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{{Short description|Application of computing technology in music}} | {{Short description|Application of computing technology in music}} | ||
{{Redirect|Computer Music|the magazine|Computer Music (magazine)|the record label|PC Music}} | {{Redirect|Computer Music|the magazine|Computer Music (magazine)|the record label|PC Music}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date= | {{distinguish|AI-generated music}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}} | |||
'''Computer music''' is the application of [[computing technology]] in [[musical composition|music composition]], to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with [[algorithmic composition]] programs. It includes the theory and application of new and existing computer software technologies and basic aspects of music, such as [[sound synthesis]], [[digital signal processing]], [[sound design]], sonic diffusion, [[acoustics]], [[electrical engineering]], and [[psychoacoustics]].<ref>Curtis Roads,''The Computer Music Tutorial'', Boston: MIT Press, Introduction</ref> The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origins of [[electronic music]], and the first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.<ref>Andrew J. Nelson, ''The Sound of Innovation: Stanford and the Computer Music Revolution'', Boston: MIT Press, Introduction</ref> | '''Computer music''' is the application of [[computing technology]] in [[musical composition|music composition]], to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with [[algorithmic composition]] programs. It includes the theory and application of new and existing computer software technologies and basic aspects of music, such as [[sound synthesis]], [[digital signal processing]], [[sound design]], sonic diffusion, [[acoustics]], [[electrical engineering]], and [[psychoacoustics]].<ref>Curtis Roads,''The Computer Music Tutorial'', Boston: MIT Press, Introduction</ref> The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origins of [[electronic music]], and the first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.<ref>Andrew J. Nelson, ''The Sound of Innovation: Stanford and the Computer Music Revolution'', Boston: MIT Press, Introduction</ref> | ||
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Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between [[music and mathematics]], a relationship that has been noted since the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] described the "[[harmony of the spheres]]". | Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between [[music and mathematics]], a relationship that has been noted since the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] described the "[[harmony of the spheres]]". | ||
Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed [[CSIRAC]]) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,<ref>{{cite web |title=Algorhythmic Listening 1949–1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing |url=http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |work=AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072033/http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> but there is no evidence that they did it.<ref name="Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA">{{cite journal|title=MuSA 2017 – Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA |url=https://www.academia.edu/34234640 |journal=MuSA Conference|access-date=18 October 2017 |date=9 July 2017|last1=Doornbusch |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|title= Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia and England |journal=[[Organised Sound]]|year=2017|volume=22|issue=2|pages=297–307 [11]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S1355771817000206|doi-access=free}}</ref> | Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed [[CSIRAC]]) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,<ref>{{cite web |title=Algorhythmic Listening 1949–1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing |url=http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |work=AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072033/http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> but there is no evidence that they did it.<ref name="Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA">{{cite journal|title=MuSA 2017 – Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA |url=https://www.academia.edu/34234640 |journal=MuSA Conference|access-date=18 October 2017 |date=9 July 2017|last1=Doornbusch |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Doornbusch|ref=none|first=Paul|title= Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia and England |journal=[[Organised Sound]]|year=2017|volume=22|issue=2|pages=297–307 [11]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S1355771817000206|doi-access=free}}</ref> | ||
The world's first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed.<ref name=Fildes>{{cite news|title=Oldest computer music unveiled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7458479.stm| date=2008 | The world's first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed.<ref name=Fildes>{{cite news|title=Oldest computer music unveiled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7458479.stm| date=17 June 2008|access-date=18 June 2008|work=[[BBC News Online]]|last=Fildes|first=Jonathan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|date=March 2004|title=Computer Sound Synthesis in 1951: The Music of CSIRAC|journal=[[Computer Music Journal]]|volume=28|issue=1|pages=11–12|doi=10.1162/014892604322970616|s2cid=10593824|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1951 it publicly played the "[[Colonel Bogey March]]"<ref>{{cite web| last = Doornbusch | first = Paul| title = The Music of CSIRAC | date = 29 June 2009| publisher = Melbourne School of Engineering, Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering| url = http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118000725/http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> of which only the reconstruction exists. However, the CSIR Mark 1 played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice, as [[Max Mathews]] did, which is current computer-music practice. | ||
The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the [[God Save the King|British National Anthem]] that was programmed by [[Christopher Strachey]] on the [[Ferranti Mark 1]], late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a [[BBC]] outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "[[Baa, Baa, Black Sheep]]", and "[[In the Mood]]"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media (Digital 60) |url=http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html |access-date=2023- | The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the [[God Save the King|British National Anthem]] that was programmed by [[Christopher Strachey]] on the [[Ferranti Mark 1]], late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a [[BBC]] outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "[[Baa, Baa, Black Sheep]]", and "[[In the Mood]]"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media (Digital 60) |url=http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html |access-date=15 December 2023 |website=curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303203225/http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers at the [[University of Canterbury]], Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on [[SoundCloud]].<ref>{{cite web|title=First recording of computer-generated music – created by Alan Turing – restored |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/26/first-recording-computer-generated-music-created-alan-turing-restored-enigma-code |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=28 August 2017 |date=26 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Restoring the first recording of computer music – Sound and vision blog|url=http://blogs.bl.uk/sound-and-vision/2016/09/restoring-the-first-recording-of-computer-music.html|publisher=[[British Library]]|access-date=28 August 2017|date=13 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=Fildes /> | ||
Two further major 1950s developments were the origins of digital sound synthesis by computer, and of [[algorithmic composition]] programs beyond rote playback. Amongst other pioneers, the musical chemists [[Lejaren Hiller]] and Leonard Isaacson worked on a series of algorithmic composition experiments from 1956 to 1959, manifested in the 1957 premiere of the ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet.<ref>[[Lejaren Hiller]] and [[Leonard Isaacson]], ''Experimental Music: Composition with an Electronic Computer'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959; reprinted Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1979). {{ISBN|0-313-22158-8}}. {{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref> Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in ''Science''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogdanov|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Bogdanov (editor)|date=2001|title=All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music | publisher=Backbeat Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad/page/320 320] |url=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad |url-access=registration|access-date=4 December 2013|isbn=978-0-87930-628-1 }}</ref> The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was [[James Tenney]], who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews' MUSIC III system, beginning with ''Analog #1 (Noise Study)'' (1961).<ref>Tenney, James. (1964) 2015. “Computer Music Experiences, 1961–1964.” In [https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p084379 ''From Scratch: Writings in Music Theory'']. Edited by Larry Polansky, Lauren Pratt, Robert Wannamaker, and Michael Winter. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 97–127.</ref><ref>Wannamaker, Robert, ''[https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=c043673 The Music of James Tenney, Volume 1: Contexts and Paradigms]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2021), 48–82.</ref> After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer [[Jean-Claude Risset]], who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed ''Computer Suite from Little Boy'' (1968). | Two further major 1950s developments were the origins of digital sound synthesis by computer, and of [[algorithmic composition]] programs beyond rote playback. Amongst other pioneers, the musical chemists [[Lejaren Hiller]] and Leonard Isaacson worked on a series of algorithmic composition experiments from 1956 to 1959, manifested in the 1957 premiere of the ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet.<ref>[[Lejaren Hiller]] and [[Leonard Isaacson]], ''Experimental Music: Composition with an Electronic Computer'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959; reprinted Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1979). {{ISBN|0-313-22158-8}}. {{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref> Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in ''Science''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogdanov|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Bogdanov (editor)|date=2001|title=All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music | publisher=Backbeat Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad/page/320 320] |url=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad |url-access=registration|access-date=4 December 2013|isbn=978-0-87930-628-1 }}</ref> The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was [[James Tenney]], who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews' MUSIC III system, beginning with ''Analog #1 (Noise Study)'' (1961).<ref>Tenney, James. (1964) 2015. “Computer Music Experiences, 1961–1964.” In [https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p084379 ''From Scratch: Writings in Music Theory'']. Edited by Larry Polansky, Lauren Pratt, Robert Wannamaker, and Michael Winter. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 97–127.</ref><ref>Wannamaker, Robert, ''[https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=c043673 The Music of James Tenney, Volume 1: Contexts and Paradigms]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2021), 48–82.</ref> After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer [[Jean-Claude Risset]], who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed ''Computer Suite from Little Boy'' (1968). | ||
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=== In Japan === | === In Japan === | ||
In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when [[Keio University]] professor Sekine and [[Toshiba]] engineer Hayashi experimented with the {{ill|TOSBAC|jp}} computer. This resulted in a piece entitled ''TOSBAC Suite'', influenced by the ''Illiac Suite''. Later Japanese computer music compositions include a piece by Kenjiro Ezaki presented during [[Osaka Expo '70]] and "Panoramic Sonore" (1974) by music critic Akimichi Takeda. Ezaki also published an article called "Contemporary Music and Computers" in 1970. Since then, Japanese research in computer music has largely been carried out for commercial purposes in [[popular music]], though some of the more serious Japanese musicians used large computer systems such as the ''[[Fairlight (company)|Fairlight]]'' in the 1970s.<ref name="shimazu104">{{cite journal|last=Shimazu|first=Takehito|title=The History of Electronic and Computer Music in Japan: Significant Composers and Their Works|journal=[[Leonardo Music Journal]]|year=1994|volume=4|pages=102–106 [104]|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/93116556/The-History-of-Electronic-and-Experimental-Music-in-Japan|access-date=9 July 2012|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|doi=10.2307/1513190|jstor=1513190|s2cid=193084745|url-access=subscription}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | |||
In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when [[Keio University]] professor Sekine and [[Toshiba]] engineer Hayashi experimented with the {{ill|TOSBAC|jp | |||
In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, including systems like the [[Roland MC-8 Microcomposer]], where a [[microprocessor]]-based system controls an [[analog synthesizer]], released in 1978.<ref name="shimazu104"/> | In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, including systems like the [[Roland MC-8 Microcomposer]], where a [[microprocessor]]-based system controls an [[analog synthesizer]], released in 1978.<ref name="shimazu104"/> In addition to the Yamaha DX7, the advent of inexpensive digital [[Microprocessor|chips]] and [[microcomputer]]s allowed real-time generation of computer music.<ref name="dean1"/> In the 1980s, Japanese personal computers such as the [[NEC PC-8801|NEC PC-88]] came installed with FM synthesis [[sound chip]]s and featured [[List of audio programming languages|audio programming language]]s such as [[Music Macro Language]] (MML) and [[MIDI]] interfaces, which were most often used to produce [[video game music]], or [[chiptune]]s.<ref name="shimazu104"/> By the early 1990s, the performance of microprocessor-based computers reached the point that real-time generation of computer music using more general programs and algorithms became possible.<ref>{{harvnb|Dean|2009|pages=4–5}}: "... by the 90s ... digital sound manipulation (using MSP or many other platforms) became widespread, fluent and stable."</ref> | ||
==Advances== | ==Advances== | ||
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{{See also|Generative music|Evolutionary music|Genetic algorithm}} | {{See also|Generative music|Evolutionary music|Genetic algorithm}} | ||
Later, composers such as [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]] and [[Iannis Xenakis]] had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced [[algorithmic composition]] programs which were a generalization of his own [[serial composition]] practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig's software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the [[Institute of Sonology]] in [[Utrecht]] in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berg|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Berg (composer)|title= Abstracting the future: The Search for Musical Constructs |journal=[[Computer Music Journal]]|year=1996|volume=20|issue=3|pages=24–27 [11]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|doi=10.2307/3680818|jstor=3680818}}</ref> In the 2000s, [[Andranik Tangian]] developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for [[Canon (music)|rhythmic canons]] and rhythmic fugues, which were then "manually" worked out into harmonic compositions ''Eine kleine Mathmusik I'' and ''Eine kleine Mathmusik II'' performed by computer;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tangian|first=Andranik|author-link=Andranik Tangian|year=2003|title=Constructing rhythmic canons|journal=[[Perspectives of New Music]]|volume=41|issue=2|pages=64–92|url=http://repmus.ircam.fr/_media/mamux/papers/tangian-2003-pnmcanons.pdf|access-date=January | Later, composers such as [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]] and [[Iannis Xenakis]] had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced [[algorithmic composition]] programs which were a generalization of his own [[serial composition]] practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig's software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the [[Institute of Sonology]] in [[Utrecht]] in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berg|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Berg (composer)|title= Abstracting the future: The Search for Musical Constructs |journal=[[Computer Music Journal]]|year=1996|volume=20|issue=3|pages=24–27 [11]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|doi=10.2307/3680818|jstor=3680818}}</ref> In the 2000s, [[Andranik Tangian]] developed a computer algorithm to determine the time event structures for [[Canon (music)|rhythmic canons]] and rhythmic fugues, which were then "manually" worked out into harmonic compositions ''Eine kleine Mathmusik I'' and ''Eine kleine Mathmusik II'' performed by computer;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tangian|first=Andranik|author-link=Andranik Tangian|year=2003|title=Constructing rhythmic canons|journal=[[Perspectives of New Music]]|volume=41|issue=2|pages=64–92|url=http://repmus.ircam.fr/_media/mamux/papers/tangian-2003-pnmcanons.pdf|access-date=16 January 2021|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124090024/http://repmus.ircam.fr/_media/mamux/papers/tangian-2003-pnmcanons.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Tangian|first=Andranik|author-link=Andranik Tangian|year=2010|title=IRCAM, Seminaire MaMuX, 9 February 2002, Mosaïques et pavages dans la musique|chapter=Constructing rhythmic fugues (unpublished addendum to ''Constructing rhythmic canons'')|url=http://repmus.ircam.fr/_media/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/tangian_2002-2003_einekleinemathmusik_1-2_with-articles.pdf|access-date=16 January 2021|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122043156/http://repmus.ircam.fr/_media/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/tangian_2002-2003_einekleinemathmusik_1-2_with-articles.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> for scores and recordings see.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tangian|first=Andranik|author-link=Andranik Tangian|year=2002–2003|title=IRCAM, Seminaire MaMuX, 9 February 2002, Mosaïques et pavages dans la musique|chapter=Eine kleine Mathmusik I and II|url=http://repmus.ircam.fr/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/2002-02-09|access-date=16 January 2021|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121042242/http://repmus.ircam.fr/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/2002-02-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
for scores and recordings see.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tangian|first=Andranik|author-link=Andranik Tangian|year=2002–2003|title=IRCAM, Seminaire MaMuX, 9 February 2002, Mosaïques et pavages dans la musique|chapter=Eine kleine Mathmusik I and II|url=http://repmus.ircam.fr/mamux/saisons/saison01-2001-2002/2002-02-09|access-date=January | |||
===Computer-generated scores for performance by human players=== | ===Computer-generated scores for performance by human players=== | ||
Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. A present exponent of this technique is [[David Cope]], whose computer programs analyses works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. Cope's best-known program is [[Emily Howell]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leach|first=Ben|date=2009 | Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. A present exponent of this technique is [[David Cope]], whose computer programs analyses works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. Cope's best-known program is [[Emily Howell]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Leach|first=Ben|date=22 October 2009|title=Emily Howell: the computer program that composes classical music|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/6404737/Emily-Howell-the-computer-program-that-composes-classical-music.html|access-date=6 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Cheng|first=Jacqui|date=30 September 2009|title=Virtual Composer Makes Beautiful Music and Stirs Controversy|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2009/09/virtual-composer-makes-beautiful-musicand-stirs-controversy/|work=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ball|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Ball|date=1 July 2012|title=Iamus, classical music's computer composer, live from Malaga|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/01/iamus-computer-composes-classical-music|url-status=live|access-date=15 November 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025233252/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/01/iamus-computer-composes-classical-music |archive-date=25 October 2013 }}</ref> | ||
[[Melomics]], a research project from the [[University of Málaga]] (Spain), developed a computer composition cluster named [[Iamus (computer)|Iamus]], which composes complex, multi-instrument pieces for editing and performance. Since its inception, [[Iamus (computer)|Iamus]] has composed a full album in 2012, also named [[Iamus (album)|''Iamus'']], which ''[[New Scientist]]'' described as "the first major work composed by a computer and performed by a full orchestra".<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Computer composer honours Turing's centenary|magazine=[[New Scientist]]|date=5 July 2012 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21528724.300-computer-composer-honours-turings-centenary.html}}</ref> The group has also developed an [[API]] for developers to utilize the technology, and makes its music available on its website. | [[Melomics]], a research project from the [[University of Málaga]] (Spain), developed a computer composition cluster named [[Iamus (computer)|Iamus]], which composes complex, multi-instrument pieces for editing and performance. Since its inception, [[Iamus (computer)|Iamus]] has composed a full album in 2012, also named [[Iamus (album)|''Iamus'']], which ''[[New Scientist]]'' described as "the first major work composed by a computer and performed by a full orchestra".<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Computer composer honours Turing's centenary|magazine=[[New Scientist]]|date=5 July 2012 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21528724.300-computer-composer-honours-turings-centenary.html}}</ref> The group has also developed an [[API]] for developers to utilize the technology, and makes its music available on its website. | ||
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==Machine improvisation== | ==Machine improvisation== | ||
{{See also|Machine learning|Machine listening|Music and artificial intelligence|Computer models of musical creativity}} | {{See also|Machine learning|Machine listening|Music and artificial intelligence|Computer models of musical creativity}} | ||
Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create [[improvisation]] on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses [[machine learning]] and [[pattern matching]] algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic re-injection. | Machine improvisation uses computer algorithms to create [[improvisation]] on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses [[machine learning]] and [[pattern matching]] algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic re-injection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use [[algorithmic composition]] to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples.<ref>Mauricio Toro, Carlos Agon, Camilo Rueda, Gerard Assayag. "[http://www.jatit.org/volumes/Vol86No2/17Vol86No2.pdf GELISP: A Framework to Represent Musical Constraint Satisfaction Problems and Search Strategies]", ''Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology'' 86, no. 2 (2016): 327–331.</ref> | ||
This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use [[algorithmic composition]] to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples.<ref>Mauricio Toro, Carlos Agon, Camilo Rueda, Gerard Assayag. "[http://www.jatit.org/volumes/Vol86No2/17Vol86No2.pdf GELISP: A Framework to Represent Musical Constraint Satisfaction Problems and Search Strategies]", ''Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology'' 86, no. 2 (2016): 327–331.</ref> | |||
===Statistical style modeling=== | ===Statistical style modeling=== | ||
Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson's ''Illiac Suite for String Quartet'' (1957) and Xenakis' uses of [[Markov chains]] and [[stochastic processes]]. Modern methods include the use of [[lossless data compression]] for incremental parsing, prediction [[suffix tree]], [[string searching]] and more.<ref>Shlomo Dubnov, Gérard Assayag, Olivier Lartillot, Gill Bejerano, "Using Machine-Learning Methods for Musical Style Modeling", ''[[Computer (magazine)|Computers]]'', 36 (10), pp. 73–80, October 2003. {{doi|10.1109/MC.2003.1236474}}</ref> Style mixing is possible by blending models derived from several musical sources, with the first style mixing done by S. Dubnov in a piece NTrope Suite using Jensen-Shannon joint source model.<ref>Dubnov, S. (1999). "Stylistic randomness: About composing NTrope Suite." ''[[Organised Sound]]'', 4(2), 87–92. {{doi|10.1017/S1355771899002046}}</ref> Later the use of [[factor oracle]] algorithm (basically a ''factor oracle'' is a finite state automaton constructed in linear time and space in an incremental fashion)<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JtMYxwzUL00C&q=Factor+oracle%3A+a+new+structure+for+pattern+matching&pg=PA295 |editor1=Jan Pavelka |editor2=Gerard Tel |editor3=Miroslav Bartosek |quote=Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1725 |pages=291–306 |publisher=Springer-Verlag, Berlin |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-540-66694-3 |title=Factor oracle: a new structure for pattern matching; Proceedings of SOFSEM'99; Theory and Practice of Informatics |access-date=4 December 2013}}</ref> was adopted for music by Assayag and Dubnov<ref>"Using factor oracles for machine improvisation", | Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson's ''Illiac Suite for String Quartet'' (1957) and Xenakis' uses of [[Markov chains]] and [[stochastic processes]]. Modern methods include the use of [[lossless data compression]] for incremental parsing, prediction [[suffix tree]], [[string searching]] and more.<ref>Shlomo Dubnov, Gérard Assayag, Olivier Lartillot, Gill Bejerano, "Using Machine-Learning Methods for Musical Style Modeling", ''[[Computer (magazine)|Computers]]'', 36 (10), pp. 73–80, October 2003. {{doi|10.1109/MC.2003.1236474}}</ref> Style mixing is possible by blending models derived from several musical sources, with the first style mixing done by S. Dubnov in a piece NTrope Suite using Jensen-Shannon joint source model.<ref>Dubnov, S. (1999). "Stylistic randomness: About composing NTrope Suite." ''[[Organised Sound]]'', 4(2), 87–92. {{doi|10.1017/S1355771899002046}}</ref> Later the use of [[factor oracle]] algorithm (basically a ''factor oracle'' is a finite state automaton constructed in linear time and space in an incremental fashion)<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JtMYxwzUL00C&q=Factor+oracle%3A+a+new+structure+for+pattern+matching&pg=PA295 |editor1=Jan Pavelka |editor2=Gerard Tel |editor3=Miroslav Bartosek |quote=Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1725 |pages=291–306 |publisher=Springer-Verlag, Berlin |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-540-66694-3 |title=Factor oracle: a new structure for pattern matching; Proceedings of SOFSEM'99; Theory and Practice of Informatics |access-date=4 December 2013}}</ref> was adopted for music by Assayag and Dubnov<ref>"Using factor oracles for machine improvisation", G. Assayag, S. Dubnov, (September 2004) ''Soft Computing'' 8 (9), 604–610 {{doi|10.1007/s00500-004-0385-4}}</ref> and became the basis for several systems that use stylistic re-injection.<ref>"Memex and composer duets: computer-aided composition using style mixing", S. Dubnov, G. Assayag, ''Open Music Composers Book'' 2, 53–66</ref> | ||
G. Assayag, S. Dubnov, (September 2004) ''Soft Computing'' 8 (9), 604–610 {{doi|10.1007/s00500-004-0385-4}}</ref> and became the basis for several systems that use stylistic re-injection.<ref>"Memex and composer duets: computer-aided composition using style mixing", S. Dubnov, G. Assayag, ''Open Music Composers Book'' 2, 53–66</ref> | |||
===Implementations=== | ===Implementations=== | ||
The first implementation of statistical style modeling was the LZify method in Open Music,<ref>G. Assayag, S. Dubnov, O. Delerue, "Guessing the Composer's Mind : Applying Universal Prediction to Musical Style", In Proceedings of International Computer Music Conference, Beijing, 1999.</ref> followed by the Continuator system that implemented interactive machine improvisation that interpreted the LZ incremental parsing in terms of [[Markov models]] and used it for real time style modeling<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://francoispachet.fr/continuator/continuator.html |title= | The first implementation of statistical style modeling was the LZify method in Open Music,<ref>G. Assayag, S. Dubnov, O. Delerue, "Guessing the Composer's Mind : Applying Universal Prediction to Musical Style", In Proceedings of International Computer Music Conference, Beijing, 1999.</ref> followed by the Continuator system that implemented interactive machine improvisation that interpreted the LZ incremental parsing in terms of [[Markov models]] and used it for real time style modeling<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://francoispachet.fr/continuator/continuator.html |title= Continuator |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101121138/http://francoispachet.fr/continuator/continuator.html |archive-date=1 November 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> developed by [[François Pachet]] at Sony CSL Paris in 2002.<ref>Pachet, F., [http://www.csl.sony.fr/downloads/papers/uploads/pachet-02f.pdf The Continuator: Musical Interaction with Style] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414183356/http://www.csl.sony.fr/downloads/papers/uploads/pachet-02f.pdf |date=14 April 2012 }}. In ICMA, editor, Proceedings of ICMC, pages 211–218, Göteborg, Sweden, September 2002. ICMA.</ref><ref>Pachet, F. [http://www.csl.sony.fr/downloads/papers/2002/pachet02b.pdf Playing with Virtual Musicians: the Continuator in practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414183418/http://www.csl.sony.fr/downloads/papers/2002/pachet02b.pdf |date=14 April 2012 }}. IEEE MultiMedia,9(3):77–82 2002.</ref> Matlab implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation can be found as part of [[Computer Audition]] toolbox. There is also an NTCC implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation.<ref>M. Toro, C. Rueda, C. Agón, G. Assayag. "NTCCRT: A concurrent constraint framework for soft-real time music interaction." ''Journal of Theoretical & Applied Information Technology'', vol. 82, issue 1, pp. 184–193. 2015</ref> | ||
M. Toro, C. Rueda, C. Agón, G. Assayag. "NTCCRT: A concurrent constraint framework for soft-real time music interaction." ''Journal of Theoretical & Applied Information Technology'', vol. 82, issue 1, pp. 184–193. 2015</ref> | |||
OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses [[OpenMusic]] and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and [[Shlomo Dubnov]] and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (a.k.a. the ''OMax Brothers'') in the Ircam Music Representations group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://omax.ircam.fr/|title=The OMax Project Page|website=omax.ircam.fr|access-date=2018 | OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses [[OpenMusic]] and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and [[Shlomo Dubnov]] and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (a.k.a. the ''OMax Brothers'') in the Ircam Music Representations group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://omax.ircam.fr/|title=The OMax Project Page|website=omax.ircam.fr|access-date=2 February 2018}}</ref> One of the problems in modeling audio signals with factor oracle is the symbolization of features from continuous values to a discrete alphabet. This problem was solved in the Variable Markov Oracle (VMO) available as python implementation,<ref>"Guided music synthesis with variable markov oracle", C Wang, S Dubnov, Tenth Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, 2014</ref> using an information rate criteria for finding the optimal or most informative representation.<ref>S Dubnov, G Assayag, A Cont, "Audio oracle analysis of musical information rate", IEEE Fifth International Conference on Semantic Computing, 567–557, 2011 {{doi|10.1109/ICSC.2011.106}}</ref> | ||
One of the problems in modeling audio signals with factor oracle is the symbolization of features from continuous values to a discrete alphabet. This problem was solved in the Variable Markov Oracle (VMO) available as python implementation,<ref>Guided music synthesis with variable markov oracle | |||
C Wang, S Dubnov, Tenth Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, 2014</ref> using an information rate criteria for finding the optimal or most informative representation.<ref>S Dubnov, G Assayag, A Cont, "Audio oracle analysis of musical information rate", IEEE Fifth International Conference on Semantic Computing, 567–557, 2011 {{doi|10.1109/ICSC.2011.106}}</ref> | |||
=== Use of artificial intelligence === | === Use of artificial intelligence === | ||
The use of [[artificial intelligence]] to generate new melodies,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 | The use of [[artificial intelligence]] to generate new melodies,<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 2023 |title=Turn ideas into music with MusicLM |url=https://blog.google/technology/ai/musiclm-google-ai-test-kitchen/ |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=Google |language=en-us}}</ref> cover pre-existing music,<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 June 2023 |title=Pick a voice, any voice: Voicemod unleashes "AI Humans" collection of real-time AI voice changers |url=https://tech.eu/2023/06/21/pick-a-voice-any-voice-voicemod-unleashes-ai-humans-collection-of-real-time-ai-voice-changers/ |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=Tech.eu |language=en-GB}}</ref> and clone artists' voices, is a recent phenomenon that has been reported to disrupt the [[music industry]].<ref>{{Cite web |title='Regulate it before we're all finished': Musicians react to AI songs flooding the internet |url=https://news.sky.com/story/ai-music-can-you-tell-if-these-songs-were-made-using-artificial-intelligence-or-not-12865174 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=Sky News |language=en}}</ref> | ||
==Live coding== | ==Live coding== | ||
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* [[Music sequencer]] | * [[Music sequencer]] | ||
* [[New Interfaces for Musical Expression]] | * [[New Interfaces for Musical Expression]] | ||
* [[Physical | * [[Physical modelling synthesis]] | ||
* [[Programming (music)]] | * [[Programming (music)]] | ||
* [[Sampling (music)]] | * [[Sampling (music)]] | ||
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{{div col|colwidth=45em}} | {{div col|colwidth=45em}} | ||
* Ariza, C. 2005. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927001256/http://www.flexatone.net/docs/nlcaacs.pdf Navigating the Landscape of Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition Systems: A Definition, Seven Descriptors, and a Lexicon of Systems and Research]." In ''Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference''. San Francisco: International Computer Music Association. 765–772. | * Ariza, C. 2005. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927001256/http://www.flexatone.net/docs/nlcaacs.pdf Navigating the Landscape of Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition Systems: A Definition, Seven Descriptors, and a Lexicon of Systems and Research]." In ''Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference''. San Francisco: International Computer Music Association. 765–772. | ||
* Ariza, C. 2005. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110606061708/http://www.flexatone.net/docs/odcaamca.pdf An Open Design for Computer-Aided Algorithmic Music Composition: athenaCL]''. PhD | * Ariza, C. 2005. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110606061708/http://www.flexatone.net/docs/odcaamca.pdf An Open Design for Computer-Aided Algorithmic Music Composition: athenaCL]''. PhD dissertation, New York University. | ||
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Boulanger |editor-first=Richard |editor-link=Richard Boulanger |title=The Csound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming |publisher=MIT Press |date=6 March 2000 |page=740 |isbn=978-0-262-52261-8 |url=http://csounds.com/shop/csound-book |access-date=3 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102064621/http://csounds.com/shop/csound-book |archive-date=2 January 2010 |url-status=dead |ref=none}} | * {{Cite book |editor-last=Boulanger |editor-first=Richard |editor-link=Richard Boulanger |title=The Csound Book: Perspectives in Software Synthesis, Sound Design, Signal Processing, and Programming |publisher=MIT Press |date=6 March 2000 |page=740 |isbn=978-0-262-52261-8 |url=http://csounds.com/shop/csound-book |access-date=3 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102064621/http://csounds.com/shop/csound-book |archive-date=2 January 2010 |url-status=dead |ref=none}} | ||
* [[Joel Chadabe|Chadabe, Joel]]. 1997. ''Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music''. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. | * [[Joel Chadabe|Chadabe, Joel]]. 1997. ''Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music''. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. | ||