Czech language: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|West Slavic language}} | {{short description|West Slavic language}} | ||
{{good article}} | {{good article}} | ||
{{redirect-distinguish-text|Cestina|[[Sestina]], a fixed verse form}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}} | |||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
| name = Czech | | name = Czech | ||
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| states = [[Czech Republic]] | | states = [[Czech Republic]] | ||
| ethnicity = [[Czechs]] | | ethnicity = [[Czechs]] | ||
| speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|9. | | speakers = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|9.757710|2}} million | ||
| date = | | date = 2021 | ||
| ref = | | ref = <ref>{{e28|ces}}</ref> | ||
| speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|2.708500|2}} million (2012)<ref | | speakers2 = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|2.708500|2}} million (2012)<ref>{{e28|ces}}</ref><br/>Total: {{sigfig|12.466210|2}} million (2012–2021)<ref>{{e28|ces}}</ref> | ||
| speakers_label = Speakers | | speakers_label = Speakers | ||
| familycolor = Indo-European | | familycolor = Indo-European | ||
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| dia3 = [[Moravian dialects#Eastern Moravian|Eastern Moravian]] | | dia3 = [[Moravian dialects#Eastern Moravian|Eastern Moravian]] | ||
| dia4 = [[Lach dialects|Lach]] | | dia4 = [[Lach dialects|Lach]] | ||
| dia5 = [[Knaanic language|Knaanic]] {{Extinct}} | |||
| dia6 = [[Chod dialect|Chod]] | |||
| dia7 = [[Plzeň dialect|Plzeň]] | |||
| dia8 = [[Moravian Wallachian dialect|Moravian Wallachian]] | |||
| script = {{plainlist| | | script = {{plainlist| | ||
*[[Latin script]] ([[Czech alphabet]]) | *[[Latin script]] ([[Czech alphabet]]) | ||
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| nation = {{plainlist| | | nation = {{plainlist| | ||
* [[Czech Republic]] | * [[Czech Republic]] | ||
* [[European Union]]}} | * ''[[European Union]]''}} | ||
| minority = {{plainlist| | | minority = {{plainlist| | ||
* [[Austria]]<ref name=COE>{{Cite web | url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN |title = Full list |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref> | * [[Austria]]<ref name=COE>{{Cite web | url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations?p_auth=63PpH3zN |title = Full list |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref> | ||
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* [[Poland]]<ref>Ministry of Interior of Poland: Act of 6 January 2005 on national and ethnic minorities and on the regional languages</ref> | * [[Poland]]<ref>Ministry of Interior of Poland: Act of 6 January 2005 on national and ethnic minorities and on the regional languages</ref> | ||
* [[Romania]]<ref name=COE/> | * [[Romania]]<ref name=COE/> | ||
* [[Slovakia]]<ref name=COE/>}} | * [[Slovakia]]<ref name=COE/> | ||
* [[Ukraine]]<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2025/12/03/8010176/ |title = Ukrainian Parliament removes Russian from list of languages requiring special protection in Ukraine | date =2025-12-03 | access-date=2025-12-03 |work=[[Ukrainska Pravda]]}}</ref>}} | |||
| agency = [[Institute of the Czech Language]]<br>(of the [[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic]]) | | agency = [[Institute of the Czech Language]]<br>(of the [[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic]]) | ||
| iso1 = cs | | iso1 = cs | ||
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| iso2t = ces | | iso2t = ces | ||
| iso3 = ces | | iso3 = ces | ||
| ietf = cs<ref name=IANA>[https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry IANA language subtag registry], retrieved October | | ietf = cs<ref name=IANA>[https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry IANA language subtag registry], retrieved 15 October 2018</ref> | ||
| lingua = 53-AAA-da < [[West Slavic languages|53-AAA-b...-d]]<br>(varieties: 53-AAA-daa to 53-AAA-dam) | | lingua = 53-AAA-da < [[West Slavic languages|53-AAA-b...-d]]<br>(varieties: 53-AAA-daa to 53-AAA-dam) | ||
| notice = IPA | | notice = IPA | ||
| glotto = czec1258 | | glotto = czec1258 | ||
| glottorefname = Czech | | glottorefname = Czech | ||
| map = | | map = Czech language distribution.jpg | ||
| mapcaption = | | mapcaption = {{ubl | ||
| | |{{legend|#0080ff|Spoken by a majority}} | ||
| | |{{legend|#88c4ff|Spoken by a minority}} | ||
| | }} | ||
| | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Czech''' ({{IPAc-en|tʃ|ɛ|k}} {{respell|CHEK}}; {{langx|cs|label=[[endonym]]|čeština}} {{IPA|cs|ˈtʃɛʃcɪna|}}), historically known as '''Bohemian'''<ref name=brit>{{cite web|title= Czech language|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/149048/Czech-language |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date= 6 January 2015}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|b|oʊ|ˈ|h|iː|m|i|ə|n|,_|b|ə|-}} {{respell|boh|HEE|mee|ən|,_|bə|-}};{{refn|{{Citation |last= Jones |first= Daniel |author-link= Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title= English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor= Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press |orig-year= 1917 |year= 2003 |isbn= 978-3-12-539683-8 }}}} {{langx|la|lingua Bohemica}}), is a [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic language]] of the [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak group]], written in [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]].<ref name=brit/> Spoken by over 12 million people including second language speakers,<ref | '''Czech''' ({{IPAc-en|tʃ|ɛ|k}} {{respell|CHEK}}; {{langx|cs|label=[[endonym]]|čeština}} {{IPA|cs|ˈtʃɛʃcɪna||audio=Cs-čeština.ogg}}), historically known as '''Bohemian'''<ref name=brit>{{cite web|title= Czech language|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/149048/Czech-language |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date= 6 January 2015}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|b|oʊ|ˈ|h|iː|m|i|ə|n|,_|b|ə|-}} {{respell|boh|HEE|mee|ən|,_|bə|-}};{{refn|{{Citation |last= Jones |first= Daniel |author-link= Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title= English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor= Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press |orig-year= 1917 |year= 2003 |isbn= 978-3-12-539683-8 }}}} {{langx|la|lingua Bohemica}}), is a [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic language]] of the [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak group]], written in [[Latin alphabet|Latin script]].<ref name=brit/> Spoken by over 12 million people including second-language speakers,<ref>{{e28|ces}}</ref> it serves as the official language of the [[Czech Republic]]. Czech is closely related to [[Slovak language|Slovak]], to the point of high [[mutual intelligibility]], as well as to [[Polish language|Polish]] to a lesser degree.<ref>{{cite book |last = Swan|first=Oscar E. |title = A grammar of contemporary Polish |year = 2002 |isbn = 0893572969 |location = Bloomington, Ind. |publisher = Slavica |oclc = 50064627 |language=en | page=5}}</ref> Czech is a [[fusional language]] with a rich system of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and relatively flexible [[word order]]. Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by [[Latin]] and [[German language|German]]. | ||
The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the [[high medieval]] period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the [[Czech National Revival]]. The most widely spoken [[nonstandard dialect|non-standard variety]], known as Common Czech, is based on the [[vernacular]] of [[Prague]], but is now spoken as an [[interdialect]] throughout most of [[Bohemia]]. The [[Moravian dialects]] spoken in [[Moravia]] and [[Czech Silesia]] are considerably more varied than the dialects of Bohemia.<ref name="rejzek">{{cite book|last = Rejzek|first=Jiří|title=Zrození češtiny|place=Prague|publisher=Univerzita Karlova, Filozofická fakulta|year=2021|isbn=978-80-7422-799-8|language=cs|pages=102, 130}}</ref> | The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the [[high medieval]] period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the [[Czech National Revival]]. The most widely spoken [[nonstandard dialect|non-standard variety]], known as Common Czech, is based on the [[vernacular]] of [[Prague]], but is now spoken as an [[interdialect]] throughout most of [[Bohemia]]. The [[Moravian dialects]] spoken in [[Moravia]] and [[Czech Silesia]] are considerably more varied than the dialects of Bohemia.<ref name="rejzek">{{cite book|last = Rejzek|first=Jiří|title=Zrození češtiny|place=Prague|publisher=Univerzita Karlova, Filozofická fakulta|year=2021|isbn=978-80-7422-799-8|language=cs|pages=102, 130}}</ref> | ||
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==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
[[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|alt=Language-tree graph|Classification of Czech within the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch of the Indo-European language family. Czech and Slovak make up a "Czech–Slovak" subgroup.]] | [[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Language-tree graph|Classification of Czech within the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch of the Indo-European language family. Czech and Slovak make up a "Czech–Slovak" subgroup.]] | ||
{{further|Czech-Slovak languages|West Slavic languages}} | {{further|Czech-Slovak languages|West Slavic languages}} | ||
Czech is a member of the [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] sub-branch of the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family. This branch includes [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], [[Upper Sorbian|Upper]] and [[Lower Sorbian]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]. Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and [[Silesian language|Silesian]].<ref name="Sussex 2011 54–56">{{Harvnb|Sussex|Cubberley|2011|pp=54–56}}</ref> | Czech is a member of the [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] sub-branch of the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family. This branch includes [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]], [[Upper Sorbian|Upper]] and [[Lower Sorbian]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]. Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and [[Silesian language|Silesian]].<ref name="Sussex 2011 54–56">{{Harvnb|Sussex|Cubberley|2011|pp=54–56}}</ref> | ||
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===Medieval/Old Czech=== | ===Medieval/Old Czech=== | ||
[[File:Kralice.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|The [[Bible of Kralice]] was the first complete [[Bible translations into Czech|translation of the Bible into the Czech language]] from the original languages. Its six volumes were first published between 1579 and 1593.|alt=A Gothic-style book with ornate, flowery designs on the cover]] | [[File:Kralice.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|The [[Bible of Kralice]] was the first complete [[Bible translations into Czech|translation of the Bible into the Czech language]] from the original languages. Its six volumes were first published between 1579 and 1593.|alt=A Gothic-style book with ornate, flowery designs on the cover]] | ||
The term "Old Czech" is applied to the period predating the 16th century, with the earliest records of the high medieval period also classified as "early Old Czech", but the term "Medieval Czech" is also used. The function of the written language was initially performed by [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Slavonic]] written in [[Glagolitic script|Glagolitic]], later by [[Latin]] written in [[Latin script]]. | The term "Old Czech" is applied to the period predating the 16th century, with the earliest records of the high medieval period also classified as "early Old Czech", but the term "Medieval Czech" is also used. The function of the written language was initially performed by [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Slavonic]] written in [[Glagolitic script|Glagolitic]], later by [[Latin]] written in [[Latin script]]. | ||
Around the 7th century, the [[early Slavs|Slavic expansion]] reached Central Europe, settling on the eastern fringes of the [[Frankish Empire]]. The West Slavic polity of [[Great Moravia]] formed by the 9th century. The [[Christianization of Bohemia]] took place during the 9th and 10th centuries. The diversification of the [[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]] group within [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] began around that time, marked among other things by its use of the [[voiced velar fricative]] consonant (/ɣ/)<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|Trubetskoi|2001|p=112}}</ref> and consistent stress on the first syllable.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|Trubetskoi|2001|p=153}}</ref> | Around the 7th century, the [[early Slavs|Slavic expansion]] reached Central Europe, settling on the eastern fringes of the [[Frankish Empire]]. The West Slavic polity of [[Great Moravia]] formed by the 9th century. The [[Christianization of Bohemia]] took place during the 9th and 10th centuries. The diversification of the [[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]] group within [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] began around that time, marked among other things by its use of the [[voiced velar fricative]] consonant (/ɣ/)<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|Trubetskoi|2001|p=112}}</ref> and consistent stress on the first syllable.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|Trubetskoi|2001|p=153}}</ref> | ||
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=== Early Modern Czech === | === Early Modern Czech === | ||
There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century. In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects.<ref name="tuebingen">{{cite web |url=http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/tilman.berger/Publikationen/CzechSlovak.pdf |title=Slovaks in Czechia – Czechs in Slovakia |publisher=[[University of Tübingen]] |last=Berger |first=Tilman |access-date=2014 | {{see also|Early Modern Czech}} | ||
There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century. In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects.<ref name="tuebingen">{{cite web |url=http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/tilman.berger/Publikationen/CzechSlovak.pdf |title=Slovaks in Czechia – Czechs in Slovakia |publisher=[[University of Tübingen]] |last=Berger |first=Tilman |access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamusella |first1=Tomasz |title=The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |pages=134–135}}</ref> | |||
The publication of the [[Kralice Bible]] between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Michálek |first1=Emanuel |title=O jazyce Kralické bible |url=http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=6140#_ftn1 |website=Naše řeč |publisher=Czech Language Institute |access-date=2021 | The publication of the [[Kralice Bible]] between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Michálek |first1=Emanuel |title=O jazyce Kralické bible |url=http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=6140#_ftn1 |website=Naše řeč |publisher=Czech Language Institute |access-date=2 November 2021 |language=Czech}}</ref> | ||
In 1615, the Bohemian ''[[Diet (assembly)|diet]]'' tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom. After the [[Bohemian Revolt]] (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which was defeated by the [[Habsburg]]s in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country. This emigration together with other consequences of the [[Thirty Years' War]] had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among the upper classes.<ref name="Cerna 2007 26">{{Harvnb|Cerna|Machalek|2007|p=26}}</ref> | In 1615, the Bohemian ''[[Diet (assembly)|diet]]'' tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom. After the [[Bohemian Revolt]] (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which was defeated by the [[Habsburg]]s in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country. This emigration together with other consequences of the [[Thirty Years' War]] had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among the upper classes.<ref name="Cerna 2007 26">{{Harvnb|Cerna|Machalek|2007|p=26}}</ref> | ||
=== Modern Czech === | === Modern Czech === | ||
[[File:Jan Vilímek | [[File:Josef Dobrovský – Jan Vilímek – České album (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Josef Dobrovský]], whose writing played a key role in reviving Czech as a written language|alt=In a detailed pencil sketch, a middle-aged man in a suit looks idly into the distance.]] | ||
{{see also|Czech National Revival}} | {{see also|Czech National Revival}} | ||
Modern standard Czech originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chloupek|Nekvapil|1993|p=92}}</ref> By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period contain no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty.<ref>{{Harvnb |Chloupek |Nekvapil|1993|p=95}}</ref> At some point before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.<ref name="Maxwell 2009 106"/> | Modern standard Czech originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chloupek|Nekvapil|1993|p=92}}</ref> By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period contain no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty.<ref>{{Harvnb |Chloupek |Nekvapil|1993|p=95}}</ref> At some point before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.<ref name="Maxwell 2009 106"/> | ||
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Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name="Cerna 2007 26"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=2}}</ref> A [[Eurobarometer]] survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the [[first language]] of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the [[European Union]] (behind [[Greece]] and [[Hungary]]).<ref name="eu"/> | Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name="Cerna 2007 26"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=2}}</ref> A [[Eurobarometer]] survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the [[first language]] of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the [[European Union]] (behind [[Greece]] and [[Hungary]]).<ref name="eu"/> | ||
As the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the [[European Union]] since 2004), Czech is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia.<ref name="eu">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622051915/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=2012 | As the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the [[European Union]] since 2004), Czech is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia.<ref name="eu">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622051915/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=22 June 2012 |url-status=live|publisher=[[Eurobarometer]]|title=Europeans and Their Languages|date=June 2012|access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 [[European Day of Languages]]. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the [[Czech Republic]] (98.77 percent), [[Slovakia]] (24.86 percent), [[Portugal]] (1.93 percent), [[Poland]] (0.98 percent) and [[Germany]] (0.47 percent).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://languageknowledge.eu/languages/czech|publisher=Language Knowledge|title=Language knowledge in the European Union|date=2012|last=van Parys|first=Jonathan|access-date=23 July 2014}}</ref> | ||
Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities. Since it is a recognized [[minority language]] in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language in the same way that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic also do.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alppi.vedeckecasopisy.cz/publicFiles/00131.pdf|title=Language Policy of Slovak Republic|last=Škrobák|first=Zdeněk|publisher=Annual of Language & Politics and Politics of Identity|access-date=July | Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities. Since it is a recognized [[minority language]] in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language in the same way that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic also do.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alppi.vedeckecasopisy.cz/publicFiles/00131.pdf|title=Language Policy of Slovak Republic|last=Škrobák|first=Zdeněk|publisher=Annual of Language & Politics and Politics of Identity|access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726095459/http://alppi.vedeckecasopisy.cz/publicFiles/00131.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
===United States=== | ===United States=== | ||
{{see also|Czech American|Czech Texan}} | {{see also|Czech American|Czech Texan}} | ||
[[File:Praha texas.jpeg|thumb|right|Praha, Texas (Note the absence of diacritics. In standard Czech, it would be {{lang|cs|Vítáme Vás […] Matička Praha}}.)]] | [[File:Praha texas.jpeg|thumb|right|Praha, Texas (Note the absence of diacritics. In standard Czech, it would be {{lang|cs|Vítáme Vás […] Matička Praha}}.)]] | ||
Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a [[Less Commonly Taught Languages|Less Commonly Taught Language]] in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of [[Czech American]]s live in the states of [[Texas]], [[Nebraska]] and [[Wisconsin]].<ref name="cal">{{cite web|url=http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/czech-language-programs-in-the-united-states.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302223205/http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/czech-language-programs-in-the-united-states.pdf |archive-date=2013 | Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a [[Less Commonly Taught Languages|Less Commonly Taught Language]] in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of [[Czech American]]s live in the states of [[Texas]], [[Nebraska]] and [[Wisconsin]].<ref name="cal">{{cite web|url=http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/czech-language-programs-in-the-united-states.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302223205/http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/czech-language-programs-in-the-united-states.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2013 |url-status=live|publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]]|last=Hrouda|first=Simone J.|title=Czech Language Programs and Czech as a Heritage Language in the United States|access-date=23 July 2014}}</ref> In the [[2000 United States census]], Czech was reported as the most common [[Language Spoken at Home in the United States of America|language spoken at home]] (besides [[English language|English]]) in [[Valley County, Nebraska|Valley]], [[Butler County, Nebraska|Butler]] and [[Saunders County, Nebraska|Saunders]] [[County (United States)|Counties]], Nebraska and [[Republic County, Kansas]]. With the exception of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most common home language in more than a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, [[North Dakota]] and [[Minnesota]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/censusatlas/pdf/8_Language.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006211125/http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/censusatlas/pdf/8_Language.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2008 |url-status=live|publisher=[[United States Census|Census.gov]]|title=Chapter 8: Language|date=2000|access-date=23 July 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2009|post=,}} 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, after [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and before [[Swedish language|Swedish]]).<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220090800/http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/languages_of_the_usa.pdf|url=http://www.usefoundation.org/userdata/file/Research/languages_of_the_usa.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2009|publisher=[[U.S. English (organization)|U.S. English]]|title=Languages of the U.S.A|access-date=25 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
{{main|Czech phonology}} | {{main|Czech phonology}} | ||
[[File:Synagoga v Úštěku.ogg|thumb|Spoken Czech (text reading)]] | [[File:Synagoga v Úštěku.ogg|thumb|Spoken Czech (text reading)]] | ||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
[[File:Czech vowel chart.svg|right|thumb|A Czech vowel chart]] | [[File:Czech vowel chart.svg|class=skin-invert-image|right|thumb|A Czech vowel chart]] | ||
Standard Czech contains ten basic [[vowel]] [[phoneme]]s, and three diphthongs. The vowels are {{IPA|/a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/}}, and their long counterparts {{IPA|/aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/}}. The diphthongs are {{IPA|/ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/}}; the last two are found only in loanwords such as {{lang|cs|auto}} "car" and {{lang|cs|euro}} "euro".<ref>{{Harvnb|Dankovičová|1999|p=72}}</ref> | Standard Czech contains ten basic [[vowel]] [[phoneme]]s, and three diphthongs. The vowels are {{IPA|/a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/}}, and their long counterparts {{IPA|/aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/}}. The diphthongs are {{IPA|/ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/}}; the last two are found only in loanwords such as {{lang|cs|auto}} "car" and {{lang|cs|euro}} "euro".<ref>{{Harvnb|Dankovičová|1999|p=72}}</ref> | ||
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!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | !colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|m}} {{angle bracket|m}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|n}} {{angle bracket|n}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angle bracket|ň}} | ||
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!rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] | !rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]] | ||
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|p}} {{angle bracket|p}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|t}} {{angle bracket|t}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|c}} {{angle bracket|ť}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|k}} {{angle bracket|k}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|b}} {{angle bracket|b}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|d}} {{angle bracket|d}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|ɟ}} {{angle bracket|ď}} | ||
| ({{ | | ({{IPA link|ɡ}}) {{angle bracket|g}} | ||
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! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|t͡s}} {{angle bracket|c}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} {{angle bracket|č}} | ||
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! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ||
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| ({{ | | ({{IPA link|d͡z}}) | ||
| ({{ | | ({{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}) | ||
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!rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | !rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | ||
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|f}} {{angle bracket|f}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|s}} {{angle bracket|s}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angle bracket|š}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|x}} {{angle bracket|ch}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|v}} {{angle bracket|v}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|z}} {{angle bracket|z}} | ||
| {{ | | {{IPA link|ʒ}} {{angle bracket|ž}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|ɦ}} {{angle bracket|h}} | ||
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!rowspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | !rowspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | ||
! {{small|plain}} | ! {{small|plain}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|r}} {{angle bracket|r}} | ||
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! {{small|[[Voiced alveolar raised non-sonorant trill|fricative]]}} | ! {{small|[[Voiced alveolar raised non-sonorant trill|fricative]]}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|r̝}} {{angle bracket|ř}} | ||
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!colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | !colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|l}} {{angle bracket|l}} | ||
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| {{ | | {{IPA link|j}} {{angle bracket|j}} | ||
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In parts of [[Bohemia]] (including [[Prague]]), questions such as ''Jí pes bagetu?'' without an interrogative word (such as ''co'', "what" or ''kdo'', "who") are [[Intonation (linguistics)|intoned]] in a slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=10}}</ref> | In parts of [[Bohemia]] (including [[Prague]]), questions such as ''Jí pes bagetu?'' without an interrogative word (such as ''co'', "what" or ''kdo'', "who") are [[Intonation (linguistics)|intoned]] in a slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=10}}</ref> | ||
In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns,<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=48}}</ref> with few exceptions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Uhlířová |first1=Ludmila |title=SLOVOSLED NOMINÁLNÍ SKUPINY |url=https://www.czechency.org/slovnik/SLOVOSLED%20NOMINÁLNÍ%20SKUPINY |website=Nový encyklopedický slovník češtiny |access-date=2017 | In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns,<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=48}}</ref> with few exceptions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Uhlířová |first1=Ludmila |title=SLOVOSLED NOMINÁLNÍ SKUPINY |url=https://www.czechency.org/slovnik/SLOVOSLED%20NOMINÁLNÍ%20SKUPINY |website=Nový encyklopedický slovník češtiny |access-date=18 October 2017}}</ref> [[Relative clause]]s are introduced by [[relativizer]]s such as the adjective ''který'', analogous to the English [[relative pronoun]]s "which", "that" and "who"/"whom". As with other adjectives, it [[Agreement (linguistics)|agrees]] with its associated noun in gender, number and case. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify. The following is a [[Interlinear gloss|glossed]] example:<ref>{{Harvnb|Harkins|1952|p=271}}</ref> | ||
{{interlinear|indent=3 | {{interlinear|indent=3 | ||
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====Case==== | ====Case==== | ||
[[File:Bozeny Nemcove Revnice 6258.JPG|thumb|right|A street sign in German (top) and Czech (bottom) for a street named after [[Božena Němcová]] with her name declined in the genitive case in Czech (a sign probably from the time of the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia|Protectorate]]) | [[File:Bozeny Nemcove Revnice 6258.JPG|thumb|right|A street sign in German (top) and Czech (bottom) for a street named after [[Božena Němcová]] with her name declined in the genitive case in Czech (a sign probably from the time of the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia|Protectorate]])]] | ||
A [[nominative–accusative language]], Czech marks subject nouns of transitive and intransitive verbs in the nominative case, which is the form found in dictionaries, and [[direct object]]s of transitive verbs are declined in the accusative case.<ref name="n196" /> The vocative case is used to address people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=201}}</ref> The remaining cases (genitive, dative, locative and instrumental) indicate semantic relationships, such as [[noun adjunct]]s (genitive), [[indirect object]]s (dative), or agents in passive constructions (instrumental).<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|pp=197–199}}</ref> Additionally [[preposition]]s and some verbs require their complements to be declined in a certain case.<ref name="n196">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=196}}</ref> The locative case is only used after prepositions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=199}}</ref> An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it modifies. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number:<ref name="Naughton 2005 25">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=25}}</ref> | A [[nominative–accusative language]], Czech marks subject nouns of transitive and intransitive verbs in the nominative case, which is the form found in dictionaries, and [[direct object]]s of transitive verbs are declined in the accusative case.<ref name="n196" /> The vocative case is used to address people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=201}}</ref> The remaining cases (genitive, dative, locative and instrumental) indicate semantic relationships, such as [[noun adjunct]]s (genitive), [[indirect object]]s (dative), or agents in passive constructions (instrumental).<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|pp=197–199}}</ref> Additionally [[preposition]]s and some verbs require their complements to be declined in a certain case.<ref name="n196">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=196}}</ref> The locative case is only used after prepositions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=199}}</ref> An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it modifies. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number:<ref name="Naughton 2005 25">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=25}}</ref> | ||
{{clear}} | {{clear}} | ||
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Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two [[grammatical aspect]]s: [[perfective aspect|perfective]] and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]]. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, ''[[wikt:koupit|koupit]]'' (perfective) and ''[[wikt:kupovat|kupovat]]'' (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing or repeated. This is distinct from [[past tense|past]] and [[present tense]].<ref name="Naughton 2005 146">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=146}}</ref> Any verb of either aspect can be conjugated into either the past or present tense,<ref name="Naughton 2005 131">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=131}}</ref> but the future tense is only used with imperfective verbs.<ref name="Naughton 2005 151">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=151}}</ref> Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.<ref name="Naughton 2005 146"/> | Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two [[grammatical aspect]]s: [[perfective aspect|perfective]] and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]]. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, ''[[wikt:koupit|koupit]]'' (perfective) and ''[[wikt:kupovat|kupovat]]'' (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing or repeated. This is distinct from [[past tense|past]] and [[present tense]].<ref name="Naughton 2005 146">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=146}}</ref> Any verb of either aspect can be conjugated into either the past or present tense,<ref name="Naughton 2005 131">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=131}}</ref> but the future tense is only used with imperfective verbs.<ref name="Naughton 2005 151">{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=151}}</ref> Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense.<ref name="Naughton 2005 146"/> | ||
The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix. In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective ''psát'' (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective ''napsat'' (to write down). The most common prefixes are ''na-'', ''o-'', ''po-'', ''s-'', ''u-'', ''vy-'', ''z-'' and ''za-''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=147}}</ref> In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs ''koupit'' (to buy) and ''prodat'' (to sell) have the imperfective forms ''kupovat'' and ''prodávat''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|pp=147–148}}</ref> Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and [[frequentative]] forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb ''jít'' (to go) has the iterative form ''chodit'' (to go regularly) and the frequentative form ''chodívat'' (to go occasionally; to tend to go).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lukeš|first1=Dominik|publisher=DominikLukeš.net|title=Gramatická terminologie ve vyučování – Terminologie a platonický svět gramatických idejí|url=http://www.dominiklukes.net/bibliography/platonickysvetgramatickychkategorii|access-date=August | The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways: by prefix or by suffix. In prefix pairs, the perfective verb has an added prefix—for example, the imperfective ''psát'' (to write, to be writing) compared with the perfective ''napsat'' (to write down). The most common prefixes are ''na-'', ''o-'', ''po-'', ''s-'', ''u-'', ''vy-'', ''z-'' and ''za-''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=147}}</ref> In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs ''koupit'' (to buy) and ''prodat'' (to sell) have the imperfective forms ''kupovat'' and ''prodávat''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|pp=147–148}}</ref> Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and [[frequentative]] forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb ''jít'' (to go) has the iterative form ''chodit'' (to go regularly) and the frequentative form ''chodívat'' (to go occasionally; to tend to go).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lukeš|first1=Dominik|publisher=DominikLukeš.net|title=Gramatická terminologie ve vyučování – Terminologie a platonický svět gramatických idejí|url=http://www.dominiklukes.net/bibliography/platonickysvetgramatickychkategorii|access-date=5 August 2014|year=2001|archive-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923003624/http://www.dominiklukes.net/bibliography/platonickysvetgramatickychkategorii|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
Many verbs have only one aspect, and verbs describing continual states of being—''[[wikt:být|být]]'' (to be), ''[[wikt:chtít|chtít]]'' (to want), ''[[wikt:moct|moct]]'' (to be able to), ''[[wikt:ležet|ležet]]'' (to lie down, to be lying down)—have no perfective form. Conversely, verbs describing immediate states of change—for example, ''[[wikt:otěhotnět|otěhotnět]]'' (to become pregnant) and ''[[wikt:nadchnout se|nadchnout se]]'' (to become enthusiastic)—have no imperfective aspect.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=149}}</ref> | Many verbs have only one aspect, and verbs describing continual states of being—''[[wikt:být|být]]'' (to be), ''[[wikt:chtít|chtít]]'' (to want), ''[[wikt:moct|moct]]'' (to be able to), ''[[wikt:ležet|ležet]]'' (to lie down, to be lying down)—have no perfective form. Conversely, verbs describing immediate states of change—for example, ''[[wikt:otěhotnět|otěhotnět]]'' (to become pregnant) and ''[[wikt:nadchnout se|nadchnout se]]'' (to become enthusiastic)—have no imperfective aspect.<ref>{{Harvnb|Naughton|2005|p=149}}</ref> | ||
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===Common Czech=== | ===Common Czech=== | ||
[[File:Dialects of the Czech language.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Dialects of Czech, [[Moravian dialects|Moravian]], [[Lach dialects|Lach]], and [[Cieszyn Silesian]] spoken in the Czech Republic. The border areas, where German was formerly spoken, are now mixed.]] | [[File:Dialects of the Czech language.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Dialects of Czech, [[Moravian dialects|Moravian]], [[Lach dialects|Lach]], and [[Cieszyn Silesian]] spoken in the Czech Republic. The border areas, where German was formerly spoken, are now mixed.]] | ||
The main Czech vernacular, spoken primarily in [[Bohemia]] including the capital [[Prague]], is known as Common Czech (''obecná čeština''). This is an academic distinction; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with deformed or "incorrect" Czech.<ref name="Wilson 2010 21">{{Harvnb|Wilson|2009|p=21}}</ref> Compared to Standard Czech, Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution.<ref name="sciences">{{cite web|url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15079160|publisher=[[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic]]|date=2003|title=The present-day situation of Czech|last=Daneš|first=František|access-date=August | The main Czech vernacular, spoken primarily in [[Bohemia]] including the capital [[Prague]], is known as Common Czech (''obecná čeština''). This is an academic distinction; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with deformed or "incorrect" Czech.<ref name="Wilson 2010 21">{{Harvnb|Wilson|2009|p=21}}</ref> Compared to Standard Czech, Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution.<ref name="sciences">{{cite web|url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15079160|publisher=[[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic]]|date=2003|title=The present-day situation of Czech|last=Daneš|first=František|access-date=10 August 2014|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | ||
Common Czech is distinguished from spoken/colloquial Standard Czech ({{lang|cs|hovorová čeština}}), which is a [[style (sociolinguistics)|stylistic variety]] within standard Czech.<ref name=:0>{{cite journal | language=pl| journal=Bohemistyka | issn=1642-9893 | year=2006 | number=1 | last=Balowska | first= Grażyna | location=Opole | url=http://www.bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2006/ART_Balowska_01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505182653/http://www.bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2006/ART_Balowska_01.pdf |archive-date=2019 | Common Czech is distinguished from spoken/colloquial Standard Czech ({{lang|cs|hovorová čeština}}), which is a [[style (sociolinguistics)|stylistic variety]] within standard Czech.<ref name=:0>{{cite journal | language=pl| journal=Bohemistyka | issn=1642-9893 | year=2006 | number=1 | last=Balowska | first= Grażyna | location=Opole | url=http://www.bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2006/ART_Balowska_01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505182653/http://www.bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2006/ART_Balowska_01.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2019 |url-status=live | title=Problematyka czeszczyzny potocznej nieliterackiej (tzw. obecná čeština) na łamach czasopisma "Naše řeč" w latach dziewięćdziesiątych}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal=Bohemistyka | issn=1642-9893 | year=2015 | number=2 | last=Štěpán | first= Josef | location=Prague | url=http://bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2015/Stepan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510143346/http://bohemistyka.pl/artykuly/2015/Stepan.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2019 |url-status=live | title=Hovorová spisovná čeština | language=cs}}</ref> [[Tomasz Kamusella]] defines the spoken variety of Standard Czech as a compromise between Common Czech and the written standard,<ref>{{cite book|page=506|title=The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe|first=Tomasz|last=Kamusella|publisher=Springer|date=2008|isbn=9780230583474}}</ref> while [[Miroslav Komárek]] calls Common Czech an intersection of spoken Standard Czech and regional dialects.<ref name="kom117">{{Harvnb|Komárek|2012|p=117}}</ref> | ||
Common Czech has become ubiquitous in most parts of the Czech Republic since the later 20th century. It is usually defined as an [[interdialect]] used in common speech in [[Bohemia]] and western parts of [[Moravia]] (by about two thirds of all inhabitants of the [[Czech Republic]]). Common Czech is not [[codification (linguistics)|codified]], but some of its elements have become adopted in the written standard. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of media influence. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.<ref name="sciences"/> The colloquial form of Standard Czech finds limited use in daily communication due to the expansion of the Common Czech interdialect.<ref name=:0/> It is sometimes defined as a theoretical construct rather than an actual tool of colloquial communication, since in casual contexts, the non-standard interdialect is preferred.<ref name=:0/> | Common Czech has become ubiquitous in most parts of the Czech Republic since the later 20th century. It is usually defined as an [[interdialect]] used in common speech in [[Bohemia]] and western parts of [[Moravia]] (by about two thirds of all inhabitants of the [[Czech Republic]]). Common Czech is not [[codification (linguistics)|codified]], but some of its elements have become adopted in the written standard. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of media influence. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.<ref name="sciences"/> The colloquial form of Standard Czech finds limited use in daily communication due to the expansion of the Common Czech interdialect.<ref name=:0/> It is sometimes defined as a theoretical construct rather than an actual tool of colloquial communication, since in casual contexts, the non-standard interdialect is preferred.<ref name=:0/> | ||
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Apart from the Common Czech vernacular, there remain a variety of other Bohemian dialects, mostly in marginal rural areas. Dialect use began to weaken in the second half of the 20th century, and by the early 1990s regional dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) Standard Czech.<ref>{{Harvnb|Eckert|1993|pp=143–144}}</ref> | Apart from the Common Czech vernacular, there remain a variety of other Bohemian dialects, mostly in marginal rural areas. Dialect use began to weaken in the second half of the 20th century, and by the early 1990s regional dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) Standard Czech.<ref>{{Harvnb|Eckert|1993|pp=143–144}}</ref> | ||
The [[Czech Statistical Office]] in 2003 recognized the following Bohemian dialects:<ref name="map">{{cite web|title=Map of Czech Dialects|url=http://www.osu.cz/fpd/kcd/dokumenty/cestinapositi/kuldanova/mapka_01.htm|date=2003|publisher=Český statistický úřad ([[Czech Statistical Office]])|access-date=July | The [[Czech Statistical Office]] in 2003 recognized the following Bohemian dialects:<ref name="map">{{cite web|title=Map of Czech Dialects|url=http://www.osu.cz/fpd/kcd/dokumenty/cestinapositi/kuldanova/mapka_01.htm|date=2003|publisher=Český statistický úřad ([[Czech Statistical Office]])|access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201000809/http://www.osu.cz/fpd/kcd/dokumenty/cestinapositi/kuldanova/mapka_01.htm|archive-date=1 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
*''Nářečí středočeská'' (Central Bohemian dialects) | *''Nářečí středočeská'' (Central Bohemian dialects) | ||
*''Nářečí jihozápadočeská'' (Southwestern Bohemian dialects) | *''Nářečí jihozápadočeská'' (Southwestern Bohemian dialects) | ||
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{{see also|Lach dialects|Cieszyn Silesian dialect}} | {{see also|Lach dialects|Cieszyn Silesian dialect}} | ||
[[File:Moravian dialects.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Traditional territory of the main dialect groups of Moravia and Czech Silesia. Green: Central Moravian, Red: East Moravian, Yellow: [[Lach dialects|Lach (Silesian)]], Pink: [[Cieszyn Silesian]], Orange: Bohemian–Moravian transitional dialects, Purple: Mixed areas]] | [[File:Moravian dialects.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Traditional territory of the main dialect groups of Moravia and Czech Silesia. Green: Central Moravian, Red: East Moravian, Yellow: [[Lach dialects|Lach (Silesian)]], Pink: [[Cieszyn Silesian]], Orange: Bohemian–Moravian transitional dialects, Purple: Mixed areas]] | ||
The Czech dialects spoken in [[Moravia]] and [[Silesia]] are known as [[Moravian dialects|Moravian]] (''moravština''). In the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others).<ref>{{Harvnb|Kortmann|van der Auwera|2011|p=714}}</ref> In the 2011 census, where respondents could optionally specify up to two first languages,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zvoníček |first1=Jiří |title=Sčítání lidu a moravská národnost. Přihlásíte se k ní? |url=https://kromerizsky.denik.cz/ctenar-reporter/scitani-lidu-a-moravska-narodnost-prihlasite-se-k-ni-20210330.html |newspaper=Kroměřížský Deník |date=30 March 2021 |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref> 62,908 Czech citizens specified Moravian as their first language and 45,561 specified both Moravian and Czech.<ref name="obyvatelstvo">{{cite web|url=http://vdb.czso.cz/sldbvo/#!stranka=podle-tematu&tu=30629&th=&v=&vo=H4sIAAAAAAAAAFvzloG1uIhBMCuxLFGvtCQzR88jsTjDN7GAlf3WwcNiCReZGZjcGLhy8hNT3BKTS_KLPBk4SzKKUosz8nNSKgrsHRhAgKecA0gKADF3CQNnaLBrUIBjkKNvcSFDHQMDhhqGCqCiYA__cLCiEgZGvxIGdg9_Fz__EMeCEgY2b38XZ89gIIvLxTHEP8wx2NEFJM4ZHOIY5u_t7-MJ1OIP5IdEBkT5OwU5RgH5IUB9fo4ePq4uEPNYw1yDolzhPstJzEvX88wrSU1PLRJ6tGDJ98Z2CyYGRk8G1rLEnNLUiiIGAYQ6v9LcpNSitjVTZbmnPOhmArq34D8QlDDwAG10C_KFWcoe4ugU6uPtWMLA4eni6hcSEAZ0FYe_k3OQmaGJUwUA4lOtR1sBAAA.&vseuzemi=null&void=|publisher=Český statistický úřad (Czech Statistical Office)|date=March | The Czech dialects spoken in [[Moravia]] and [[Silesia]] are known as [[Moravian dialects|Moravian]] (''moravština''). In the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others).<ref>{{Harvnb|Kortmann|van der Auwera|2011|p=714}}</ref> In the 2011 census, where respondents could optionally specify up to two first languages,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zvoníček |first1=Jiří |title=Sčítání lidu a moravská národnost. Přihlásíte se k ní? |url=https://kromerizsky.denik.cz/ctenar-reporter/scitani-lidu-a-moravska-narodnost-prihlasite-se-k-ni-20210330.html |newspaper=Kroměřížský Deník |date=30 March 2021 |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref> 62,908 Czech citizens specified Moravian as their first language and 45,561 specified both Moravian and Czech.<ref name="obyvatelstvo">{{cite web|url=http://vdb.czso.cz/sldbvo/#!stranka=podle-tematu&tu=30629&th=&v=&vo=H4sIAAAAAAAAAFvzloG1uIhBMCuxLFGvtCQzR88jsTjDN7GAlf3WwcNiCReZGZjcGLhy8hNT3BKTS_KLPBk4SzKKUosz8nNSKgrsHRhAgKecA0gKADF3CQNnaLBrUIBjkKNvcSFDHQMDhhqGCqCiYA__cLCiEgZGvxIGdg9_Fz__EMeCEgY2b38XZ89gIIvLxTHEP8wx2NEFJM4ZHOIY5u_t7-MJ1OIP5IdEBkT5OwU5RgH5IUB9fo4ePq4uEPNYw1yDolzhPstJzEvX88wrSU1PLRJ6tGDJ98Z2CyYGRk8G1rLEnNLUiiIGAYQ6v9LcpNSitjVTZbmnPOhmArq34D8QlDDwAG10C_KFWcoe4ugU6uPtWMLA4eni6hcSEAZ0FYe_k3OQmaGJUwUA4lOtR1sBAAA.&vseuzemi=null&void=|publisher=Český statistický úřad (Czech Statistical Office)|date=26 March 2011|access-date=26 July 2014|title=Tab. 614b Obyvatelstvo podle věku, mateřského jazyka a pohlaví (Population by Age, Mother Tongue, and Gender)|language=cs}}</ref> | ||
Beginning in the sixteenth century, some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak;<ref name="tuebingen"/> the southeastern Moravian dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages,<ref name="Kortmann Auwera 516">{{Harvnb|Kortmann|van der Auwera|2011|p=516}}</ref> using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak.<ref name="tartu">{{cite web|last=Šustek|first=Zbyšek|title=Otázka kodifikace spisovného moravského jazyka (The question of codifying a written Moravian language)|publisher=[[University of Tartu]]|year=1998|url=http://www.britskelisty.cz/9809/19980914d.html|language=cs|access-date=July | Beginning in the sixteenth century, some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak;<ref name="tuebingen"/> the southeastern Moravian dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages,<ref name="Kortmann Auwera 516">{{Harvnb|Kortmann|van der Auwera|2011|p=516}}</ref> using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak.<ref name="tartu">{{cite web|last=Šustek|first=Zbyšek|title=Otázka kodifikace spisovného moravského jazyka (The question of codifying a written Moravian language)|publisher=[[University of Tartu]]|year=1998|url=http://www.britskelisty.cz/9809/19980914d.html|language=cs|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> | ||
A popular misconception holds that eastern Moravian dialects are closer to Slovak than Czech, but this is incorrect; in fact, the opposite is true, and certain dialects in far western Slovakia exhibit features more akin to standard Czech than to standard Slovak.<ref name="rejzek" /> | A popular misconception holds that eastern Moravian dialects are closer to Slovak than Czech, but this is incorrect; in fact, the opposite is true, and certain dialects in far western Slovakia exhibit features more akin to standard Czech than to standard Slovak.<ref name="rejzek" /> | ||
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===Mutual intelligibility with Slovak=== | ===Mutual intelligibility with Slovak=== | ||
Czech and Slovak have been considered [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]]; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages.<ref name="Golubovic">{{Cite journal | Czech and Slovak have been considered [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]]; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages.<ref name="Golubovic">{{Cite journal |last1=Golubović |first1=Jelena |last2=Gooskens |first2=Charlotte |year=2015 |title=Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/25093608/golubovic_and_gooskens_2015.pdf |journal=Russian Linguistics |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=351–373 |doi=10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Following the 1993 [[dissolution of Czechoslovakia]], mutual intelligibility declined for younger speakers, probably because Czech speakers began to experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa.{{sfn |Short |2009 |p=306}} A 2015 study involving participants with a mean age of around 23 nonetheless concluded that there remained a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages.<ref name="Golubovic" /> Grammatically, both languages share a common syntax.<ref name="tuebingen"/> | ||
One study showed that Czech and Slovak [[lexicon]]s differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation;<ref>{{Harvnb|Esposito|2011|p=82}}</ref> Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the [[nominative case|nominative]] to the [[locative case]], ''[[Prague|Pra'''h'''a]]'' becomes ''Pra'''z'''e'' in Czech and ''Pra'''h'''e'' in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.<ref name="tuebingen"/> | One study showed that Czech and Slovak [[lexicon]]s differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation;<ref>{{Harvnb|Esposito|2011|p=82}}</ref> Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the [[nominative case|nominative]] to the [[locative case]], ''[[Prague|Pra'''h'''a]]'' becomes ''Pra'''z'''e'' in Czech and ''Pra'''h'''e'' in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.<ref name="tuebingen"/> | ||
The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (''Čechoslované''), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded [[German Bohemians]] and (to a lesser extent) [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] and other Slavs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maxwell|2009|pp=101–105}}</ref> During the [[First Czechoslovak Republic]] (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language, both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak State]] (which then aligned with [[Nazi Germany]] in [[World War II]]), literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the [[Axis powers]] lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the [[Prague Spring]] of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech,<ref name="tuebingen"/> due to the transformation of Czechoslovakia from a unitary state to a federation. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, "Czechoslovak" has referred to improvised [[pidgin]]s of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.<ref name="cscs">{{cite | The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (''Čechoslované''), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded [[German Bohemians]] and (to a lesser extent) [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]] and other Slavs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maxwell|2009|pp=101–105}}</ref> During the [[First Czechoslovak Republic]] (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language, both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak State]] (which then aligned with [[Nazi Germany]] in [[World War II]]), literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the [[Axis powers]] lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the [[Prague Spring]] of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech,<ref name="tuebingen"/> due to the transformation of Czechoslovakia from a unitary state to a federation. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, "Czechoslovak" has referred to improvised [[pidgin]]s of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.<ref name="cscs">{{cite journal |last=Nábělková |first=Mira |date=January 2007 |title=Closely-related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240751085 |url-access=subscription |access-date=18 August 2014 |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=183 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.004}}</ref> | ||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
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Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods. Earlier loanwords, primarily from German,<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20">{{Harvnb|Mathesius|2013|p=20}}</ref> [[Greek language|Greek]] and Latin,<ref name="Sussex 2011 101">{{Harvnb|Sussex|Cubberley|2011|p=101}}</ref> arrived before the Czech National Revival. More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and [[French language|French]],<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20"/> and also from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Many Russian loanwords, principally animal names and naval terms, also exist in Czech.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mann|1957|pp=159–160}}</ref> | Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods. Earlier loanwords, primarily from German,<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20">{{Harvnb|Mathesius|2013|p=20}}</ref> [[Greek language|Greek]] and Latin,<ref name="Sussex 2011 101">{{Harvnb|Sussex|Cubberley|2011|p=101}}</ref> arrived before the Czech National Revival. More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and [[French language|French]],<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20"/> and also from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Many Russian loanwords, principally animal names and naval terms, also exist in Czech.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mann|1957|pp=159–160}}</ref> | ||
Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture.<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20"/> During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is ''[[wikt:muzyka|muzyka]]'' in Polish and ''музыка'' (''muzyka'') in Russian, but in Czech it is ''[[wikt:hudba|hudba]]''.<ref name="Sussex 2011 101"/> Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into [[List of English words of Czech origin|English]] and other languages—for example, ''[[robot]]'' (from ''[[wikt:robota|robota]]'', "labor")<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=robot|dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=robot (n.)|last=Harper|first=Douglas|access-date=July | Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture.<ref name="Mathesius 2013 20"/> During the nineteenth century, words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots; "music" is ''[[wikt:muzyka|muzyka]]'' in Polish and ''музыка'' (''muzyka'') in Russian, but in Czech it is ''[[wikt:hudba|hudba]]''.<ref name="Sussex 2011 101"/> Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into [[List of English words of Czech origin|English]] and other languages—for example, ''[[robot]]'' (from ''[[wikt:robota|robota]]'', "labor")<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=robot|dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=robot (n.)|last=Harper|first=Douglas|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> and ''[[polka]]'' (from ''[[wikt:polka|polka]]'', "[[Polish people|Polish]] woman" or from "půlka" "half").<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=polka|dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=polka (n.)|last=Harper|first=Douglas|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Czech_Swadesh_list Czech Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) | * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Czech_Swadesh_list Czech Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) | ||
* [https://nobsczech.cz/blog/table-of-contents Online Czech Grammar and Exercises] | * [https://nobsczech.cz/blog/table-of-contents Online Czech Grammar and Exercises] | ||
* [https://czechcourse.com/en/vocabulary Czech vocabulary reference] | |||
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{{Czech Republic topics}} | {{Czech Republic topics}} | ||