermott|2002|p=21}} | ||
== Title == | |||
The Book of Numbers' name is the translation of {{langx|grc|Ἀριθμοί|translit=Arithmoi|lit=}}, meaning 'numbers', the name of the book in the [[Septuagint]], which comes from the two major censuses (numberings) recorded in the text, detailing counts of various groups of Israelites. | |||
Consistent with the naming convention for the Torah, in Hebrew the book's title is בְּמִדְבַּר, ''bemidbar'', meaning "in the desert" or "in the wilderness", a word taken from [[Incipit|the beginning of the text]]: "And the LORD spoke unto Moses ''in the wilderness'' of Sinai" ({{langx|hbo|וַיְדַבֵּר יְהֹוָה אֶל מֹשֶׁה ''בְּמִדְבַּר'' סִינַי|italic=unset}}). The first word וַיְדַבֵּר ''<nowiki/>'Vayedabber''' ("And He spoke") was too generic for a title identifying the book, so the fifth word was chosen: it captures the setting and the essence of the book, which chronicles the 40 years of the Israelites' wandering in the desert. | |||
==Structure== | ==Structure== | ||
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Miriam dies at Kadesh Barnea and the Israelites set out for [[Moab]], on Canaan's eastern border. The Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses is ordered by God to speak to a rock but initially disobeys, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The king of Edom refuses permission to pass through his land and they go around it. Aaron dies on Mount Hor. The Israelites are bitten by [[fiery flying serpent]]s for speaking against God and Moses. A [[Nehushtan|brazen serpent]] is made to ward off these serpents. | Miriam dies at Kadesh Barnea and the Israelites set out for [[Moab]], on Canaan's eastern border. The Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses is ordered by God to speak to a rock but initially disobeys, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The king of Edom refuses permission to pass through his land and they go around it. Aaron dies on Mount Hor. The Israelites are bitten by [[fiery flying serpent]]s for speaking against God and Moses. A [[Nehushtan|brazen serpent]] is made to ward off these serpents. | ||
The Israelites arrive on the plains of Moab, across the [[Jordan River|River Jordan]] from [[Jericho]]. Here, the Israelites find themselves in conflict with the [[Amorites]] and [[Og]], king of [[Bashan]], both of whom they defeat. [[Balak]], king of Moab decides to fight the Israelites as well, and summons a local diviner named [[Balaam]] to curse the Israelites. However, God tells Balaam not to curse them, and when Balaam attempts to travel to Balak with the Moabite officials God sends an angel to stop his donkey. Realising that he cannot curse the Israelites, Balaam blesses them instead, and foresees [[Messiah|a figure]] whom he identifies as 'the Star of Jacob' who will defeat Israel's enemies. This angers Balak, but Balaam informs Balak that he cannot say anything except what God tells him to say. | The Israelites arrive on the plains of Moab, across the [[Jordan River|River Jordan]] from [[Jericho]]. Here, the Israelites find themselves in conflict with the [[Amorites]] and [[Og]], king of [[Bashan]], both of whom they defeat. [[Balak]], king of Moab, decides to fight the Israelites as well, and summons a local diviner named [[Balaam]] to curse the Israelites. However, God tells Balaam not to curse them, and when Balaam attempts to travel to Balak with the Moabite officials God sends an angel to stop his donkey. Realising that he cannot curse the Israelites, Balaam blesses them instead, and foresees [[Messiah|a figure]] whom he identifies as 'the Star of Jacob' who will defeat Israel's enemies. This angers Balak, but Balaam informs Balak that he cannot say anything except what God tells him to say. | ||
The longer the Israelites stay on the [[Abila (Peraea)|plains of Shittim]], the more they intermarry with the local Moabites, and the more they participate in the [[Heresy of Peor|local religion]], worshipping a deity known as Baal-Peor. God sends a plague in retaliation, and Moses tells the [[biblical judges|judges]] to kill anyone participating in this practice. When one of Aaron's grandsons, [[Phinehas]], finds out a [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeonite]] prince named [[Zimri (prince)|Zimri]] has married a Midianite woman named [[Cozbi]], he enters their tent and runs a spear through them. God rewards him by giving his descendants an everlasting priesthood. God also tells the Israelites to consider the Midianites their enemies. | The longer the Israelites stay on the [[Abila (Peraea)|plains of Shittim]], the more they intermarry with the local Moabites, and the more they participate in the [[Heresy of Peor|local religion]], worshipping a deity known as Baal-Peor. God sends a plague in retaliation, and Moses tells the [[biblical judges|judges]] to kill anyone participating in this practice. When one of Aaron's grandsons, [[Phinehas]], finds out a [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeonite]] prince named [[Zimri (prince)|Zimri]] has married a Midianite woman named [[Cozbi]], he enters their tent and runs a spear through them. God rewards him by giving his descendants an everlasting priesthood. God also tells the Israelites to consider the Midianites their enemies. | ||
A new census gives the total number of men from twenty years and upward as 601,730, and the number of the Levites from the age of one month and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of [[Zelophehad]], who had no sons, are to share in the allotment. God orders Moses to appoint [[Joshua]] as his successor. Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts and the offerings for different occasions are enumerated. Moses orders the Israelites to [[Numbers 31|massacre the people of Midian]], in retaliation for the Baal-Peor incident. Specifically, all Midianite men and boys and women who are not virgins are killed. Virgin Midianite women and girls are | A new census gives the total number of men from twenty years and upward as 601,730, and the number of the Levites from the age of one month and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of [[Zelophehad]], who had no sons, are to share in the allotment. God orders Moses to appoint [[Joshua]] as his successor. Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts and the offerings for different occasions are enumerated. Moses orders the Israelites to [[Numbers 31|massacre the people of Midian]], in retaliation for the Baal-Peor incident. Specifically, all Midianite men and boys and women who are not virgins are killed. Virgin Midianite women and girls are kept alive, counted, and distributed as prizes, along with the sheep, cattle and donkeys, to the officers of the Israelite army. | ||
The [[Reubenites]] and the [[Gadites]] request Moses to assign them the land east of the [[Jordan]]. Moses grants their request after they promise to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan. The land [[Transjordan (Bible)|east of the Jordan]] is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the [[Tribe of Manasseh|half-tribe of Manasseh]]. Moses recalls the stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years' wanderings and instructs the Israelites to exterminate the Canaanites and destroy their idols. The boundaries of the land are spelled out; the land is to be divided under the supervision of [[Eleazar]], Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe. | The [[Reubenites]] and the [[Gadites]] request Moses to assign them the land east of the [[Jordan]]. Moses grants their request after they promise to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan. The land [[Transjordan (Bible)|east of the Jordan]] is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the [[Tribe of Manasseh|half-tribe of Manasseh]]. Moses recalls the stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years' wanderings and instructs the Israelites to exterminate the Canaanites and destroy their idols. The boundaries of the land are spelled out; the land is to be divided under the supervision of [[Eleazar]], Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe. | ||
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[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 30r 2.png|thumb|[[Balaam]] and the Angel (illustration from the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'')]] | [[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 30r 2.png|thumb|[[Balaam]] and the Angel (illustration from the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'')]] | ||
The majority of modern biblical scholars believe that the [[Torah]]—the books of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], Numbers, and [[Deuteronomy]]—reached its present form in the [[Second Temple Judaism|post-Exilic period]] (i.e., after | The majority of modern biblical scholars believe that the [[Torah]]—the books of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], Numbers, and [[Deuteronomy]]—reached its present form in the [[Second Temple Judaism|post-Exilic period]] (i.e., after {{Circa|520 BC}}), based on preexisting written and oral traditions, as well as contemporary geographical and political realities.{{sfn|Enns|2012|p=5}}{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=68-69}}{{sfn|McDermott|2002|p=21}} The five books are often described as being drawn from four "sources", generally regarded as the works of schools of writers rather than individuals: the [[Yahwist]] and the [[Elohist]] (frequently treated as a single source), the [[Priestly source]], and the [[Deuteronomist]].{{sfn|Coogan|Brettler|Newsom|2007|p=6}} There is an ongoing dispute over the origins of the non-Priestly source(s), but it is generally agreed that the Priestly source is post-exilic.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=492}} Below is an outline of the hypothesis: | ||
*[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] is made up of Priestly and non-Priestly material.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=492}} | *[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] is made up of Priestly and non-Priestly material.{{sfn|Carr|2000|p=492}} | ||
*[[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] is an anthology drawn from nearly all periods of Israel's history.{{sfn|Dozeman|2000|p=443}} | *[[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] is an anthology drawn from nearly all periods of Israel's history.{{sfn|Dozeman|2000|p=443}} | ||
*[[Leviticus]] is entirely Priestly and dates from the exilic/post-exilic period.{{sfn|Houston|2003|p=102}} | *[[Leviticus]] is entirely Priestly and dates from the exilic/post-exilic period.{{sfn|Houston|2003|p=102}} | ||
*Numbers is a Priestly redaction (i.e., editing) of a non-Priestly original.{{sfn|McDermott|2002|p=21}} | *Numbers is a Priestly redaction (i.e., editing) of a non-Priestly original.{{sfn|McDermott|2002|p=21}} | ||
*[[Deuteronomy]], now the last book of the Torah, began as the set of religious laws that make up the bulk of the book, was extended in the early part of the 6th century | *[[Deuteronomy]], now the last book of the Torah, began as the set of religious laws that make up the bulk of the book, was extended in the early part of the 6th century BC to serve as the introduction to the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books from Joshua to Kings), and later still was detached from that history, extended and edited again, and attached to the Torah.{{sfn|Van Seters|2004|p=93}} | ||
However, the [[Ketef Hinnom scrolls]] do point to the plausibility of a pre-exilic written tradition of the passage from Numbers 6 and Deuteronomy 7.{{sfn|Lawrence|2020|p=58}} Although this does not decisively prove that there was a canonical written tradition it does point to a possibility of such a tradition. | However, the [[Ketef Hinnom scrolls]] do point to the plausibility of a pre-exilic written tradition of the passage from Numbers 6 and Deuteronomy 7.{{sfn|Lawrence|2020|p=58}} Although this does not decisively prove that there was a canonical written tradition it does point to a possibility of such a tradition. | ||
==Themes== | ==Themes== | ||
[[File: | [[File: A Plague Inflicted on Israel While Eating the Quails (5753078).jpg|thumb|A Plague Inflicted on Israel While Eating the Quail (illustration from the 1728 ''Figures de la Bible'')]] | ||
David A. Clines, in his influential ''The Themes of the Pentateuch'' (1978), identified the overarching [[Theme (literature)|theme]] of the five books as the partial fulfilment of a promise made by God to the patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]]. The promise has three elements: posterity (i.e., | David A. Clines, in his influential ''The Themes of the Pentateuch'' (1978), identified the overarching [[Theme (literature)|theme]] of the five books as the partial fulfilment of a promise made by God to the patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]]. The promise has three elements: posterity (i.e., descendants—Abraham is told that his descendants will be as innumerable as the stars), divine-human relationship (Israel is to be God's chosen people), and land (the land of Canaan, cursed by Noah immediately after the Deluge).{{sfn|Clines|1997|p=29}} | ||
The theme of the divine-human relationship is expressed, or managed, through a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]s (meaning treaties, legally binding agreements) stretching from Genesis to Deuteronomy and beyond. The first is the covenant between God and Noah immediately after the Deluge in which God agrees never again to destroy the Earth with water. The next is between God and Abraham, and the third between God and all Israel at Mount Sinai. In this third covenant, unlike the first two, God hands down an elaborate set of laws (scattered through Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers), which the Israelites are to observe; they are also to remain faithful to Yahweh, the god of Israel, meaning, among other things, that they must put their trust in his help.{{sfn|Bandstra|2004|p=28–29}} | The theme of the divine-human relationship is expressed, or managed, through a series of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]s (meaning treaties, legally binding agreements) stretching from Genesis to Deuteronomy and beyond. The first is the covenant between God and Noah immediately after the Deluge in which God agrees never again to destroy the Earth with water. The next is between God and Abraham, and the third between God and all Israel at Mount Sinai. In this third covenant, unlike the first two, God hands down an elaborate set of laws (scattered through Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers), which the Israelites are to observe; they are also to remain faithful to Yahweh, the god of Israel, meaning, among other things, that they must put their trust in his help.{{sfn|Bandstra|2004|p=28–29}} | ||
Among the reasons this law was given was to establish the Israelite people as Yahweh's people. The laws and instructions were as much for identity as they were for obedience. Yahweh by providing all the different instructions and laws was affirming that the Israelite people were his and would bear his identity.<ref name="Rooker">{{Cite book |last=Rooker |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMJF-3jBfg4C&pg=PA232 |title=The World and the Word: an Introduction to the Old Testament. |date=2011 |publisher=B & H Pub. Group |others=Michael A. Grisanti, Eugene H. Merrill |isbn=978-1-4336-7374-0 |location=Nashville |oclc=782868195}}</ref>{{rp|246}} | |||
The theme of descendants marks the first event in Numbers, the census of Israel's fighting men: the huge number which results (over 600,000) demonstrates the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham of innumerable descendants, as well as serving as God's guarantee of victory in Canaan.{{sfn|Olson|1996|p=14}} As chapters 1–10 progress, the theme of God's presence with Israel comes to the fore: these chapters describe how Israel is to be organized around the Sanctuary, God's dwelling-place in their midst, under the charge of the Levites and priests, in preparation for the conquest of the land.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=38}} | The theme of descendants marks the first event in Numbers, the census of Israel's fighting men: the huge number which results (over 600,000) demonstrates the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham of innumerable descendants, as well as serving as God's guarantee of victory in Canaan.{{sfn|Olson|1996|p=14}} As chapters 1–10 progress, the theme of God's presence with Israel comes to the fore: these chapters describe how Israel is to be organized around the Sanctuary, God's dwelling-place in their midst, under the charge of the Levites and priests, in preparation for the conquest of the land.{{sfn|Ska|2006|p=38}} | ||
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A large part of the theological theme in Numbers is the righteousness and holiness of God being met with human rebellion. The two censuses not only show the different response of two generations but rather that God had remained faithful despite the rebellion of the Israelites. The theme of the book should seem to be more centrally focused on the faithfulness and holiness of God as this is a common theme that runs through the whole of the Pentateuch, not just the book of Numbers.<ref name="Rooker" />{{rp|247}} | A large part of the theological theme in Numbers is the righteousness and holiness of God being met with human rebellion. The two censuses not only show the different response of two generations but rather that God had remained faithful despite the rebellion of the Israelites. The theme of the book should seem to be more centrally focused on the faithfulness and holiness of God as this is a common theme that runs through the whole of the Pentateuch, not just the book of Numbers.<ref name="Rooker" />{{rp|247}} | ||
=== Census numbers === | === Jewish interpretation === | ||
According to Rabbi Leib Mintzberg, the essence of the Book of Numbers lies in the relationship between Israel and God, depicted as that of a king dwelling within the camp of Israel and his people. The central focus is the relationship between sovereign and nation, expressed at the beginning of the book through the division of the people into camps and their arrangement under banners around the Tabernacle. This organization reflects royal honor, with Israel encircling the Divine Presence in formations befitting a king surrounded by his troops. From this conception derive the distinctive commandments of the Book of Numbers.<ref>Leib Mintzberg,''בן מלך'' ''Ben Melekh'', Numbers 1, Parashat Bemidbar, Ma'amar 1: "Definition of the Book of Numbers", p. 75.</ref> | |||
== Census Numbers and Theories == | |||
The book of Numbers records in some detail the population of the fighting men in Israel. The traditional understanding of the text provides a figure of approximately 600,000 soldiers, which would translate to a total population of 1.5 to 2.5 million Israelites. However, such a large number of Israelites is not consistent with the archeological evidence or the attestation of extra-Biblical sources. Therefore, a number of alternative theories have been proposed.{{Citation Needed|reason=The statements in this paragraph is a clear consensus position, that almost the full spectrum of scholars acknowledge. I assume from the previous construction of the paragraph that this information all flowed from the Vaux and Bellinger citations, but I have not read those works to justify actually inserting the citation again here.|date=March 2026}} | |||
Some scholars posit that the book of Numbers is not historical. In this theory, the figures given are either greatly exaggerated or simply fabricated. Supporters of this theory opt instead to focus on Numbers as a theological book and not a historical one.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaux |first=Roland de |title=The Early History of Israel |date=1978 |publisher=Westminster Press |isbn=0-664-20762-6 |location=Philadelphia |oclc=3669566}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bellinger |first=W. H. Jr. |title=Leviticus, Numbers |date=2012 |publisher=Baker Books |isbn=978-0-8010-4560-8 |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |oclc=793844579}}</ref> | |||
Other Biblical scholars speculate that the word for "thousand" is actually referring to a noun signifying a group or clan. Scholars who hold this view posit a much lower number for the fighting men of Israel; J.W. Wenham proposes closer to 20,000.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wenham |first=J. W. |date=1967-05-01 |title=Large Numbers in the Old Testament |url=https://tyndalebulletin.org/article/30680-large-numbers-in-the-old-testament |journal=Tyndale Bulletin |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=19–53 |doi=10.53751/001c.30680|doi-access=free }}</ref>. Critics of this theory assert that this interpretation poses a problem, as it undermines the validity of the text, "assumes a misunderstanding and mistransmission of the text in all the census lists of Exodus and Numbers (not to mention other texts)"{{sfn|Ashley|1993|pp=65–66}} and produces several inconsistencies in the book of Numbers that cannot be resolved{{Examples|date=March 2026}}. | |||
Another theory is that of an error in transmission. J.W. Wenham argues that "biblical texts are often corrupted by the simple addition of zeroes to the numbers."{{sfn|Ashley|1993|pp=65–66}} Timothy Ashley argues that the flaw in this suggestion "is that the mistake in zeroes would easily occur only where numbers were represented by figures rather than by words,"{{sfn|Ashley|1993|pp=65–66}} and there is "little or no evidence that figures were used in the biblical texts during the biblical period."{{sfn|Ashley|1993|pp=65–66}} Based on the nature of the book and the many accounts of tax payment and records of animals and persons, Ashley asserts that it is most likely that Numbers is referring to an actual account of a numerical tally of the Israelite people. | |||
Another theory for the large number stated in the book is that the actual numerical metrics cannot really be established today {{Clarify|date=March 2026}}. This requires us to take the values given as they are, as any other alternatives raises more problems than solutions.<ref name="Rooker" />{{rp|246}} In his commentary on the book of Numbers, [[John Calvin]] acknowledged that even among his contemporaries, "certain sceptics"<ref name="Calvin">{{cite book |last=Calvin |first=John |author-link=John Calvin |date=1996 |title=Calvin's Commentaries Volume 2 |location=Ada, MI |publisher=Baker Book House |page=22}}</ref> had questioned the veracity of the figures quoted, but defended the [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]] of the text by invoking the miraculous "interference of God".<ref name="Calvin"/> | |||
According to Timothy R. Ashley's analysis: | A final theory states that the numbers have meaning, but only in a relative sense. According to Timothy R. Ashley's analysis: {{sfn|Ashley|1993|pp=65–66}} | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote>No one system answers all the questions or solves all the problems. [...] In short, we lack the materials in the text to solve this problem. When all is said and done, one must admit that the answer is elusive. Perhaps it is best to take these numbers as R.K. Harrison has done—as based on a system familiar to the ancients but unknown to moderns. According to Harrison the figures are to be taken as "symbols of relative power, triumph, importance, and the like and are not meant to be understood either strictly literally or as extant in a corrupt textual form."</blockquote> | ||
== Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Numbers == | == Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Numbers == | ||
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* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0401.htm Numbers at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation) | * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0401.htm Numbers at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation) | ||
* [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=4&CHAPTER=1 Numbers (The Living Torah)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110801015942/http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=4&CHAPTER=1 |date=2011-08-01 }} Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org | * [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=4&CHAPTER=1 Numbers (The Living Torah)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110801015942/http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=4&CHAPTER=1 |date=2011-08-01 }} Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org | ||
* [ | * [https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/9929 Bamidbar – Numbers (Judaica Press)] translation [with [[Rashi]]'s commentary] at Chabad.org | ||
[[Christianity|Christian]] translations: | [[Christianity|Christian]] translations: | ||
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+1&version=NIV Numbers] | * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+1&version=NIV Numbers] | ||
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Numbers+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org] | * [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Numbers+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org] ([[Authorized King James Version|King James Version]]) | ||
* [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=56782726 ''oremus Bible Browser''] ([[New Revised Standard Version]]) | * [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=56782726 ''oremus Bible Browser''] ([[New Revised Standard Version]]) | ||
* [ | * ''[https://bible.oremus.org/?ql=56782761 oremus Bible Browser]'' (''Anglicized'' [[New Revised Standard Version]]) | ||
* [[s:Bible, King James, Numbers|Numbers at Wikisource]] ([[Authorized King James Version]]) | * [[s:Bible, King James, Numbers|Numbers at Wikisource]] ([[Authorized King James Version]]) | ||
* [http://drbo.org/chapter/04001.htm Numbers at drbo.org] ([[ | * [http://drbo.org/chapter/04001.htm Numbers at drbo.org] ([[Douay–Rheims Bible|Douay–Rheims Version]]) | ||
* {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Numbers| stitle=04: Numbers}} Various versions | * {{librivox book | dtitle=Bible: Numbers| stitle=04: Numbers}} Various versions | ||