Developmental psychology: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:31, 12 May 2026

Template:AI-generated Template:Psychology sidebar

Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants.

Piaget's test for Conservation. One of the many experiments used for children.

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why the human mind grows, changes, and adapts over the course of a human lifetime. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan.^[1] Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change^[2] across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development.^[3]^[4] Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.

Developmental psychology explores the influence of both nature and nurture on human development, as well as the processes of change that occur across different contexts over time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors, including the social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates regarding developmental psychology include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity, and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development. While research in developmental psychology has certain limitations, ongoing studies aim to understand how life stage transitions and biological factors influence human behavior and development.^[5]

Developmental psychology involves a range of fields,^[2] such as educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.^[6]

Historical antecedents

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John B. Watson are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology.^[7] In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: infants (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence in Emile: Or, On Education. Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time.

Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them is the psychologist Erik Erikson,^[8] who created a model of eight phases of psychosocial development.^[8] According to his theory, people go through different phases in their lives, each of which has its own developmental crisis that shapes a person's personality and behavior.^[9]

File:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron, c. 1868.jpg

Charles Darwin

In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with the evolutionary theory of Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development;^[7] prominent here was the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall,^[7] who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of humanity. James Mark Baldwin, who wrote essays on topics that included Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes, was significantly involved in the theory of developmental psychology.^[7] Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions.^[7]

Theories

Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure. This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve. Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of psychosexual development. These stages symbolize the process of becoming a mature adult.^[10]

The first is the oral stage, which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking and other mouth-related activities. The second is the anal stage, from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with defecation. This period of development often occurs during toilet training. The child becomes interested in feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy.

The third is the phallic stage, which occurs from ages 3 to 5 (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed.

Stage five is the genital stage, which occurs from puberty through adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins.^[11] Children have now matured and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people.

Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and the unconscious because the conscious resists what the unconscious seeks to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.^[12] The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.^[13]

Theories of cognitive development

Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments.^[14] He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials. In his interviews with children, which formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used a form of Socratic questioning to elicit their thinking. He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds. The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called "equilibration."

Piaget argued that intellectual development occurs through a series of stages generated by the process of equilibration. Each stage consists of steps that the child must master before moving on to the next. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.^[15]

Stages of moral development

Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.^[16] Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.^[17]

He proposed three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning based on the rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reasoning occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by rule-based reasoning grounded in societal conventions. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.^[18]

Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma of saving his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality apply to Heinz's situation.^[19]

Stages of psychosocial development

German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, posit eight stages of human development, influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors, throughout the lifespan.^[8] At each stage, the person must resolve a challenge or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them, preventing the person's personal development.^[8]

The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning who to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for them. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the positive virtue being will. This takes place in early childhood, when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they can do. If the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.

The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The virtue gained is a sense of purpose. This takes place primarily via play. This is the stage when the child will be curious and engage in many interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower, harder time interacting with their world and the other children in it.

The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue of this stage is competence and results from the child's early experiences in school. This stage is when the child will try to win others' approval and understand the value of their accomplishments.

The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity, and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally begins to identify their place in society, particularly regarding their gender role.

The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which happens in young adults, and the virtue gained is love. This is when a person starts to share their life intimately and emotionally with someone else. Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.

The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in adulthood, and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.

The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs. Despair". When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and failures. If they resolve this positively, the virtue of wisdom is gained. This is also the stage when one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear.^[20]

Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity

Michael Commons enhanced and simplified Bärbel Inhelder and Piaget's developmental theory, and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information. It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order of hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stages (counting the half-stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are:

The hierarchical complexity order of tasks predicts performance difficulty, with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.

In the MHC there are three main axioms for an order to meet for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules used to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.Commons, Michael L.; Gane-McCalla, Rebecca; Barker, Christopher D.; Li, Ellen Y. (2014). "The model of hierarchical complexity as a measurement system". Behavioral Development Bulletin. American Psychological Association. 19 (3): 9–68. doi:10.1037/h0100589.

Ecological systems theory

File:Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory of Development (English).jpg

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory

Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bidirectional influences within and between them. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms, and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives, such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. The exosystem is a larger social system in which the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs, and laws of society.^[21]

The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (e.g., school or home). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and the ways they influence each other (e.g., sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (for example, a father's job requiring more overtime influences his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader, encompassing socioeconomic status, culture, beliefs, customs, and morals (for example, a child from a wealthier family may see a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).^[15]

Since its publication in 1979 Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development,^[22] has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.^[23]

Zone of proximal development

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture.^[24] Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities.^[25] Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. The zone of proximal development is a concept used to explain children's learning and collaborative problem-solving with an adult or peer.^[25] This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "cognitive apprenticeship". Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding" because it builds on children's existing knowledge, with adults helping them learn new knowledge.^[26] Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level.^[26] In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment.^[27] He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.^[27]

Constructivism

Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as an active process of constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is the view that a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes based on their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is the view that individuals construct knowledge through interactions between the knowledge they bring to a situation and the social or cultural exchanges within that context.^[15] A foundational concept of constructivism is that the purpose of cognition is to organize one's experiential world, instead of the ontological world around them.^[28]

Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience, make mistakes, and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be holistic by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.^[29]

Evolutionary developmental psychology

Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.^[30]

EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations) and individual differences in behavior from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts)^[31] and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters)^[32] rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity".^[30]^[33] From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.^[30]

EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.^[34]

Attachment theory

Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships.^[35] Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who provide a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Psychologist Harry Harlow's research with infant rhesus monkeys in the mid-20th century provided pivotal experimental support for attachment theory. His studies found that infant monkeys consistently preferred cloth surrogate mothers that provided comfort over wire ones that offered only food. These results demonstrated that emotional security and physical comfort are more critical to attachment than nourishment alone. Harlow's findings reinforced Bowlby's view that early caregiving relationships are biologically essential for healthy emotional development and social bonding later in life.^[36]

Later, Mary Ainsworth developed the strange situation protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors of certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test helps identify "disturbances in attachment" and whether specific attributes contribute to a particular attachment issue.^[37] The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults.^[37] Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.^[37]

Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles:^[38] secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant,^[18] and disorganized.^[38] Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver, characterized by distress when separated and anger upon reunion.^[18] Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.^[38]

It is possible to prevent a child's innate propensity to develop bonds. Some infants are kept in isolation or subjected to severe neglect or abuse, or they are raised without the stimulation and care of a regular caregiver. This deprivation may cause short-term consequences such as separation, rage, despair, and a brief lag in cerebral growth. Increased aggression, clinging behavior, alienation, psychosomatic illnesses, and an elevated risk of adult depression are among the long-term consequences.^[39]^{[page needed]}^[40]^{[page needed]}\

According to attachment theory, a psychological concept, people's capacity to develop healthy social and emotional ties later in life is greatly influenced by their early relationships with their primary caregivers, especially during infancy. This suggests that humans have an innate need to form strong bonds with caregivers to survive and remain healthy. Childhood attachment styles can have an impact on how people behave in adult social situations, including romantic partnerships.^[41]

Nature vs nurture

TemplateStyles' src attribute must not be empty.

Template:Expert needed/catcheck Template:Expert needed/catcheck Template:Expert needed/catcheck Template:Expert needed/catcheck Template:Expert needed/catcheck

A significant concern of developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influences on development. This is often referred to as "nature and nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes.^[42] What makes a person who they are? Is it their environment or their genetics? This is the debate of nature vs nurture.^[43]

According to an empiricist viewpoint, those processes are learned through interaction with the environment. Today, most developmental psychologists take a more holistic approach, emphasizing the interaction between genetic and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.

The dispute over innateness has been well represented in the field of language acquisition studies. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on language acquisition holds that language input provides the necessary information for learning language structure and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.^[44]

The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally.^[45] But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.^[45]

Maybe there could be "strong interactions of both nature and nurture".^[46] Many researchers now emphasize that development results from a continuous, dynamic interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences. Rather than acting independently, nature and nurture are seen as intertwined forces, in which genetic factors can shape sensitivity to environmental inputs, and environmental conditions can influence gene expression throughout development.^[47]

Continuity vs discontinuity

One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous.

Continuous development is quantifiable, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimates of development can include measuring a child's stature, memory, or attention span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly."^[48]

Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement involves slow, progressive changes throughout life, with behavior in earlier stages of development laying the foundation for the abilities and capacities required for later stages. "To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science".^[48]

However, not all psychologists concur that advancement could be a continuous process. A few see advancement as a discontinuous process. They accept that advancement comprises distinct stages, with different types of behavior occurring in each organization. This proposes that the development of certain capacities at each stage, such as particular feelings or ways of thinking, has definite beginning and end points. Nevertheless, there is no exact moment when a capacity suddenly appears or disappears. Although some sorts of considering, feeling, or carrying on may seem abrupt, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.^[49]

Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process, comprising distinct stages characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable from person to person; in any case, the time of each stage may vary. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which state that development is an incremental process.^[50]

Stability vs change

This issue concerns the extent to which one becomes an older version of their earlier self or develops into something different from who they were at an earlier stage of development.^[51] It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute.^[52] Change is altering someone/something.

Most human development lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one.^[53]

Theory of mind

Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others.^[54] It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows individuals to understand that others have beliefs and desires that differ from their own. This ability enables successful social interactions by recognizing and interpreting others' mental states. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood.^[55] Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourage social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family.^[56]

Mathematical models

Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also with explaining the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. A model must account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of development.

Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development: symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models.

Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality, such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect,^[57] second language acquisition,^[58] and locomotion.^[59]

Research areas

Neural development

One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which examines how the brain changes across the lifespan. Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Studies have shown that the human brain undergoes rapid changes during the prenatal and early postnatal periods. These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections.^[60] The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development.^[61]

Experiences and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping neural development. Early sensory experiences, such as exposure to language and visual stimuli, can influence the development of neural pathways related to perception and language processing.^[62]

Genetic factors play a huge role in neural development. Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.^[63]

Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity. During this period, a pruning process occurs in which certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control.^[64]

The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain. By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a clearer picture of human cognitive, emotional, and social development.

Cognitive development

Cognitive development is primarily concerned with how infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development include language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood, with an endpoint or goal.

Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process, which begins at birth and continues until death, is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed rather than treated as a product to obtain.

K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities.^[65]

Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development.^[66] Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences among children who are the same age and grade level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories. They are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate, evolutionarily specified, and content-specific information-processing mechanisms.

Social and emotional development

Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve studying the relationship between cognition, cognitive development, and social behavior.

Emotional regulation (ER) refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on increasing responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in their parents and caregivers, the emotional climate at home, and the reactions of parents and caregivers to the child's emotions.^[67]

Music also influences stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.^[68]

A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, as evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and developmental coordination disorder are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety.^[69] Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially isolated.^[69]

Social and emotional development focuses on five key areas: Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills, and Responsible Decision Making.^[70]

Physical development

Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts.^[71] Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using X-rays are less commonly used nowadays than simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.^[71]

A few other studies and practices in physical developmental psychology include research on the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds and the controversial hypotheses that left-handers are maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.^[71]

Memory development

Researchers interested in memory development examine how our memory develops from childhood onward. According to fuzzy-trace theory, a theory of cognition originally proposed by Valerie F. Reyna and Charles Brainerd, people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times and at different paces. Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases through early adulthood, after which it remains stable through old age. Furthermore, reliance on gist memory traces increases with age.^[72] Neuroscientific research has contributed to understanding the biological mechanisms behind memory development. A study using diffusion MRI in children aged 4 to 12 found that greater maturity of white matter tracts, specifically the uncinate fasciculus and dorsal cingulum bundle, was associated with stronger episodic memory recall. These findings suggest that the structural development of white matter pathways plays a significant role in memory function during childhood.^[73]

Research methods and designs

Main research methods

Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.

Developmental psychologists have many methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, such as naturalistic observation or structured observation; self-reports, such as clinical interviews or structured interviews; the clinical or case study method; and ethnography or participant observation.^[74] These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study.^[75] Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the experimental, correlational, or case study approach.^[76]^[77] The experimental method involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed;^[77] the experimental design points to cause-and-effect relationships.^[78] This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable.^[77] The advantage of using this research method is that it permits the determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.^[78] On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability.^[78] The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention.^[77]^[78] The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment;^[78] but the limitation is that it does not permit the determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.^[78] The case study approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores.^[78] Each of these methods has its strengths and weaknesses, but the experimental method, when appropriate, is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships.^[77]

Research designs

Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs.^[75] Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies, such as:

In a longitudinal study a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and conducts follow-up observations as the cohort ages. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or normative) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families.^[79]

Researchers may also observe how development varies among individuals and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require substantial time and funding, making them infeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.^[80]

In a cross-sectional study a researcher observes differences among individuals of different ages at a single point in time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are less of a confounding factor. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to different historical events.^[81]

A third study design, the sequential design, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format helps clarify the distinction between changes attributable to an individual or historical environment and those that are truly universal.^[82]

Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on a single study or even a single method; instead, they seek consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.^[77]

Life stages of psychological development

Prenatal development

Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. Prenatal development involves three main stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the fetal stage. The germinal stage begins at conception and lasts until 2 weeks; the embryonic stage is the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; the fetal stage is from 9 weeks until birth.^[83] The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks).^[84] Most of the brain's billions of neurons are also developed by the second trimester.^[85] Babies are hence born with some odor, taste, and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.^[86]

Some primitive reflexes also arise before birth and remain present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.^[87]

Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex, appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different.^[88] It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development.^[87] Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like dementia or traumatic lesions.

Ultrasounds have shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes.^[88] By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice, suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception.^[88] Prenatal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example, in schizophrenia. With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology, and the neuroscience of prenatal development, these areas have become of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.

Theoretical extensions in the field now investigate "embryonic spiritual life". While debated, these theories cite fetal sensory capacities to suggest that prenatal experiences may influence the development of later spiritual representations and self-transcendence.^[89]

Several environmental agents—teratogens—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.^[90] Many statistics prove the effects of the aforementioned substances. A leading example of this would be that at least 100,000 "cocaine babies" were born in the United States annually in the late 1980s. "Cocaine babies" are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties that persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. The drug also encourages behavioral problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.^[91]

Infancy

From birth until the first year, children are referred to as infants. As they grow, children respond to their environment in unique ways.^[92] Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it.

The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping.^[93] At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.^[94] In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance.^[95] Nevertheless, the circadian rhythm starts to take shape; a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth.^[94]^[95]

Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:

quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM sleep occurs). Generally, there are various reasons as to why infants dream. Some argue that it is just a psychotherapy, which usually occurs normally in the brain. Dreaming is a form of processing and consolidating information acquired during the day. Freud argues that dreams are a way of representing unconscious desires.^[96]
quiet waking, and active waking
fussing and crying. In a normal setup, infants cry for different reasons. Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver.^[97]

Infant perception

Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered the "five senses".^[98] Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.^[88]

Vision is significantly worse in infants than in older children. An infant's vision tends to be blurry in the early stages but improves over time. Color perception, similar to that seen in adults, has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months using habituation methods.^[87] Infants attain adult-like vision at about six months.^[99]
Hearing is well-developed before birth. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, their mother's voice to other voices, and their native language to other languages. Scientists believe these features are probably learned in the womb.^[100] Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months, their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.
Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g., sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the amniotic fluid, which, in turn, is influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around three days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference.^[101] Older infants also prefer the smell of their mother to that of others.^[87]
Touch and feel is one of the better-developed senses at birth, as it is one of the first senses to develop inside the womb.^[102] This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex.^[103]
Pain: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received as much attention as an area of research.^[104] Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns.^[105]

Language

Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages.^[106] Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants can distinguish between different durations and sound levels and readily differentiate among the languages they have encountered, making it easier for them to understand a given language than for adults to do so.^[107]

At this stage, infants also start to babble, making vowel-consonant sounds as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy what they hear in their surroundings, producing their own phonemes.

In various cultures, a distinct form of speech called "babytalk" is used when communicating with newborns and young children. This register consists of simplified terms for common topics such as family members, food, hygiene, and familiar animals. It also exhibits specific phonological patterns, such as substituting initial velar sounds for alveolar sounds, especially in languages like English. Furthermore, babytalk often involves morphological simplifications, such as regularizing verb conjugations (for instance, saying "corned" instead of "cornered" or "goed" instead of "went"). This language is typically taught to children and is perceived as their natural way of communication. Interestingly, in mythology and popular culture, certain characters, such as the "Hausa trickster" or the Warner Bros cartoon character "Tweety Pie", are portrayed as speaking in a babytalk-like manner.^[108]

Infant cognition: the Piagetian era

Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile, and motor representations of objects.^[109] The concept of object permanence refers to the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not directly perceived or visible; in other words, something is still there even if it is not visible. This is a crucial developmental milestone for infants, who learn that something is not necessarily lost forever just because it is hidden. When a child displays object permanence, they will look for a hidden toy, showing that they are aware the item is still there even when covered by a blanket. Most babies begin to exhibit signs of object permanence around 8 months of age. According to this theory, infants develop object permanence through touching and handling objects.^[88]

Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stages for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes.^[110] Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits.^[110] From eight months the infant can uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved.

Piaget concluded that infants lacked object permanence before 18 months, as they failed to look for an object where it had last been seen. Instead, infants continued to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "A-not-B error". Some researchers have suggested that before the age of 8–9 months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people as well, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are out of sight ("Out of sight, out of mind").

Recent findings in infant cognition

In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods for assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget could achieve in his time. Since then, many studies using these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than was once thought.

Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.

According to Jean Piaget's developmental psychology, object permanence, or the awareness that objects exist even when they are no longer visible, was thought to emerge gradually between the ages of 8 and 12 months. However, experts such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon have questioned this notion. They studied infants' comprehension of object permanence at a young age using novel experimental approaches such as violation-of-expectation paradigms. These findings imply that children as young as 3 to 4 months old may have an innate awareness of object permanence. Baillargeon's "drawbridge" experiment, for example, showed that infants were surprised when they observed events that contradicted expectations about object permanence. This proposition has important consequences for our understanding of infant cognition, implying that infants may be born with core cognitive abilities rather than developing them via experience and learning.^[111]

Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including:

an early numerical cognition, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations;^[112]
an ability to infer the goals of people in their environment;^[113]
an ability to engage in simple causal reasoning.^[114]

Critical periods of development

There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which the development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social, and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.^[115] Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology, which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young, with no one to care about her, and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well established in neurophysiology, as demonstrated by the work of Hubel and Wiesel, among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exist between neurophysiological details and clinical features, and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants.

Developmental delays

Studies have examined differences between children with developmental delays and those with typical development. Normally, when comparing one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional, and other mental disorders. Compared with MA children, there is a greater difference in overall normal developmental behaviors. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.^[116]

Toddlerhood

Infants shift between the ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is marked by self-awareness, linguistic development, and the emergence of memory and imagination.

During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words.^[117] Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take the initiative to explore, experiment, and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident.^[118] If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify with gender roles, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do.^[119]

Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos".^[120] Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage, testing their independence, is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.

Childhood

Erik Erikson divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis:^[121]

Stage 1: Infancy (0 to 1½) in which the psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3), in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age", and "toy age".)^[122]
Stage 4: School age (5 to 12), in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority

Infancy

As stated, Erikson's psychosocial crisis is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of anxiety and fear.^[123]

Early Childhood

Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world at this stage and develops preferences. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low self-esteem.^[123]

Play (or preschool) ages 3–5

In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their caregivers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3–5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.^[124]

Preoperational and then operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.^[125]

Preschoolers' motor skills improve, allowing them to do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on others' care, this age group's world expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world.^[126] For Jean Piaget, the child is "a little scientist exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".^[127]

Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play, "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."^[128]

In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops initiative. If not, the child develops guilt.^[129] Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.

Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12

According to Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority, which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competence in the child.^[121]

In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society."^[130] School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and volunteer work.^[131] Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."

The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop.^[130] Parents and teachers can "undermine" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts.^[131] Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop a belief in their competence. Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".^[132]

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage".^[133]^[134]

Middle Childhood (6–8)

Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to think about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance becomes more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".^[133]

Late Childhood (9–12)

For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families, and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.^[134]

Adolescence

Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose (see William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols to represent abstract concepts and to support formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W., and Hummel, J., January 1998)^[135]

Erik Erikson labels this stage identity versus role confusion. Erikson emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of identity in adolescence because it affects the individual throughout their life. Identity is a lifelong process, shaped by curiosity and active engagement. Role confusion is often considered the current state of an individual's identity. Identity exploration is the process of changing from role confusion to resolution.^[136]

During Erik Erikson's identity versus role uncertainty stage, which occurs in adolescence, people struggle to form a cohesive sense of self while exploring many social roles and prospective life routes. This time is characterized by deep introspection, self-examination, and the pursuit of self-understanding. Adolescents are confronted with questions regarding their identity, beliefs, and future goals. The major problem is building a strong sense of identity in the face of society standards, peer pressure, and personal preferences. Adolescents engage in identity exploration, commitment, and synthesis, actively seeking new experiences, embracing ideals and aspirations, and integrating their evolving sense of self into a coherent identity. Successfully navigating this stage builds the groundwork for good psychological development in adulthood, allowing people to pursue meaningful relationships, make positive contributions to society, and handle life's adversities with perseverance and purpose.^[9]

It is divided into three parts, namely:

Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years
Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and
Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years

The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors, and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose a vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.^[137]

Early adulthood

Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 and 39,^[138] and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships.^[139] Erikson shows the importance of relationships by labeling this stage intimacy vs isolation. Intimacy suggests a process of becoming part of something larger than oneself through sacrifice in romantic relationships and by working toward both life and career goals.^[140] Other examples include creating bonds of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists argue that the development of intimacy skills depends on the resolution of earlier developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned, the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.

Isolation, on the other hand, suggests something different than most might expect. Erikson defined it as a delay in commitment to maintain freedom. Yet, this decision does not come without consequences. Erikson explained that choosing isolation may affect one's chances of getting married, progressing in a career, and overall development.^[140]

A related framework for studying this stage of the lifespan is emerging adulthood. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period, not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.^[141]

Middle adulthood

Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 and 64. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is the sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or one's immediate community. On the other hand, stagnation results in a lack of purpose.^[142] The adult's identity continues to develop in middle-adulthood. Middle-aged adults often adopt opposite gender characteristics. The adult realizes they are halfway through their life and often reevaluates vocational and social roles. Life circumstances can also cause a reexamination of identity.^[143]

Physically, middle-aged individuals experience declines in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory acuity, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen.^[144] Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation.

The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in the fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world.^[145]

Old age

The World Health Organization finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most "developed countries" set the age as 65 or 70. However, in developing countries, the inability to make an "active contribution" to society, rather than chronological age, marks the beginning of old age.^[146]^[147] According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives.^[148]

Erikson labels this stage as integrity versus despair. For integrated persons, there is a sense of fulfillment in life. They have become self-aware and optimistic through life's commitments and connections with others. While reflecting on life, people at this stage develop a sense of contentment with their experiences. If a person falls into despair, they are often disappointed about failures or missed chances in life. They may feel that the time left in life is an insufficient amount to turn things around.^[149]

Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell.^[150] They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system.^[151] Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.^[152]

Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity.^[153]

Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women.^[154] It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age.^[155] Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study. Longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation decline.^[156] An article on adult cognitive development reports that cross-sectional studies show that "some abilities remained stable into early old age".^[156]

Parenting

Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.^[157]

All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior: control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior."^[158]

Parenting styles

The following parenting styles have been described in the child development literature:

Authoritative parenting is characterized by parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict.^[159] These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive.^[160] This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement in the absence of peer support for achievement.^[159] Children who authoritative parents raise are "more likely to become independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved. They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behavior like delinquency and drug use."^[161]
Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control.^[159] These parents focus on obedience, and they monitor their children regularly.^[160] In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys.^[160]
Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness.^[160] These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior.^[160] They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation.^[160] Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive.^[160] Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles.^[160] A subtype of this style, known as indulgent parenting, includes patterns of excessive emotional and behavioral leniency. Adolescents raised by highly indulgent parents have been found to report lower self-worth and higher levels of depression, suggesting that this form of permissive parenting may contribute to negative psychological outcomes.^[162]
Rejecting or neglectful parenting is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are usually unsupportive, unstructured, and uninterested in their children's lives. Low degrees of reactivity and demandingness are characteristics of this parenting style.^[160] Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories.^[160]

Mother and father factors

Parenting research has traditionally focused on mothers, but recent studies highlight the important role of fathers in child development. Children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father.^[163]^[164] In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls.^[165] However, neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and both single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes.^[166] Children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom they can form a positive emotional bond. Having multiple such figures further increases the likelihood of positive outcomes.^[166] Recent research also suggests that the way parents interact with infants can influence early brain development. Parents who guide their baby's attention during play by shifting their gaze between a toy and the child tend to have infants with more complex brain activity. This attention-guiding behavior helps infants process social cues more effectively.^[167]

Divorce

Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning.^[168] Many mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children.^[168] Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern, leaving children at risk.^[168] Additionally, a direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors that facilitate positive child development after a divorce include maternal warmth, a positive father-child relationship, and parental cooperation.^[168]

Cross-cultural

A way to improve developmental psychology is through cross-cultural studies. The field of psychology in general assumes that "basic" human developments are representative of any population, specifically the Western-Educated-Industrialized-Rich and Democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) subjects relied on for the majority of its studies. Previous research generalizes findings from W.E.I.R.D. samples because many in the Psychological field assume certain aspects of development are exempt from, or unaffected by, life experiences. However, many of the assumptions have been proven incorrect or are not supported by empirical research. For example, according to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is dependent on cognitive abilities. While both analytical and holistic cognitive systems can develop in any adult, the West remains on the analytical end of the spectrum. In contrast, the non-West tends to rely on holistic processes. Furthermore, moral reasoning in the West focuses on aspects that support autonomy and the individual. In contrast, non-Western adults emphasize moral behaviors that support the community and maintain an image of holiness or divinity. Not all aspects of human development are universal, and we can learn a lot from observing different regions and subjects.^[169]

Indian model of human development

An example of a non-Western model of development stages is the Indian model, which focuses much of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress. The developmental stages in Indian models are rooted in Hinduism, which primarily outlines stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or Dharma.^[170] This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion.^[169]

Indian psychologists study the relevance of attentive families during the early stages of life. The early life stages conceptualize a different parenting style from the West because they do not try to rush children out of dependence. The family is meant to help the child grow into the next developmental stage at a particular age. This way, when children finally integrate into society, they are interconnected with those around them and reach renunciation when they are older. Children are raised in joint families so that, in early childhood (ages 6 months to 2 years), other family members gradually help wean the child from its mother. During ages 2 to 5, the parents do not rush toilet training. Instead of training the child to perform this behavior, the child learns to do it as they mature at their own pace.

This model of early human development encourages dependency, unlike Western models that value autonomy and independence. By being attentive and not forcing the child to become independent, the child becomes confident and develops a sense of belonging by late childhood and adolescence. This stage in life (5–15 years) is also when children start education and increase their knowledge of Dharma.^[171] It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress. Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma. The main distinction between early adulthood and middle or late adulthood lies in the extent of their influence. Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood, when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public. The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma.^[170]

Current mainstream views in psychology are opposed to the Indian model of human development. The criticism of such models is that they promote an overly protective parenting style and encourage excessive dependence. It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals. Also, there are some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model, but both of them still have major differences. The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because scientific studies support them. Life cycles based on Hinduism are less favored because they are not supported by research and focus on ideal human development.^[170]

References

↑ Graber, Julia A.; Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (July 1996). "Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence". Developmental Psychology. 32 (4): 768–776. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.768.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Tau, Ramiro (2022). "Possible in Human Development". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_252-1. ISBN 978-3-319-98390-5.
↑ "Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2017-08-28.
↑ Burman E (2017). Deconstructing Developmental Psychology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-84695-1.
↑ Kobak R, Abbott C, Zisk A, Bounoua N (June 2017). "Adapting to the changing needs of adolescents: parenting practices and challenges to sensitive attunement". Current Opinion in Psychology. 15: 137–142. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.018. PMC 5886742. PMID 28813254.
↑ Brown, Carol (2008). "Developmental Psychology and Related Disciplines/Theories". Developmental Psychology. p. 7. doi:10.4135/9781446214633.n3. ISBN 978-1-4129-3466-4.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 ^7.3 ^7.4 Hogan JD (2000). "Developmental psychology: History of the field". In Kazdin AE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. 3. pp. 9–13. doi:10.1037/10518-003. ISBN 978-1-55798-652-8.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 Orenstein, Gabriel A.; Lewis, Lindsay (2025). "Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32310556.
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Erikson & Erikson 1998, p. ^{[page needed]}.
↑ Lantz, Sarah E.; Ray, Sagarika (2025). "Freud's Developmental Theory". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32491458.
↑ McLeod S. "Psychosexual Stages". SimplyPsychology. Archived from the original on 2014-12-19. Retrieved 2014-11-10.
↑ Cloninger SC (29 June 2012). Theories of personality: understanding persons (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. pp. 19–101. ISBN 978-0-205-25624-2.
↑ Snowden R (2006). Teach Yourself Freud. McGraw-Hill. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-0-07-147274-6.
↑ Wood SE, Wood CE, Boyd D (2006). Mastering the world of psychology (2 ed.). Allyn & Bacon.^{[page needed]}Template:Isbn missing
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 Reese-Weber L, Bohlin CC, Durwin M (2011-12-06). Edpsych: modules (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. pp. 30–132. ISBN 978-0-07-809786-7.
↑ Kohlberg L (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.
↑ Template:Cite thesis^{[page needed]}
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 ^18.2 Steinberg L (2008). Adolescence (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 60–365. ISBN 978-0-07-340548-3.
↑ McLeod S (2013). "Kohlberg". SimplyPsychology.
↑ Mcleod S (2013). "[Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development]".
↑ Sincero SM. "Ecological Systems Theory". Explorable Psychology Experiments.
↑ Bronfenbrenner U (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22457-4.
↑ Smith PK, Cowie H, Blades M (2003). Understanding Children's Development. Basic psychology (4 ed.). Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22823-3. OCLC 963696734.
↑ Schacter DL, Gilbert DR, Wegner DM (2011). Psychology. 2. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 Yamagata-Lynch, Lisa C. (2010-07-15). Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-6321-5.
↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 Vygotsky LS (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4. ISBN 978-0-674-57628-5. JSTOR j.ctvjf9vz4. OCLC 3517053.
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 Yamagata-Lynch LC (15 July 2010). Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-6321-5.
↑ Larochelle, Marie; Bednarz, Nadine; Garrison, Jim, eds. (1998). Constructivism and Education. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511752865. ISBN 978-0-521-62135-9.^{[page needed]}
↑ "Overview of Cognitive Constructivism". Cognitive Constructivist Theories. Archived from the original on 2014-12-15. Retrieved 2014-11-13.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 ^30.2 Bjorklund, David F.; Blasi, Carlos Hernández (2015). "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology". The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. pp. 828–850. doi:10.1002/9780470939376.ch29. ISBN 978-0-471-26403-3.
↑ Tooby, John; Cosmides, Leda (March 1990). "On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation". Journal of Personality. 58 (1): 17–67. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x. PMID 2198338.
↑ Pinker, Steven (2002). "Children". The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03151-1.
↑ West-Eberhard, Mary Jane (2003). Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. doi:10.1093/oso/9780195122343.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-512234-3.^{[page needed]}
↑ Hernàndez Blasi, Carlos; Bjorklund, David F. (2003). "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology: A New Tool for Better Understanding Human Ontogeny". Human Development. 46 (5): 259–281. doi:10.1159/000071935.
↑ Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J (2013-04-15). Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-89052-0.
↑ van der Horst, Frank C. P.; LeRoy, Helen A.; van der Veer, René (2008-12-01). ""When Strangers Meet": John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on Attachment Behavior". Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. 42 (4): 370–388. doi:10.1007/s12124-008-9079-2. ISSN 1936-3567.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 Kanieski, Mary Ann (August 2010). "Securing attachment: The shifting medicalisation of attachment and attachment disorders". Health, Risk & Society. 12 (4): 335–344. doi:10.1080/13698571003789682.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011). Psychology. Worth. pp. 440. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
↑ Myers D (2008). Exploring Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-57259-096-0.
↑ Hill G (2001). A Level Psychology Through Diagrams. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-918094-3.
↑ Simpson JA (1990). "Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59 (5): 971–980. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971.
↑ Khalidi, Muhammad Ali (June 2002). "Nature and Nurture in Cognition". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 53 (2): 251–272. doi:10.1093/bjps/53.2.251. JSTOR 3541766.
↑ Collins WA, Maccoby EE, Steinberg L, Hetherington EM, Bornstein MH (February 2000). "Contemporary research on parenting. The case for nature and nurture". The American Psychologist. 55 (2): 218–232. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.2.218. PMID 10717969.
↑ Sameroff A (January 2010). "A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture". Child Development. 81 (1): 6–22. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x. PMID 20331651.
↑ ^45.0 ^45.1 Schlinger, Henry D. (July 2008). "The Long Good-Bye: Why B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is Alive and Well on the 50Th Anniversary of Its Publication". The Psychological Record. 58 (3): 329–337. doi:10.1007/BF03395622.
↑ McClearn GE (January 2004). "Nature and nurture: interaction and coaction". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 124B (1): 124–130. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.20044. PMID 14681926.
↑ Belsky, Jay; Pluess, Michael (2009). "The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4 (4): 345–351. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01136.x. ISSN 1745-6916. JSTOR 40645698. PMID 26158982.
↑ ^48.0 ^48.1 Crain WC (2 October 2015). Theories of development: concepts and applications (Sixth ed.). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-317-34322-6. OCLC 918135643.
↑ Carter L, Grivas J (2004). Psychology for South Australia. Stage 1. Milton, Qld.: Jacaranda. ISBN 0-7314-0094-1. OCLC 224074696.
↑ White FA, Hayes BK, Livesey DJ (18 September 2015). Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood (4th ed.). Melbourne, Vic. ISBN 978-1-4860-1827-7. OCLC 904034548.
↑ Alwin, Duane F. (2019). "Aging, Personality, and Social Change: The Stability of Individual Differences over the Adult Life Span". Life-Span Development and Behavior. pp. 135–186. doi:10.4324/9781315789255-4. ISBN 978-1-315-78925-5.
↑ Emmerich, Walter (1966). "Stability and Change in Early Personality Development". Young Children. 21 (4): 233–243. JSTOR 42641912.
↑ Orben, Amy; Tomova, Livia; Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne (August 2020). "The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health". The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. 4 (8): 634–640. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3. PMC 7292584. PMID 32540024.
↑ Byom, Lindsey J.; Mutlu, Bilge (2013). "Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 7: 413. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413. PMC 3737477. PMID 23964218.
↑ Nilsson, Kristine Kahr; de López, Kristine Jensen (2016). "Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Child Development. 87 (1): 143–153. doi:10.1111/cdev.12462. JSTOR 24698538. PMID 26582261.
↑ "Theory of Mind | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
↑ Vallacher RR (2017). Computational social psychology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-95165-5.
↑ de Bot K (2007). "A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition". Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 10: 7–21. doi:10.1017/S1366728906002732.
↑ Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, D'Andrea SE, Warren WH, Aaron RK (August 2014). "Entrainment to a real time fractal visual stimulus modulates fractal gait dynamics" (PDF). Human Movement Science. 36: 20–34. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.006. PMID 24911782.
↑ Huttenlocher, P. R.; Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). "Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 387 (2): 167–178. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::aid-cne1>3.0.co;2-z. PMID 9336221.
↑ Johnson, Mark H. (July 2001). "Functional brain development in humans". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2 (7): 475–483. doi:10.1038/35081509. PMID 11433372.
↑ Werker, Janet F.; Hensch, Takao K. (3 January 2015). "Critical Periods in Speech Perception: New Directions". Annual Review of Psychology. 66 (1): 173–196. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015104. PMID 25251488.
↑ Geschwind, Daniel H.; Rakic, Pasko (October 2013). "Cortical Evolution: Judge the Brain by Its Cover". Neuron. 80 (3): 633–647. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.045. PMC 3922239. PMID 24183016.
↑ Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne; Choudhury, Suparna (March 2006). "Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 47 (3–4): 296–312. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x. PMID 16492261.
↑ Schaie KW (1990). "Intellectual development in adulthood.". In Birren JE, Schaie KW (eds.). Handbook of the psychology of aging (3rd ed.). New York: Academic Press. pp. 291–309.
↑ Demetriou A (1998). "Cognitive development.". In Demetriou A, Doise W, van Lieshout KF (eds.). Life-span developmental psychology. London: Wiley. pp. 179–269.
↑ Morris AS, Silk JS, Steinberg L, Myers SS, Robinson LR (May 2007). "The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation" (PDF). Social Development (Oxford, England). 16 (2): 361–388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x. PMC 2743505. PMID 19756175.
↑ Oaklander V (November 2006). Hidden Treasure: A Map to the Child's Inner Self. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85575-490-4.
↑ ^69.0 ^69.1 Cairney J, Veldhuizen S, Szatmari P (July 2010). "Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 23 (4): 324–329. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833aa0aa. PMID 20520549.
↑ "SEL Competencies". CASEL. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
↑ ^71.0 ^71.1 ^71.2 Eaton WO. Physical Maturation. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba.^{[page needed]}Template:Isbn missing Template:Missing date
↑ Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF (November 1998). "Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 71 (2): 81–129. doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2464. PMID 9843617.
↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
↑ Berk 2012, pp. 31–35.
↑ ^75.0 ^75.1 Moshman D, Glover JA, Bruning RH (1987). Developmental psychology: a topical approach. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 82–96. ISBN 978-0-316-58561-3.
↑ Achenbach TM (1978). Research in development psychology. New York [usw.]: Free Pr. [usw.] pp. 74–104. ISBN 978-0-02-900180-6.
↑ ^77.0 ^77.1 ^77.2 ^77.3 ^77.4 ^77.5 Marmor RM, Liebert R, Wicks P, Gloria S (1977). Developmental psychology (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 20–37. ISBN 978-0-13-208231-0.
↑ ^78.0 ^78.1 ^78.2 ^78.3 ^78.4 ^78.5 ^78.6 Shaffer DR (2009). Social and personality development (6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth. pp. 21–36. ISBN 978-0-495-60038-1.
↑ Template:Cite thesis^{[page needed]}
↑ Berk 2012, p. 40.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 41.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 42.
↑ Berk, Laura E. (2018). Development Through the Lifespan. Pearson. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-13-441969-5. OCLC 946161390.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 97.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 100.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 101.
↑ ^87.0 ^87.1 ^87.2 ^87.3 Butterworth G, Harris M (1994). Principles of Developmental Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-86377-280-1.
↑ ^88.0 ^88.1 ^88.2 ^88.3 ^88.4 Bremner JG (1994). Infancy (2 ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18466-9.
↑ Alkhouri, Khader I. (2026-02-16). "Book Review of "Developmental Psychology of Religion [Αναπτυξιακή Ψυχολογία της Θρησκείας]": by Spyridon K. Tsitsigkos. Athens: Editions of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 2024. 518 pp. €20.00 paperback. ISBN 978-618-87365-0-4". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion: 1–3. doi:10.1080/10508619.2026.2632432. ISSN 1050-8619.
↑ Berk 2012, pp. 102–115.
↑ "One of five expectant mothers use cocaine, U.S. study finds". Toronto star. Associated Press. 20 January 1989. p. B5. Template:ProQuest. Cited study: Frank, D. A.; Zuckerman, B. S.; Amaro, H.; Aboagye, K.; Bauchner, H.; Cabral, H.; Fried, L.; Hingson, R.; Kayne, H.; Levenson, S. M. (December 1988). "Cocaine use during pregnancy: prevalence and correlates". Pediatrics. 82 (6): 888–895. doi:10.1542/peds.82.6.888. PMID 3186380.
↑ Berk 2012, p. ^{[page needed]}.
↑ Hirshkowitz, Max; Whiton, Kaitlyn; Albert, Steven M.; Alessi, Cathy; Bruni, Oliviero; DonCarlos, Lydia; Hazen, Nancy; Herman, John; Katz, Eliot S.; Kheirandish-Gozal, Leila; Neubauer, David N.; O'Donnell, Anne E.; Ohayon, Maurice; Peever, John; Rawding, Robert; Sachdeva, Ramesh C.; Setters, Belinda; Vitiello, Michael V.; Ware, J. Catesby; Adams Hillard, Paula J. (March 2015). "National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary". Sleep Health. 1 (1): 40–43. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010. PMID 29073412.
↑ ^94.0 ^94.1 Patel, Aakash K.; Reddy, Vamsi; Shumway, Karlie R.; Araujo, John F. (2025). "Physiology, Sleep Stages". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 30252388.
↑ ^95.0 ^95.1 Iwata, Osuke; Okamura, Hisayoshi; Saitsu, Hiroki; Saikusa, Mamoru; Kanda, Hiroshi; Eshima, Nobuoki; Iwata, Sachiko; Maeno, Yasuki; Matsuishi, Toyojiro (Jan 2013). "Diurnal cortisol changes in newborn infants suggesting entrainment of peripheral circadian clock in utero and at birth". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 98 (1): E25–32. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-2750. PMID 23150686.
↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
↑ "Soothing a crying baby". nhs.uk. 2020-12-07. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
↑ Bee D, Boyd H (2011-12-12). The developing child (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-205-25602-0.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 191.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 151.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 150.
↑ Feldman RD, Papalia DE (2010). A child's world: infancy through adolescence (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-07-353204-2.
↑ Slater A, Lewis M (2006). Introduction to Infant Development. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-928305-7.
↑ Mathew PJ, Mathew JL (August 2003). "Assessment and management of pain in infants". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 79 (934): 438–443. doi:10.1136/pmj.79.934.438. PMC 1742785. PMID 12954954.
↑ Dilen B, Elseviers M (June 2010). "Oral glucose solution as pain relief in newborns: results of a clinical trial". Birth. 37 (2): 98–105. doi:10.1111/j.1523-536X.2010.00389.x. PMID 20557532.
↑ Berk 2012, p. 189.
↑ Fletcher, Paul; MacWhinney, Brian, eds. (1996). The Handbook of Child Language. doi:10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.x. ISBN 978-0-631-20312-4.^{[page needed]}
↑ Menn, Lise; Stoel-Gammon, Carol (1996). "Phonological Development". The Handbook of Child Language. pp. 335–360. doi:10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.00014.x. ISBN 978-0-631-20312-4.
↑ Lefmann, Tess; Combs-Orme, Terri (July 2013). "Early Brain Development for Social Work Practice: Integrating Neuroscience with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development". Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 23 (5): 640–647. doi:10.1080/10911359.2013.775936.
↑ ^110.0 ^110.1 Piaget J (1977). Gruber HE, Voneche JJ (eds.). The essential Piaget \. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7100-8778-2.
↑ Meltzoff, Andrew N.; Gopnik, Alison (2013). "Learning about the mind from evidence". Understanding Other Minds. pp. 19–34. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199692972.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-969297-2.
↑ Wynn K (August 1992). "Addition and subtraction by human infants". Nature. 358 (6389): 749–750. Bibcode:1992Natur.358..749W. doi:10.1038/358749a0. PMID 1508269.
↑ Woodward AL (November 1998). "Infants selectively encode the goal object of an actor's reach". Cognition. 69 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00058-4. PMID 9871370.
↑ Leslie AM, Keeble S (April 1987). "Do six-month-old infants perceive causality?". Cognition. 25 (3): 265–288. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(87)80006-9. PMID 3581732.
↑ Siegler R (2006). How Children Develop, Exploring Child Development Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7167-6113-6.
↑ Caplan B, Neece CL, Baker BL (February 2015). "Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 37: 143–151. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.045. PMC 4314378. PMID 25498740.
↑ Upton P (2011). Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-85725-276-0.
↑ Massi WS (2001). Toddler Play. Creative Pub. international. ISBN 978-0-86573-435-7.
↑ Upton P (2011). Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-85725-276-0.
↑ Newman BM, Newman PR (2011). Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. 215–217. ISBN 978-1-111-34468-9.
↑ ^121.0 ^121.1 Carducci BJ (2009). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 189.
↑ "Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
↑ ^123.0 ^123.1 Lang, Diana (2022). Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being. doi:10.31274/isudp.2022.122.^{[page needed]}
↑ Thornton, Arland (2001). The Well-being of Children and Families: Research and Data Needs. University of Michigan Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-472-09758-6.
↑ Lightfoot C, Cole M, Cole SR (2008). The Development of Children. Macmillan. pp. 275–277.
↑ "Child Development: Preschoolers (3–5 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. 11 February 2021.
↑ Halpenny & Pettersen 2013, pp. 7, 9.
↑ Halpenny & Pettersen 2013, p. 14.
↑ O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T (2015). Health: You and Your World. 1: Brief Edition. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 28.
↑ ^130.0 ^130.1 Engler B (2013). Personality Theories (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 142.
↑ ^131.0 ^131.1 Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS (2010). Lifespan Development: Infancy Through Adulthood. Cengage Learning. p. 299.
↑ Broutian M. "Your child: early school years (7 to 11 years) stage of development". Your Child's Development. Milestones. Archived from the original on 15 November 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
↑ ^133.0 ^133.1 "Child Development: Middle Childhood (6–8 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. 4 February 2021.
↑ ^134.0 ^134.1 "Child Development: Middle Childhood (9–11 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
↑ "Developmental Theory". pages.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-16. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
↑ Syed, Moin (July 2013). "Identity exploration, identity confusion, and openness as predictors of multicultural ideology". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 37 (4): 491–496. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.005.
↑ Erikson, Erik H. (1968). Identity Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31144-0.^{[page needed]}
↑ Arnett JJ, Žukauskienė R, Sugimura K (December 2014). "The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: implications for mental health". The Lancet. Psychiatry. 1 (7): 569–576. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7. PMID 26361316.
↑ Kastenbaum R (1993). Encyclopedia of Adult Development. Oryx Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-89774-669-4.
↑ ^140.0 ^140.1 Žukauskienė, Rita (2015-12-07). Emerging Adulthood in a European Context. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-317-61271-1.
↑ Twenge JM (2008). "Review of emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties". American Journal of Psychology. 121 (4): 682–687. doi:10.2307/20445494. JSTOR 20445494.
↑ Helson R, Soto CJ (August 2005). "Up and down in middle age: monotonic and nonmonotonic changes in roles, status, and personality". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 89 (2): 194–204. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.194. PMID 16162053.
↑ Sokol, Justin T. (March 2009). "Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory". Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1 (2).
↑ Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD (October 2014). "Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors and age at natural menopause: a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents". International Journal of Epidemiology. 43 (5): 1542–1562. doi:10.1093/ije/dyu094. PMC 4190515. PMID 24771324.
↑ Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ (April 2008). "Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle?" (PDF). Social Science & Medicine. 66 (8): 1733–1749. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030. PMID 18316146.
↑ "Definition of an older or elderly person". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
↑ Orimo, Hajime; Ito, Hideki; Suzuki, Takao; Araki, Atsushi; Hosoi, Takayuki; Sawabe, Motoji (September 2006). "Reviewing the definition of 'elderly'". Geriatrics & Gerontology International. 6 (3): 149–158. doi:10.1111/j.1447-0594.2006.00341.x.
↑ Miller JR (2003). Encyclopedia of Human Ecology: I-Z. ABC-CLIO. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-1-57607-852-5. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
↑ Hearn, Simon; Saulnier, Gary; Strayer, Janet; Glenham, Margarete; Koopman, Ray; Marcia, James E. (March 2012). "Between Integrity and Despair: Toward Construct Validation of Erikson's Eighth Stage". Journal of Adult Development. 19 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1007/s10804-011-9126-y.
↑ Deary IJ, Johnson W, Gow AJ, Pattie A, Brett CE, Bates TC, Starr JM (November 2011). "Losing one's grip: a bivariate growth curve model of grip strength and nonverbal reasoning from age 79 to 87 years in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921". The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 66 (6): 699–707. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr059. hdl:20.500.11820/a59dc7c1-af60-4f02-a8be-37987b26f9a4. PMID 21743039.
↑ Larbi, Anis; Rymkiewicz, Paulina; Vasudev, Anusha; Low, Ivy; Shadan, Nurhidaya Binte; Mustafah, Seri; Ayyadhury, Shamini; Fulop, Tamas (February 2013). "The Immune System in the Elderly: A Fair Fight Against Diseases?". Aging Health. 9 (1): 35–47. doi:10.2217/ahe.12.78.
↑ Gill TM, Baker DI, Gottschalk M, Peduzzi PN, Allore H, Byers A (October 2002). "A program to prevent functional decline in physically frail, elderly persons who live at home". The New England Journal of Medicine. 347 (14): 1068–1074. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa020423. PMID 12362007.
↑ Cavanaugh JC, Blanchard-Fields F (2009). Adult development and aging (6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-495-60174-6.
↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
↑ Woolf, Linda M. "Theoretical Perspectives Relevant to Developmental Psychology", Webster, 1998. Retrieved on 2012-03-16.
↑ ^156.0 ^156.1 Schaie KW (2005). "What Can We Learn From Longitudinal Studies of Adult Development?". Research in Human Development. 2 (3): 133–158. doi:10.1207/s15427617rhd0203_4. PMC 1350981. PMID 16467912.
↑ Flaherty SC, Sadler LS (1 March 2011). "A review of attachment theory in the context of adolescent parenting". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 25 (2): 114–121. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005. PMC 3051370. PMID 21320683.
↑ Kopoko K (2007). "Parenting Styles and Adolescents" (PDF). Cornell University Cooperative Extension: 1–8. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
↑ ^159.0 ^159.1 ^159.2 Taylor, Lorraine C.; Clayton, Jennifer D.; Rowley, Stephanie J. (September 2004). "Academic Socialization: Understanding Parental Influences on Children's School-Related Development in the Early Years". Review of General Psychology. 8 (3): 163–178. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.163. hdl:2027.42/108158.
↑ ^160.00 ^160.01 ^160.02 ^160.03 ^160.04 ^160.05 ^160.06 ^160.07 ^160.08 ^160.09 Baumrind D (February 1991). "The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use". The Journal of Early Adolescence. 11 (1): 56–95. doi:10.1177/0272431691111004.
↑ Dewar G. "The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards." A guide for the science-minded parent". Parenting Science. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
↑ Cui, Ming; Jiao, Chengfei; Darling, Carol A. (2023). "Patterns of indulgent parenting and adolescents' psychological development". Family Relations. 72 (5): 2695–2709. doi:10.1111/fare.12853. ISSN 1741-3729. PMC 10683937 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38031571 Check |pmid= value (help).
↑ Gadsden, Vivian; Ray, Aisha (November 2003). Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy (Report). Template:ERIC.
↑ ""Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (2:57)".
↑ Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L (2003). "Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy?". Child Development. 74 (3): 801–21. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00569. PMC 2764264. PMID 12795391.
↑ ^166.0 ^166.1 Silverstein, Louise B.; Auerbach, Carl F. (June 1999). "Deconstructing the essential father". American Psychologist. 54 (6): 397–407. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.397.
↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
↑ ^168.0 ^168.1 ^168.2 ^168.3 Whiteside MF, Becker BJ (March 2000). "Parental factors and the young child's postdivorce adjustment: a meta-analysis with implications for parenting arrangements". Journal of Family Psychology. 14 (1): 5–26. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.5. PMID 10740679.
↑ ^169.0 ^169.1 Henrich, Joseph; Heine, Steven J.; Norenzayan, Ara (June 2010). "The weirdest people in the world?" (PDF). Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33 (2–3): 61–83. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X. PMID 20550733.
↑ ^170.0 ^170.1 ^170.2 Kakar, Sudhir (1968). "The Human Life Cycle: The Traditional Hindu View and the Psychology of Erik Erikson". Philosophy East and West. 18 (3): 127–136. doi:10.2307/1398255. JSTOR 1398255.
↑ Rangaswami, K. (1992). "Indian Model of Stages in Human Development and Developmental Tasks". Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 15 (1): 77–82. doi:10.1177/0975156419920112.

^[1]^[2]

Sources

Berk, Laura E. (2012). Infants and Children: Prenatal Through Middle Childhood. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0-205-83191-3.
Erikson, Erik H.; Erikson, Joan M. (1998). The Life Cycle Completed. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-34743-2.
Halpenny, Ann Marie; Pettersen, Jan (2013). Introducing Piaget. doi:10.4324/9780203111895. ISBN 978-1-136-28031-3.

External links

File:Commons-logo.svg Media related to Developmental psychology at Wikimedia Commons
The Society for Research in Child Development
The British Psychological Society, Developmental Psychology Section Archived 2021-11-08 at the Wayback Machine
Developmental Psychology: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology
GMU's On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology: a web directory of developmental psychology organizations
Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)Archived 19 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's Mann Library Archived 2 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a specific bibliography.
Developmental psychology Subject Area page at PLOS

Template:Human psychological development Template:Psychology Template:Social sciences

↑ Foundation, The Annie E. Casey (2022-05-16). "Child Welfare and Foster Care Statistics". The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved 2025-04-21.
↑ Smith, Deirdre Maud (2018-12-07). "Why Reforms in Guardianship Laws and Services Can Improve Outcomes for Children and Families in Crisis". Scholars Strategy Network. Retrieved 2025-04-21.

[1] Graber, Julia A.; Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne (July 1996). "Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence". Developmental Psychology. 32 (4): 768–776. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.768.

[:0-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Tau, Ramiro (2022). "Possible in Human Development". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_252-1. ISBN 978-3-319-98390-5.

[3] "Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2017-08-28.

[4] Burman E (2017). Deconstructing Developmental Psychology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-84695-1.

[5] Kobak R, Abbott C, Zisk A, Bounoua N (June 2017). "Adapting to the changing needs of adolescents: parenting practices and challenges to sensitive attunement". Current Opinion in Psychology. 15: 137–142. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.018. PMC 5886742. PMID 28813254.

[6] Brown, Carol (2008). "Developmental Psychology and Related Disciplines/Theories". Developmental Psychology. p. 7. doi:10.4135/9781446214633.n3. ISBN 978-1-4129-3466-4.

[Hogan-7] 7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 ^7.3 ^7.4 Hogan JD (2000). "Developmental psychology: History of the field". In Kazdin AE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology. 3. pp. 9–13. doi:10.1037/10518-003. ISBN 978-1-55798-652-8.

[Orenstein_Erikson's_Stages-8] 8.0 ^8.1 ^8.2 ^8.3 Orenstein, Gabriel A.; Lewis, Lindsay (2025). "Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32310556.

[FOOTNOTEEriksonErikson1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2025]][[Category:Articles_with_invalid_date_parameter_in_template]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2025)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Erikson & Erikson 1998, p. ^{[page needed]}.

[10] Lantz, Sarah E.; Ray, Sagarika (2025). "Freud's Developmental Theory". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 32491458.

[11] McLeod S. "Psychosexual Stages". SimplyPsychology. Archived from the original on 2014-12-19. Retrieved 2014-11-10.

[Theories2-12] Cloninger SC (29 June 2012). Theories of personality: understanding persons (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. pp. 19–101. ISBN 978-0-205-25624-2.

[Snowden2-13] Snowden R (2006). Teach Yourself Freud. McGraw-Hill. pp. 105–107. ISBN 978-0-07-147274-6.

[WoodWoodBoyd2-14] Wood SE, Wood CE, Boyd D (2006). Mastering the world of psychology (2 ed.). Allyn & Bacon.^{[page needed]}Template:Isbn missing

[Edpsych24-15] 15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 Reese-Weber L, Bohlin CC, Durwin M (2011-12-06). Edpsych: modules (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. pp. 30–132. ISBN 978-0-07-809786-7.

[higheststage2-16] Kohlberg L (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.

[dissertation2-17] Template:Cite thesis^{[page needed]}

[Adolescence3-18] 18.0 ^18.1 ^18.2 Steinberg L (2008). Adolescence (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 60–365. ISBN 978-0-07-340548-3.

[19] McLeod S (2013). "Kohlberg". SimplyPsychology.

[20] Mcleod S (2013). "[Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development]".

[21] Sincero SM. "Ecological Systems Theory". Explorable Psychology Experiments.

[22] Bronfenbrenner U (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22457-4.

[Smith_et_al.2-23] Smith PK, Cowie H, Blades M (2003). Understanding Children's Development. Basic psychology (4 ed.). Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22823-3. OCLC 963696734.

[24] Schacter DL, Gilbert DR, Wegner DM (2011). Psychology. 2. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

[Yamagata-Lynch-25] 25.0 ^25.1 Yamagata-Lynch, Lisa C. (2010-07-15). Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-6321-5.

[vygotsky782-26] 26.0 ^26.1 Vygotsky LS (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4. ISBN 978-0-674-57628-5. JSTOR j.ctvjf9vz4. OCLC 3517053.

[vygotsky20102-27] 27.0 ^27.1 Yamagata-Lynch LC (15 July 2010). Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-6321-5.

[28] Larochelle, Marie; Bednarz, Nadine; Garrison, Jim, eds. (1998). Constructivism and Education. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511752865. ISBN 978-0-521-62135-9.^{[page needed]}

[29] "Overview of Cognitive Constructivism". Cognitive Constructivist Theories. Archived from the original on 2014-12-15. Retrieved 2014-11-13.

[Bjorklund_Blasi_Evolutionary_Developmental_Psychology-30] 30.0 ^30.1 ^30.2 Bjorklund, David F.; Blasi, Carlos Hernández (2015). "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology". The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. pp. 828–850. doi:10.1002/9780470939376.ch29. ISBN 978-0-471-26403-3.

[31] Tooby, John; Cosmides, Leda (March 1990). "On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation". Journal of Personality. 58 (1): 17–67. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x. PMID 2198338.

[32] Pinker, Steven (2002). "Children". The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03151-1.

[:1-33] West-Eberhard, Mary Jane (2003). Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. doi:10.1093/oso/9780195122343.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-512234-3.^{[page needed]}

[:32-34] Hernàndez Blasi, Carlos; Bjorklund, David F. (2003). "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology: A New Tool for Better Understanding Human Ontogeny". Human Development. 46 (5): 259–281. doi:10.1159/000071935.

[35] Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J (2013-04-15). Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-89052-0.

[36] van der Horst, Frank C. P.; LeRoy, Helen A.; van der Veer, René (2008-12-01). ""When Strangers Meet": John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on Attachment Behavior". Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. 42 (4): 370–388. doi:10.1007/s12124-008-9079-2. ISSN 1936-3567.

[:02-37] 37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 Kanieski, Mary Ann (August 2010). "Securing attachment: The shifting medicalisation of attachment and attachment disorders". Health, Risk & Society. 12 (4): 335–344. doi:10.1080/13698571003789682.

[Schacter4402-38] 38.0 ^38.1 ^38.2 Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011). Psychology. Worth. pp. 440. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.

[39] Myers D (2008). Exploring Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-57259-096-0.

[40] Hill G (2001). A Level Psychology Through Diagrams. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-918094-3.

[:13-41] Simpson JA (1990). "Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59 (5): 971–980. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971.

[42] Khalidi, Muhammad Ali (June 2002). "Nature and Nurture in Cognition". The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 53 (2): 251–272. doi:10.1093/bjps/53.2.251. JSTOR 3541766.

[43] Collins WA, Maccoby EE, Steinberg L, Hetherington EM, Bornstein MH (February 2000). "Contemporary research on parenting. The case for nature and nurture". The American Psychologist. 55 (2): 218–232. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.2.218. PMID 10717969.

[44] Sameroff A (January 2010). "A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture". Child Development. 81 (1): 6–22. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x. PMID 20331651.

[Schlinger-45] 45.0 ^45.1 Schlinger, Henry D. (July 2008). "The Long Good-Bye: Why B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is Alive and Well on the 50Th Anniversary of Its Publication". The Psychological Record. 58 (3): 329–337. doi:10.1007/BF03395622.

[46] McClearn GE (January 2004). "Nature and nurture: interaction and coaction". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 124B (1): 124–130. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.20044. PMID 14681926.

[47] Belsky, Jay; Pluess, Michael (2009). "The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4 (4): 345–351. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01136.x. ISSN 1745-6916. JSTOR 40645698. PMID 26158982.

[Crain,_William_C.,_1943-48] 48.0 ^48.1 Crain WC (2 October 2015). Theories of development: concepts and applications (Sixth ed.). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-317-34322-6. OCLC 918135643.

[49] Carter L, Grivas J (2004). Psychology for South Australia. Stage 1. Milton, Qld.: Jacaranda. ISBN 0-7314-0094-1. OCLC 224074696.

[50] White FA, Hayes BK, Livesey DJ (18 September 2015). Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood (4th ed.). Melbourne, Vic. ISBN 978-1-4860-1827-7. OCLC 904034548.

[51] Alwin, Duane F. (2019). "Aging, Personality, and Social Change: The Stability of Individual Differences over the Adult Life Span". Life-Span Development and Behavior. pp. 135–186. doi:10.4324/9781315789255-4. ISBN 978-1-315-78925-5.

[52] Emmerich, Walter (1966). "Stability and Change in Early Personality Development". Young Children. 21 (4): 233–243. JSTOR 42641912.

[53] Orben, Amy; Tomova, Livia; Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne (August 2020). "The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health". The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. 4 (8): 634–640. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3. PMC 7292584. PMID 32540024.

[54] Byom, Lindsey J.; Mutlu, Bilge (2013). "Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 7: 413. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413. PMC 3737477. PMID 23964218.

[55] Nilsson, Kristine Kahr; de López, Kristine Jensen (2016). "Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Child Development. 87 (1): 143–153. doi:10.1111/cdev.12462. JSTOR 24698538. PMID 26582261.

[56] "Theory of Mind | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 2022-07-29.

[57] Vallacher RR (2017). Computational social psychology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-95165-5.

[58] Bot K (2007). "A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition". Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 10: 7–21. doi:10.1017/S1366728906002732.

[59] Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, D'Andrea SE, Warren WH, Aaron RK (August 2014). "Entrainment to a real time fractal visual stimulus modulates fractal gait dynamics" (PDF). Human Movement Science. 36: 20–34. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.006. PMID 24911782.

[60] Huttenlocher, P. R.; Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). "Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 387 (2): 167–178. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::aid-cne1>3.0.co;2-z. PMID 9336221.

[61] Johnson, Mark H. (July 2001). "Functional brain development in humans". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2 (7): 475–483. doi:10.1038/35081509. PMID 11433372.

[62] Werker, Janet F.; Hensch, Takao K. (3 January 2015). "Critical Periods in Speech Perception: New Directions". Annual Review of Psychology. 66 (1): 173–196. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015104. PMID 25251488.

[63] Geschwind, Daniel H.; Rakic, Pasko (October 2013). "Cortical Evolution: Judge the Brain by Its Cover". Neuron. 80 (3): 633–647. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.045. PMC 3922239. PMID 24183016.

[64] Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne; Choudhury, Suparna (March 2006). "Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 47 (3–4): 296–312. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x. PMID 16492261.

[65] Schaie KW (1990). "Intellectual development in adulthood.". In Birren JE, Schaie KW (eds.). Handbook of the psychology of aging (3rd ed.). New York: Academic Press. pp. 291–309.

[demetriou-66] Demetriou A (1998). "Cognitive development.". In Demetriou A, Doise W, van Lieshout KF (eds.). Life-span developmental psychology. London: Wiley. pp. 179–269.

[pmid19756175-67] Morris AS, Silk JS, Steinberg L, Myers SS, Robinson LR (May 2007). "The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation" (PDF). Social Development (Oxford, England). 16 (2): 361–388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x. PMC 2743505. PMID 19756175.

[68] Oaklander V (November 2006). Hidden Treasure: A Map to the Child's Inner Self. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85575-490-4.

[ReferenceA-69] 69.0 ^69.1 Cairney J, Veldhuizen S, Szatmari P (July 2010). "Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 23 (4): 324–329. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833aa0aa. PMID 20520549.

[70] "SEL Competencies". CASEL. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2015-10-22.

[Eaton-71] 71.0 ^71.1 ^71.2 Eaton WO. Physical Maturation. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba.^{[page needed]}Template:Isbn missing Template:Missing date

[Fuzzy-trace_theory_and_children's_false_memories-72] Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF (November 1998). "Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 71 (2): 81–129. doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2464. PMID 9843617.

[73] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[FOOTNOTEBerk201231–35-74] Berk 2012, pp. 31–35.

[Bruning-75] 75.0 ^75.1 Moshman D, Glover JA, Bruning RH (1987). Developmental psychology: a topical approach. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 82–96. ISBN 978-0-316-58561-3.

[Achenbach-76] Achenbach TM (1978). Research in development psychology. New York [usw.]: Free Pr. [usw.] pp. 74–104. ISBN 978-0-02-900180-6.

[Prentice-Hall-77] 77.0 ^77.1 ^77.2 ^77.3 ^77.4 ^77.5 Marmor RM, Liebert R, Wicks P, Gloria S (1977). Developmental psychology (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 20–37. ISBN 978-0-13-208231-0.

[Shaffer-78] 78.0 ^78.1 ^78.2 ^78.3 ^78.4 ^78.5 ^78.6 Shaffer DR (2009). Social and personality development (6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth. pp. 21–36. ISBN 978-0-495-60038-1.

[79] Template:Cite thesis^{[page needed]}

[FOOTNOTEBerk201240-80] Berk 2012, p. 40.

[FOOTNOTEBerk201241-81] Berk 2012, p. 41.

[FOOTNOTEBerk201242-82] Berk 2012, p. 42.

[83] Berk, Laura E. (2018). Development Through the Lifespan. Pearson. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-13-441969-5. OCLC 946161390.

[FOOTNOTEBerk201297-84] Berk 2012, p. 97.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012100-85] Berk 2012, p. 100.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012101-86] Berk 2012, p. 101.

[butterworth-87] 87.0 ^87.1 ^87.2 ^87.3 Butterworth G, Harris M (1994). Principles of Developmental Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-86377-280-1.

[bremner-88] 88.0 ^88.1 ^88.2 ^88.3 ^88.4 Bremner JG (1994). Infancy (2 ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18466-9.

[89] Alkhouri, Khader I. (2026-02-16). "Book Review of "Developmental Psychology of Religion [Αναπτυξιακή Ψυχολογία της Θρησκείας]": by Spyridon K. Tsitsigkos. Athens: Editions of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 2024. 518 pp. €20.00 paperback. ISBN 978-618-87365-0-4". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion: 1–3. doi:10.1080/10508619.2026.2632432. ISSN 1050-8619.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012102–115-90] Berk 2012, pp. 102–115.

[91] "One of five expectant mothers use cocaine, U.S. study finds". Toronto star. Associated Press. 20 January 1989. p. B5. Template:ProQuest. Cited study: Frank, D. A.; Zuckerman, B. S.; Amaro, H.; Aboagye, K.; Bauchner, H.; Cabral, H.; Fried, L.; Hingson, R.; Kayne, H.; Levenson, S. M. (December 1988). "Cocaine use during pregnancy: prevalence and correlates". Pediatrics. 82 (6): 888–895. doi:10.1542/peds.82.6.888. PMID 3186380.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2025]][[Category:Articles_with_invalid_date_parameter_in_template]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2025)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-92] Berk 2012, p. ^{[page needed]}.

[93] Hirshkowitz, Max; Whiton, Kaitlyn; Albert, Steven M.; Alessi, Cathy; Bruni, Oliviero; DonCarlos, Lydia; Hazen, Nancy; Herman, John; Katz, Eliot S.; Kheirandish-Gozal, Leila; Neubauer, David N.; O'Donnell, Anne E.; Ohayon, Maurice; Peever, John; Rawding, Robert; Sachdeva, Ramesh C.; Setters, Belinda; Vitiello, Michael V.; Ware, J. Catesby; Adams Hillard, Paula J. (March 2015). "National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary". Sleep Health. 1 (1): 40–43. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010. PMID 29073412.

[:2-94] 94.0 ^94.1 Patel, Aakash K.; Reddy, Vamsi; Shumway, Karlie R.; Araujo, John F. (2025). "Physiology, Sleep Stages". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 30252388.

[:3-95] 95.0 ^95.1 Iwata, Osuke; Okamura, Hisayoshi; Saitsu, Hiroki; Saikusa, Mamoru; Kanda, Hiroshi; Eshima, Nobuoki; Iwata, Sachiko; Maeno, Yasuki; Matsuishi, Toyojiro (Jan 2013). "Diurnal cortisol changes in newborn infants suggesting entrainment of peripheral circadian clock in utero and at birth". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 98 (1): E25–32. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-2750. PMID 23150686.

[96] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[97] "Soothing a crying baby". nhs.uk. 2020-12-07. Retrieved 2023-12-28.

[98] Bee D, Boyd H (2011-12-12). The developing child (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-205-25602-0.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012191-99] Berk 2012, p. 191.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012151-100] Berk 2012, p. 151.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012150-101] Berk 2012, p. 150.

[102] Feldman RD, Papalia DE (2010). A child's world: infancy through adolescence (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-07-353204-2.

[Slater-103] Slater A, Lewis M (2006). Introduction to Infant Development. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-928305-7.

[MatthewMatthew-104] Mathew PJ, Mathew JL (August 2003). "Assessment and management of pain in infants". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 79 (934): 438–443. doi:10.1136/pmj.79.934.438. PMC 1742785. PMID 12954954.

[DilenElseviers-105] Dilen B, Elseviers M (June 2010). "Oral glucose solution as pain relief in newborns: results of a clinical trial". Birth. 37 (2): 98–105. doi:10.1111/j.1523-536X.2010.00389.x. PMID 20557532.

[FOOTNOTEBerk2012189-106] Berk 2012, p. 189.

[107] Fletcher, Paul; MacWhinney, Brian, eds. (1996). The Handbook of Child Language. doi:10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.x. ISBN 978-0-631-20312-4.^{[page needed]}

[108] Menn, Lise; Stoel-Gammon, Carol (1996). "Phonological Development". The Handbook of Child Language. pp. 335–360. doi:10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.00014.x. ISBN 978-0-631-20312-4.

[109] Lefmann, Tess; Combs-Orme, Terri (July 2013). "Early Brain Development for Social Work Practice: Integrating Neuroscience with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development". Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 23 (5): 640–647. doi:10.1080/10911359.2013.775936.

[Gruber-110] 110.0 ^110.1 Piaget J (1977). Gruber HE, Voneche JJ (eds.). The essential Piaget \. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7100-8778-2.

[111] Meltzoff, Andrew N.; Gopnik, Alison (2013). "Learning about the mind from evidence". Understanding Other Minds. pp. 19–34. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199692972.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-969297-2.

[112] Wynn K (August 1992). "Addition and subtraction by human infants". Nature. 358 (6389): 749–750. Bibcode:1992Natur.358..749W. doi:10.1038/358749a0. PMID 1508269.

[113] Woodward AL (November 1998). "Infants selectively encode the goal object of an actor's reach". Cognition. 69 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00058-4. PMID 9871370.

[114] Leslie AM, Keeble S (April 1987). "Do six-month-old infants perceive causality?". Cognition. 25 (3): 265–288. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(87)80006-9. PMID 3581732.

[Siegler-115] Siegler R (2006). How Children Develop, Exploring Child Development Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7167-6113-6.

[116] Caplan B, Neece CL, Baker BL (February 2015). "Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 37: 143–151. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.045. PMC 4314378. PMID 25498740.

[Upton-117] Upton P (2011). Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-85725-276-0.

[ToddlerPlay-118] Massi WS (2001). Toddler Play. Creative Pub. international. ISBN 978-0-86573-435-7.

[UPton-119] Upton P (2011). Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-85725-276-0.

[Newman-120] Newman BM, Newman PR (2011). Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. 215–217. ISBN 978-1-111-34468-9.

[Bernardo_J._Carducci_2009-121] 121.0 ^121.1 Carducci BJ (2009). The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 189.

[122] "Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.

[Psychosocial_Theory:_Erikson-123] 123.0 ^123.1 Lang, Diana (2022). Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being. doi:10.31274/isudp.2022.122.^{[page needed]}

[124] Thornton, Arland (2001). The Well-being of Children and Families: Research and Data Needs. University of Michigan Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-472-09758-6.

[125] Lightfoot C, Cole M, Cole SR (2008). The Development of Children. Macmillan. pp. 275–277.

[126] "Child Development: Preschoolers (3–5 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. 11 February 2021.

[FOOTNOTEHalpennyPettersen20137,_9-127] Halpenny & Pettersen 2013, pp. 7, 9.

[FOOTNOTEHalpennyPettersen201314-128] Halpenny & Pettersen 2013, p. 14.

[129] O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T (2015). Health: You and Your World. 1: Brief Edition. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 28.

[Barbara_Engler_2013-130] 130.0 ^130.1 Engler B (2013). Personality Theories (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 142.

[Marc_H._Bornstein_2010-131] 131.0 ^131.1 Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS (2010). Lifespan Development: Infancy Through Adulthood. Cengage Learning. p. 299.

[132] Broutian M. "Your child: early school years (7 to 11 years) stage of development". Your Child's Development. Milestones. Archived from the original on 15 November 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.

[CDC_CD_6-8-133] 133.0 ^133.1 "Child Development: Middle Childhood (6–8 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. 4 February 2021.

[CDC_CD_9-11-134] 134.0 ^134.1 "Child Development: Middle Childhood (9–11 years of age)". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved 15 October 2015.

[135] "Developmental Theory". pages.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-16. Retrieved 2021-05-07.

[136] Syed, Moin (July 2013). "Identity exploration, identity confusion, and openness as predictors of multicultural ideology". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 37 (4): 491–496. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.005.

[137] Erikson, Erik H. (1968). Identity Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31144-0.^{[page needed]}

[138] Arnett JJ, Žukauskienė R, Sugimura K (December 2014). "The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: implications for mental health". The Lancet. Psychiatry. 1 (7): 569–576. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7. PMID 26361316.

[139] Kastenbaum R (1993). Encyclopedia of Adult Development. Oryx Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-89774-669-4.

[Žukauskienė-140] 140.0 ^140.1 Žukauskienė, Rita (2015-12-07). Emerging Adulthood in a European Context. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-317-61271-1.

[Twenge-141] Twenge JM (2008). "Review of emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties". American Journal of Psychology. 121 (4): 682–687. doi:10.2307/20445494. JSTOR 20445494.

[142] Helson R, Soto CJ (August 2005). "Up and down in middle age: monotonic and nonmonotonic changes in roles, status, and personality". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 89 (2): 194–204. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.194. PMID 16162053.

[143] Sokol, Justin T. (March 2009). "Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory". Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1 (2).

[144] Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD (October 2014). "Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors and age at natural menopause: a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents". International Journal of Epidemiology. 43 (5): 1542–1562. doi:10.1093/ije/dyu094. PMC 4190515. PMID 24771324.

[145] Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ (April 2008). "Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle?" (PDF). Social Science & Medicine. 66 (8): 1733–1749. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030. PMID 18316146.

[146] "Definition of an older or elderly person". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2015.

[147] Orimo, Hajime; Ito, Hideki; Suzuki, Takao; Araki, Atsushi; Hosoi, Takayuki; Sawabe, Motoji (September 2006). "Reviewing the definition of 'elderly'". Geriatrics & Gerontology International. 6 (3): 149–158. doi:10.1111/j.1447-0594.2006.00341.x.

[Miller2003-148] Miller JR (2003). Encyclopedia of Human Ecology: I-Z. ABC-CLIO. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-1-57607-852-5. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

[149] Hearn, Simon; Saulnier, Gary; Strayer, Janet; Glenham, Margarete; Koopman, Ray; Marcia, James E. (March 2012). "Between Integrity and Despair: Toward Construct Validation of Erikson's Eighth Stage". Journal of Adult Development. 19 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1007/s10804-011-9126-y.

[Deary2011-150] Deary IJ, Johnson W, Gow AJ, Pattie A, Brett CE, Bates TC, Starr JM (November 2011). "Losing one's grip: a bivariate growth curve model of grip strength and nonverbal reasoning from age 79 to 87 years in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921". The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 66 (6): 699–707. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr059. hdl:20.500.11820/a59dc7c1-af60-4f02-a8be-37987b26f9a4. PMID 21743039.

[151] Larbi, Anis; Rymkiewicz, Paulina; Vasudev, Anusha; Low, Ivy; Shadan, Nurhidaya Binte; Mustafah, Seri; Ayyadhury, Shamini; Fulop, Tamas (February 2013). "The Immune System in the Elderly: A Fair Fight Against Diseases?". Aging Health. 9 (1): 35–47. doi:10.2217/ahe.12.78.

[Gill2002-152] Gill TM, Baker DI, Gottschalk M, Peduzzi PN, Allore H, Byers A (October 2002). "A program to prevent functional decline in physically frail, elderly persons who live at home". The New England Journal of Medicine. 347 (14): 1068–1074. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa020423. PMID 12362007.

[153] Cavanaugh JC, Blanchard-Fields F (2009). Adult development and aging (6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-495-60174-6.

[154] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[155] Woolf, Linda M. "Theoretical Perspectives Relevant to Developmental Psychology", Webster, 1998. Retrieved on 2012-03-16.

[What_Can_We_Learn_From_Longitudinal-156] 156.0 ^156.1 Schaie KW (2005). "What Can We Learn From Longitudinal Studies of Adult Development?". Research in Human Development. 2 (3): 133–158. doi:10.1207/s15427617rhd0203_4. PMC 1350981. PMID 16467912.

[Flaherty-157] Flaherty SC, Sadler LS (1 March 2011). "A review of attachment theory in the context of adolescent parenting". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 25 (2): 114–121. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005. PMC 3051370. PMID 21320683.

[158] Kopoko K (2007). "Parenting Styles and Adolescents" (PDF). Cornell University Cooperative Extension: 1–8. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

[Taylor-159] 159.0 ^159.1 ^159.2 Taylor, Lorraine C.; Clayton, Jennifer D.; Rowley, Stephanie J. (September 2004). "Academic Socialization: Understanding Parental Influences on Children's School-Related Development in the Early Years". Review of General Psychology. 8 (3): 163–178. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.163. hdl:2027.42/108158.

[Baumrind-160] 160.00 ^160.01 ^160.02 ^160.03 ^160.04 ^160.05 ^160.06 ^160.07 ^160.08 ^160.09 Baumrind D (February 1991). "The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use". The Journal of Early Adolescence. 11 (1): 56–95. doi:10.1177/0272431691111004.

[161] Dewar G. "The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards." A guide for the science-minded parent". Parenting Science. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

[162] Cui, Ming; Jiao, Chengfei; Darling, Carol A. (2023). "Patterns of indulgent parenting and adolescents' psychological development". Family Relations. 72 (5): 2695–2709. doi:10.1111/fare.12853. ISSN 1741-3729. PMC 10683937 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 38031571 Check |pmid= value (help).

[aredos-163] Gadsden, Vivian; Ray, Aisha (November 2003). Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy (Report). Template:ERIC.

[164] ""Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (2:57)".

[pmid12795391-165] Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L (2003). "Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy?". Child Development. 74 (3): 801–21. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00569. PMC 2764264. PMID 12795391.

[Silverstein-166] 166.0 ^166.1 Silverstein, Louise B.; Auerbach, Carl F. (June 1999). "Deconstructing the essential father". American Psychologist. 54 (6): 397–407. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.397.

[167] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[Whiteside-168] 168.0 ^168.1 ^168.2 ^168.3 Whiteside MF, Becker BJ (March 2000). "Parental factors and the young child's postdivorce adjustment: a meta-analysis with implications for parenting arrangements". Journal of Family Psychology. 14 (1): 5–26. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.5. PMID 10740679.

[:03-169] 169.0 ^169.1 Henrich, Joseph; Heine, Steven J.; Norenzayan, Ara (June 2010). "The weirdest people in the world?" (PDF). Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33 (2–3): 61–83. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X. PMID 20550733.

[:12-170] 170.0 ^170.1 ^170.2 Kakar, Sudhir (1968). "The Human Life Cycle: The Traditional Hindu View and the Psychology of Erik Erikson". Philosophy East and West. 18 (3): 127–136. doi:10.2307/1398255. JSTOR 1398255.

[171] Rangaswami, K. (1992). "Indian Model of Stages in Human Development and Developmental Tasks". Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 15 (1): 77–82. doi:10.1177/0975156419920112.

[:4-172] Foundation, The Annie E. Casey (2022-05-16). "Child Welfare and Foster Care Statistics". The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved 2025-04-21.

[:5-173] Smith, Deirdre Maud (2018-12-07). "Why Reforms in Guardianship Laws and Services Can Improve Outcomes for Children and Families in Crisis". Scholars Strategy Network. Retrieved 2025-04-21.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{For|the journal|Developmental Psychology (journal){{!}}''Developmental Psychology'' (journal)}}
 {{redirect|Child psychology|the Black Box Recorder song|Child Psychology (song)}}
+{{AI-generated|date=November 2025}}
 {{Psychology sidebar|basic}}
 [[File:Baby.jpg|thumb|Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants.]]
 [[File:Conservation2.jpeg|thumb|Piaget's test for [[Conservation (psychology)|Conservation]]. One of the many experiments used for children.]]
-'''Developmental psychology''' is the [[science|scientific]] study of how and why [[human]]s grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with [[infants]] and [[child]]ren, the field has expanded to include [[adolescence]], [[adult development]], [[aging]], and the entire lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graber |first1=Julia A. |last2=Brooks-Gunn |first2=Jeanne |title=Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence. |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=July 1996 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=768–776 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.768 }}</ref> Developmental psychologists aim to explain how [[Thought|thinking]], [[feeling]], and [[Behavior|behaviors]] change throughout life. This field examines change<ref name=":0">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_252-1 |chapter=Possible in Human Development |title=The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible |date=2022 |last1=Tau |first1=Ramiro |pages=1–8 |isbn=978-3-319-98390-5 }}</ref> across three major dimensions, which are [[physical development]], [[cognitive development]], and [[social emotional development]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|title=Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan|work = American Psychological Association |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709054242/http://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|archive-date=2014-07-09|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Burman E |title=Deconstructing Developmental Psychology|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-138-84695-1|location=New York, NY}}</ref> Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including [[motor skills]], [[executive functions]], [[morality|moral understanding]], [[language acquisition]], [[social change]], [[personality]], emotional development, [[self-concept]], and [[identity formation]].
+'''Developmental psychology''' is the scientific study of how and why the human mind grows, changes, and adapts over the course of a human lifetime. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, [[adult development]], aging, and the entire lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graber |first1=Julia A. |last2=Brooks-Gunn |first2=Jeanne |title=Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence. |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=July 1996 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=768–776 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.768 }}</ref> Developmental psychologists aim to explain how [[Thought|thinking]], [[feeling]], and [[behavior]]s change throughout life. This field examines change<ref name=":0">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_252-1 |chapter=Possible in Human Development |title=The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible |date=2022 |last1=Tau |first1=Ramiro |pages=1–8 |isbn=978-3-319-98390-5 }}</ref> across three major dimensions, which are [[physical development]], [[cognitive development]], and [[social emotional development]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|title=Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan|work = American Psychological Association |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709054242/http://www.apa.org/action/science/developmental/index.aspx|archive-date=2014-07-09|access-date=2017-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Burman E |title=Deconstructing Developmental Psychology|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-138-84695-1|location=New York, NY}}</ref> Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including [[motor skills]], [[executive functions]], [[morality|moral understanding]], [[language acquisition]], [[social change]], personality, emotional development, [[self-concept]], and [[identity formation]].
-Developmental psychology explores the influence of both nature and nurture on human development, as well as the processes of change that occur across different contexts over time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and [[environmental factor]]s, including the [[social context]] and the [[built environment]]. Ongoing debates in regards to developmental psychology include biological [[essentialism]] vs. [[neuroplasticity]] and [[Developmental stage theories|stages of development]] vs. dynamic systems of development. While research in developmental psychology has certain limitations, ongoing studies aim to understand how life stage transitions and biological factors influence human behavior and development''.''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kobak R, Abbott C, Zisk A, Bounoua N | title = Adapting to the changing needs of adolescents: parenting practices and challenges to sensitive attunement | journal = Current Opinion in Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 137–142 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28813254 | pmc = 5886742 | doi = 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.018 }}</ref>
+Developmental psychology explores the influence of both nature and nurture on human development, as well as the processes of change that occur across different contexts over time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's [[behavior]], and environmental factors, including the [[social context]] and the built environment. Ongoing debates regarding developmental psychology include biological [[essentialism]] vs. [[neuroplasticity]], and [[Developmental stage theories|stages of development]] vs. dynamic systems of development. While research in developmental psychology has certain limitations, ongoing studies aim to understand how life stage transitions and biological factors influence human behavior and development''.''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kobak R, Abbott C, Zisk A, Bounoua N | title = Adapting to the changing needs of adolescents: parenting practices and challenges to sensitive attunement | journal = Current Opinion in Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 137–142 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28813254 | pmc = 5886742 | doi = 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.018 }}</ref>
-Developmental psychology involves a range of fields,<ref name=":0" /> such as [[educational psychology]], [[child psychopathology]], [[forensic developmental psychology]], [[child development]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[ecological psychology]], and [[cultural psychology]]. Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]], [[Erik Erikson]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Anna Freud]], [[Jean Piaget]], [[Barbara Rogoff]], [[Esther Thelen]], and [[Lev Vygotsky]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4135/9781446214633.n3 |chapter=Developmental Psychology and Related Disciplines/Theories |title=Developmental Psychology |date=2008 |page=7 |isbn=978-1-4129-3466-4 |last1=Brown |first1=Carol }}</ref>
+Developmental psychology involves a range of fields,<ref name=":0" /> such as [[educational psychology]], [[child psychopathology]], [[forensic developmental psychology]], [[child development]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[ecological psychology]], and [[cultural psychology]]. Influential developmental [[psychologist]]s from the 20th century include [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]], [[Erik Erikson]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Anna Freud]], [[Jean Piaget]], [[Barbara Rogoff]], [[Esther Thelen]], and [[Lev Vygotsky]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4135/9781446214633.n3 |chapter=Developmental Psychology and Related Disciplines/Theories |title=Developmental Psychology |date=2008 |page=7 |isbn=978-1-4129-3466-4 |last1=Brown |first1=Carol }}</ref>
 ==Historical antecedents==
 [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and [[John B. Watson]] are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology.<ref name=Hogan>{{cite book| vauthors = Hogan JD |author-link=John D. Hogan|title=Encyclopedia of Psychology |volume=3|isbn=978-1-55798-652-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofps0000unse/page/9 9–13]|chapter=Developmental psychology: History of the field| veditors = Kazdin AE |editor-link=Alan E. Kazdin|doi=10.1037/10518-003|year=2000|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofps0000unse/page/9}}</ref> In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: ''infants'' (infancy), ''puer'' (childhood) and ''adolescence'' in ''[[Emile: Or, On Education]]''. Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time.
-Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them is the psychologist Erik Erikson,<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages">{{cite book |last1=Orenstein |first1=Gabriel A. |last2=Lewis |first2=Lindsay |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/ |chapter=Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development |pmid=32310556 }}</ref> who created a model of eight phases of psychosocial development.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/> According to his theory, people go through different phases in their lives, each of which has its own developmental crisis that shapes a person's personality and behavior.{{sfn|Erikson|Erikson|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
+Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them is the psychologist Erik Erikson,<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages">{{cite book |last1=Orenstein |first1=Gabriel A. |last2=Lewis |first2=Lindsay |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/ |chapter=Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development |pmid=32310556 }}</ref> who created a model of eight phases of psychosocial development.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/> According to his theory, people go through different phases in their lives, each of which has its own developmental crisis that shapes a person's personality and [[behavior]].{{sfn|Erikson|Erikson|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
 [[File:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron, c. 1868.jpg|thumb|Charles Darwin]]
 In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with the [[evolutionary theory]] of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] began seeking an [[Recapitulation theory|evolutionary description of psychological development]];<ref name=Hogan /> prominent here was the pioneering psychologist [[G. Stanley Hall]],<ref name=Hogan /> who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with [[human evolution|previous ages of humanity]]. [[James Mark Baldwin]], who wrote essays on topics that included ''Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness'' and ''Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes'', was significantly involved in the theory of developmental psychology.<ref name=Hogan /> [[Sigmund Freud]], whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions.<ref name=Hogan />
@@ Line 21: / Line 22: @@
 ===Psychosexual development===
 {{Main|Psychosexual development}}
-[[Sigmund Freud]] developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure. This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve. Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of psychosexual development. These stages symbolize the process of arriving to become a maturing adult.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lantz |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Ray |first2=Sagarika |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557526/ |chapter=Freud's Developmental Theory |pmid=32491458 }}</ref>
+[[Sigmund Freud]] developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure. This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve. Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of [[psychosexual development]]. These stages symbolize the process of becoming a mature adult.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lantz |first1=Sarah E. |last2=Ray |first2=Sagarika |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557526/ |chapter=Freud's Developmental Theory |pmid=32491458 }}</ref>
-The first is the ''oral stage'', which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking or other behaviors with the mouth. The second is the ''anal stage'', from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with its defecation. This period of development often occurs during the time when the child is being toilet trained. The child becomes interested with feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy.
+The first is the ''[[oral stage]]'', which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking and other mouth-related activities. The second is the ''[[anal stage]]'', from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with defecation. This period of development often occurs during toilet training. The child becomes interested in feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy.
-The third is the ''[[phallic stage]]'', which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the ''latency stage'', which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed.
+The third is the ''[[phallic stage]]'', which occurs from ages 3 to 5 (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the [[phallic stage]], the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the ''[[latency stage]]'', which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed.
-Stage five is the ''[[genital stage]]'', which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = McLeod S |title=Psychosexual Stages|url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219093455/http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html|archive-date=2014-12-19|access-date=2014-11-10|website=SimplyPsychology}}</ref> Children have now matured, and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people.
+Stage five is the ''[[genital stage]]'', which occurs from puberty through adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = McLeod S |title=Psychosexual Stages|url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219093455/http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html|archive-date=2014-12-19|access-date=2014-11-10|website=SimplyPsychology}}</ref> Children have now matured and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people.
-Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.<ref name="Theories2">{{cite book|title=Theories of personality: understanding persons| vauthors = Cloninger SC |date=29 June 2012|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-205-25624-2|edition=6th|location=Boston|pages=19–101}}</ref> The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.<ref name="Snowden2">{{cite book|title=Teach Yourself Freud| vauthors = Snowden R |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-07-147274-6|pages=105–107}}</ref>
+Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and the unconscious because the conscious resists what the unconscious seeks to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.<ref name="Theories2">{{cite book|title=Theories of personality: understanding persons| vauthors = Cloninger SC |date=29 June 2012|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-205-25624-2|edition=6th|location=Boston|pages=19–101}}</ref> The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.<ref name="Snowden2">{{cite book|title=Teach Yourself Freud| vauthors = Snowden R |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-07-147274-6|pages=105–107}}</ref>
 ===Theories of cognitive development===
 {{Main|Piaget's theory of cognitive development}}
-[[Jean Piaget]], a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments.<ref name="WoodWoodBoyd2">{{Cite book|title=Mastering the world of psychology|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|year=2006|edition=2| vauthors = Wood SE, Wood CE, Boyd D }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}{{isbn missing}}</ref> He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials. In his interview techniques with children that formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used something similar to [[Socratic questioning]] to get children to reveal their thinking. He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds. The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called, "equilibration."
+[[Jean Piaget]], a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments.<ref name="WoodWoodBoyd2">{{Cite book|title=Mastering the world of psychology|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|year=2006|edition=2| vauthors = Wood SE, Wood CE, Boyd D }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}{{isbn missing}}</ref> He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials. In his interviews with children, which formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used a form of [[Socratic questioning]] to elicit their thinking. He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds. The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called "equilibration."
-Piaget argued that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages generated through the equilibration process. Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: ''sensorimotor'', ''pre-operational'', ''concrete operational'', and ''formal operational''. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.<ref name="Edpsych24">{{cite book|title=Edpsych : modules| vauthors = Reese-Weber L, Bohlin CC, Durwin M |publisher=McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages|isbn=978-0-07-809786-7|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=30–132|date=2011-12-06}}</ref>
+Piaget argued that intellectual development occurs through a series of stages generated by the process of equilibration. Each stage consists of steps that the child must master before moving on to the next. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: ''sensorimotor'', ''pre-operational'', ''concrete operational'', and ''formal operational''. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.<ref name="Edpsych24">{{cite book|title=Edpsych: modules| vauthors = Reese-Weber L, Bohlin CC, Durwin M |publisher=McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages|isbn=978-0-07-809786-7|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=30–132|date=2011-12-06}}</ref>
 ===Stages of moral development===
 {{Main|Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development}}
-Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.<ref name="higheststage2">{{cite journal| vauthors = Kohlberg L |year=1973|title=The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment|journal=Journal of Philosophy|publisher=The Journal of Philosophy |volume=70|issue=18|pages=630–646|doi=10.2307/2025030|jstor=2025030}}</ref> Expanding on Piaget's work, [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.<ref name="dissertation2">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|301935075}} | vauthors = Kohlberg L |year=1958 |title=The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16 |degree = Ph.D. | publisher = University of Chicago }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
+Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.<ref name="higheststage2">{{cite journal| vauthors = Kohlberg L |year=1973|title=The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment|journal=Journal of Philosophy|publisher=The Journal of Philosophy |volume=70|issue=18|pages=630–646|doi=10.2307/2025030|jstor=2025030}}</ref> Expanding on Piaget's work, [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.<ref name="dissertation2">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|301935075}} | vauthors = Kohlberg L |year=1958 |title=The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16 |degree = PhD | publisher = University of Chicago }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
-He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.<ref name="Adolescence3">{{cite book|title=Adolescence| vauthors = Steinberg L |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|year=2008|isbn=978-0-07-340548-3|edition=8th|location=Boston|pages=60–365|author-link=Laurence Steinberg}}</ref>
+He proposed three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning based on the rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reasoning occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by rule-based reasoning grounded in societal conventions. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.<ref name="Adolescence3">{{cite book|title=Adolescence| vauthors = Steinberg L |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|year=2008|isbn=978-0-07-340548-3|edition=8th|location=Boston|pages=60–365|author-link=Laurence Steinberg}}</ref>
-Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html |title=Kohlberg | journal=SimplyPsychology | vauthors = McLeod S |year=2013 }}</ref>
+Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma of saving his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality apply to Heinz's situation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html |title=Kohlberg | journal=SimplyPsychology | vauthors = McLeod S |year=2013 }}</ref>
 ===Stages of psychosocial development===
-{{Main|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development}}German-American psychologist [[Erik Erikson]] and his collaborator and wife, [[Joan Erikson]], posits eight stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/> At each stage the person must resolve a challenge, or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them and the person's personal development is unable to progress.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/>
+{{Main|Erikson's stages of psychosocial development}}
+German-American psychologist [[Erik Erikson]] and his collaborator and wife, [[Joan Erikson]], posit eight stages of human development, influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors, throughout the lifespan.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/> At each stage, the person must resolve a challenge or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them, preventing the person's personal development.<ref name="Orenstein Erikson's Stages"/>
-The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning whom to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the positive virtue being will. This takes place in early childhood when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of whereas if the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.
+The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning who to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for them. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the positive virtue being will. This takes place in early childhood, when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they can do. If the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.
-The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The virtue of being gained is a sense of purpose. This takes place primarily via play. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower and harder time interacting with their world and other children in it.
+The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The virtue gained is a sense of purpose. This takes place primarily via play. This is the stage when the child will be curious and engage in many interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower, harder time interacting with their world and the other children in it.
-The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue for this stage is competency and is the result of the child's early experiences in school. This stage is when the child will try to win the approval of others and understand the value of their accomplishments.
+The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue of this stage is competence and results from the child's early experiences in school. This stage is when the child will try to win others' approval and understand the value of their accomplishments.
-The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally starts to identify their place in society, particularly in terms of their gender role.
+The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity, and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally begins to identify their place in society, particularly regarding their gender role.
-The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which happens in young adults and the virtue gained is love. This is when the person starts to share his/her life with someone else intimately and emotionally. Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.
+The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which happens in young adults, and the virtue gained is love. This is when a person starts to share their life intimately and emotionally with someone else. Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.
-The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in adulthood and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.
+The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in adulthood, and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.
 The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs. Despair". When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and failures. If they resolve this positively, the virtue of wisdom is gained. This is also the stage when one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Mcleod S |date=2013 |title=[Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development] |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 64: / Line 66: @@
 ===Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity===
 {{Main|Model of hierarchical complexity}}
-[[Michael Commons]] enhanced and simplified [[Bärbel Inhelder]] and Piaget's developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant's successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the half stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are:
+[[Michael Commons]] enhanced and simplified [[Bärbel Inhelder]] and Piaget's developmental theory, and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information. It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order of hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stages (counting the half-stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are:
 # [[Model of hierarchical complexity|Calculatory]]
@@ Line 84: / Line 87: @@
 # [[Model of hierarchical complexity|Meta-Cross-paradigmatic]]
-The order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.
+The hierarchical complexity order of tasks predicts performance difficulty, with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.
-In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.{{fact|date=January 2025}}
+In the MHC there are three main axioms for an order to meet for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules used to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.{{cite journal | last1 = Commons | first1 = Michael L. | last2 = Gane-McCalla | first2 = Rebecca | last3 = Barker | first3 = Christopher D. | last4 = Li | first4 = Ellen Y. | title = The model of hierarchical complexity as a measurement system | journal = Behavioral Development Bulletin | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 9–68 | year = 2014 | publisher = American Psychological Association | doi = 10.1037/h0100589 | doi-access = free }}
 ===Ecological systems theory===
 {{Main|Ecological systems theory}}
 [[File:Bronfenbrenner's_Ecological_Theory_of_Development_(English).jpg|thumb|{{center|Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory}}]]
-Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]], specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory|title=Ecological Systems Theory|website=Explorable Psychology Experiments| vauthors = Sincero SM }}</ref>
+Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]], specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bidirectional influences within and between them. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms, and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives, such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. The exosystem is a larger social system in which the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs, and laws of society.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory|title=Ecological Systems Theory|website=Explorable Psychology Experiments| vauthors = Sincero SM }}</ref>
-The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).<ref name="Edpsych24"/>
+The [[microsystem]] is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (e.g., school or home). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and the ways they influence each other (e.g., sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (for example, a father's job requiring more overtime influences his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader, encompassing socioeconomic status, culture, beliefs, customs, and morals (for example, a child from a wealthier family may see a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).<ref name="Edpsych24"/>
-Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, ''The Ecology of Human Development'',<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bronfenbrenner U | date = 1979 | title = The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = Harvard University Press | isbn = 0-674-22457-4}}</ref> has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.<ref name="Smith et al.2">{{Cite book|title= Understanding Children's Development |url = https://archive.org/details/understandingchi00smit/mode/2up      |publisher=Blackwell|edition=4|series=Basic psychology|location=Oxford, England| year = 2003 |isbn = 9780631228233 | oclc = 963696734|vauthors = Smith PK, Cowie H, Blades M }}</ref>
+Since its publication in 1979 Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, ''The Ecology of Human Development'',<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bronfenbrenner U | date = 1979 | title = The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = Harvard University Press | isbn = 0-674-22457-4}}</ref> has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.<ref name="Smith et al.2">{{Cite book|title= Understanding Children's Development |url = https://archive.org/details/understandingchi00smit/mode/2up      |publisher=Blackwell|edition=4|series=Basic psychology|location=Oxford, England| year = 2003 |isbn = 978-0-631-22823-3 | oclc = 963696734|vauthors = Smith PK, Cowie H, Blades M }}</ref>
 ===Zone of proximal development===
 {{Main|Zone of proximal development}}
-[[Lev Vygotsky]] was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schacter DL, Gilbert DR, Wegner DM | title = Psychology | volume = 2 | location = New York, NY | publisher = Worth Publishers | date = 2011 }}</ref> Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities.<ref name="Yamagata-Lynch">{{Cite book |last=Yamagata-Lynch |first=Lisa C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nAFT-zyrtEC |title=Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments |date=2010-07-15 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-6321-5 |language=en}}</ref> Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. Zone of proximal development is a tool used to explain the learning of children and collaborating problem solving activities with an adult or peer.<ref name="Yamagata-Lynch"/> This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "[[cognitive apprenticeship]]" Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding", because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn.<ref name="vygotsky782">{{Cite book|title=Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes |publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1978|location=Cambridge, MA | jstor = j.ctvjf9vz4 | oclc = 3517053 | isbn = 9780674576285       |vauthors = Vygotsky LS |doi=10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4 | url = https://archive.org/details/mindinsocietydev0000vygo }}</ref> Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level.<ref name="vygotsky782" /> In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment.<ref name="vygotsky20102">{{cite book | vauthors = Yamagata-Lynch LC |title=Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments |date=15 July 2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-6321-5 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nAFT-zyrtEC}}</ref> He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.<ref name="vygotsky20102" />
+[[Lev Vygotsky]] was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schacter DL, Gilbert DR, Wegner DM | title = Psychology | volume = 2 | location = New York, NY | publisher = Worth Publishers | date = 2011 }}</ref> Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities.<ref name="Yamagata-Lynch">{{Cite book |last=Yamagata-Lynch |first=Lisa C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nAFT-zyrtEC |title=Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments |date=2010-07-15 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-6321-5 |language=en}}</ref> Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. The zone of proximal development is a concept used to explain children's learning and collaborative problem-solving with an adult or peer.<ref name="Yamagata-Lynch"/> This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "[[cognitive apprenticeship]]". Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding" because it builds on children's existing knowledge, with adults helping them learn new knowledge.<ref name="vygotsky782">{{Cite book|title=Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes |publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1978|location=Cambridge, MA | jstor = j.ctvjf9vz4 | oclc = 3517053 | isbn = 978-0-674-57628-5       |vauthors = Vygotsky LS |doi=10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4 | url = https://archive.org/details/mindinsocietydev0000vygo }}</ref> Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level.<ref name="vygotsky782" /> In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment.<ref name="vygotsky20102">{{cite book | vauthors = Yamagata-Lynch LC |title=Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments |date=15 July 2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4419-6321-5 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nAFT-zyrtEC}}</ref> He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.<ref name="vygotsky20102" />
 ===Constructivism===
 {{Main|Constructivism (psychological school)}}
-Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content.<ref name="Edpsych24"/> A foundational concept of constructivism is that the purpose of cognition is to organize one's experiential world, instead of the ontological world around them.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511752865 |title=Constructivism and Education |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-62135-9 |editor-last1=Larochelle |editor-last2=Bednarz |editor-last3=Garrison |editor-first1=Marie |editor-first2=Nadine |editor-first3=Jim }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
-Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm|title=Overview of Cognitive Constructivism|website=Cognitive Constructivist Theories|access-date=2014-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215094725/http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm|archive-date=2014-12-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as an active process of constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is the view that a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes based on their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is the view that individuals construct knowledge through interactions between the knowledge they bring to a situation and the social or cultural exchanges within that context.<ref name="Edpsych24"/> A foundational concept of constructivism is that the purpose of cognition is to organize one's experiential world, instead of the ontological world around them.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511752865 |title=Constructivism and Education |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-62135-9 |editor-last1=Larochelle |editor-last2=Bednarz |editor-last3=Garrison |editor-first1=Marie |editor-first2=Nadine |editor-first3=Jim }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
+Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience, make mistakes, and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be holistic by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm|title=Overview of Cognitive Constructivism|website=Cognitive Constructivist Theories|access-date=2014-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215094725/http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm|archive-date=2014-12-15}}</ref>
 ===Evolutionary developmental psychology===
 {{Main|Evolutionary developmental psychology}}
 Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian [[evolution]], particularly [[natural selection]], to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the [[Genetics|genetic]] and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and [[cognitive]] competencies, as well as the [[epigenetic]] ([[gene-environment interaction]]s) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.<ref name="Bjorklund Blasi Evolutionary Developmental Psychology">{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470939376.ch29 |chapter=Evolutionary Developmental Psychology |title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology |date=2015 |last1=Bjorklund |first1=David F. |last2=Blasi |first2=Carlos Hernández |pages=828–850 |isbn=978-0-471-26403-3 }}</ref>
-EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as [[Differential psychology|individual differences]] in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tooby |first1=John |last2=Cosmides |first2=Leda |title=On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation |journal=Journal of Personality |date=March 1990 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=17–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x |pmid=2198338 }}</ref> and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinker |first1=Steven |title=The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature |title-link=The Blank Slate |date=2002 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-03151-1 |chapter=Children }}</ref> rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity".<ref name="Bjorklund Blasi Evolutionary Developmental Psychology"/><ref name=":1">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780195122343.001.0001 |title=Developmental Plasticity and Evolution |date=2003 |last1=West-Eberhard |first1=Mary Jane |isbn=978-0-19-512234-3 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.<ref name="Bjorklund Blasi Evolutionary Developmental Psychology"/>
+EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations) and [[Differential psychology|individual differences]] in behavior from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tooby |first1=John |last2=Cosmides |first2=Leda |title=On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation |journal=Journal of Personality |date=March 1990 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=17–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x |pmid=2198338 }}</ref> and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinker |first1=Steven |title=The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature |title-link=The Blank Slate |date=2002 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-03151-1 |chapter=Children }}</ref> rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity".<ref name="Bjorklund Blasi Evolutionary Developmental Psychology"/><ref name=":1">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780195122343.001.0001 |title=Developmental Plasticity and Evolution |date=2003 |last1=West-Eberhard |first1=Mary Jane |isbn=978-0-19-512234-3 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.<ref name="Bjorklund Blasi Evolutionary Developmental Psychology"/>
 EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of [[evolutionary psychology]] (EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.<ref name=":32">{{cite journal |last1=Hernàndez Blasi |first1=Carlos |last2=Bjorklund |first2=David F. |title=Evolutionary Developmental Psychology: A New Tool for Better Understanding Human Ontogeny |journal=Human Development |date=2003 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=259–281 |doi=10.1159/000071935 }}</ref>
@@ Line 117: / Line 124: @@
 ===Attachment theory===
 {{Main|Attachment theory}}
-Attachment theory, originally developed by [[John Bowlby]], focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-Oki9MxalQC&pg=PA45|title=Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives| vauthors = Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J |date=2013-04-15|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135890520}}</ref> Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Psychologist [[Harry Harlow]]’s research with infant rhesus monkeys in the mid-20th century provided pivotal experimental support for attachment theory. His studies found that infant monkeys consistently preferred cloth surrogate mothers that provided comfort over wire ones that offered only food. These results demonstrated that emotional security and physical comfort are more critical to attachment than nourishment alone. Harlow’s findings reinforced Bowlby’s view that early caregiving relationships are biologically essential for healthy emotional development and social bonding later in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van der Horst |first=Frank C. P. |last2=LeRoy |first2=Helen A. |last3=van der Veer |first3=René |date=2008-12-01 |title=“When Strangers Meet”: John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on Attachment Behavior |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-008-9079-2 |journal=Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=370–388 |doi=10.1007/s12124-008-9079-2 |issn=1936-3567}}</ref>
-Later [[Mary Ainsworth]] developed the [[Mary Ainsworth#Strange Situation|Strange Situation]] protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors to certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test helps find "disturbances in attachment" and whether certain attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment issue.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Kanieski |first1=Mary Ann |title=Securing attachment: The shifting medicalisation of attachment and attachment disorders |journal=Health, Risk & Society |date=August 2010 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=335–344 |doi=10.1080/13698571003789682 }}</ref> The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults.<ref name=":02" /> Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.<ref name=":02" />
+Attachment theory, originally developed by [[John Bowlby]], focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-Oki9MxalQC&pg=PA45|title=Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives| vauthors = Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J |date=2013-04-15|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-89052-0}}</ref> Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who provide a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Psychologist [[Harry Harlow]]'s research with infant rhesus monkeys in the mid-20th century provided pivotal experimental support for attachment theory. His studies found that infant monkeys consistently preferred cloth surrogate mothers that provided comfort over wire ones that offered only food. These results demonstrated that emotional security and physical comfort are more critical to attachment than nourishment alone. Harlow's findings reinforced Bowlby's view that early caregiving relationships are biologically essential for healthy emotional development and social bonding later in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Horst |first1=Frank C. P. |last2=LeRoy |first2=Helen A. |last3=van der Veer |first3=René |date=2008-12-01 |title="When Strangers Meet": John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on Attachment Behavior |journal=Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=370–388 |doi=10.1007/s12124-008-9079-2 |issn=1936-3567|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles:<ref name="Schacter4402">{{cite book|title=Psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologysecond00dani|url-access=limited| vauthors = Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM |publisher=Worth|year=2011|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologysecond00dani/page/n471 440]|isbn=9781429237192}}</ref> secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant,<ref name="Adolescence3"/> and disorganized.<ref name="Schacter4402" /> Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited.<ref name="Adolescence3" /> Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.<ref name="Schacter4402" />
+Later, [[Mary Ainsworth]] developed the [[Mary Ainsworth#Strange Situation|strange situation]] protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors of certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test helps identify "disturbances in attachment" and whether specific attributes contribute to a particular attachment issue.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Kanieski |first1=Mary Ann |title=Securing attachment: The shifting medicalisation of attachment and attachment disorders |journal=Health, Risk & Society |date=August 2010 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=335–344 |doi=10.1080/13698571003789682 }}</ref> The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults.<ref name=":02" /> Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.<ref name=":02" />
+Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles:<ref name="Schacter4402">{{cite book|title=Psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologysecond00dani|url-access=limited| vauthors = Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM |publisher=Worth|year=2011|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologysecond00dani/page/n471 440]|isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2}}</ref> secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant,<ref name="Adolescence3"/> and disorganized.<ref name="Schacter4402" /> Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver, characterized by distress when separated and anger upon reunion.<ref name="Adolescence3" /> Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.<ref name="Schacter4402" />
 It is possible to prevent a child's innate propensity to develop bonds. Some infants are kept in isolation or subjected to severe neglect or abuse, or they are raised without the stimulation and care of a regular caregiver. This deprivation may cause short-term consequences such as separation, rage, despair, and a brief lag in cerebral growth. Increased aggression, clinging behavior, alienation, psychosomatic illnesses, and an elevated risk of adult depression are among the long-term consequences.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Exploring Psychology| vauthors = Myers D |publisher=Worth Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-1-57259-096-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2015}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Level Psychology Through Diagrams| vauthors = Hill G |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-918094-3}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2015}}\
-According to attachment theory, which is a psychological concept, people's capacity to develop healthy social and emotional ties later in life is greatly impacted by their early relationships with their primary caregivers, especially during infancy. This suggests that humans have an inbuilt need to develop strong bonds with caregivers in order to survive and be healthy. Childhood attachment styles can have an impact on how people behave in adult social situations, including romantic partnerships.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Simpson JA |year=1990 |title=Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=971–980 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971 }}</ref>
+According to attachment theory, a psychological concept, people's capacity to develop healthy social and emotional ties later in life is greatly influenced by their early relationships with their primary caregivers, especially during infancy. This suggests that humans have an innate need to form strong bonds with caregivers to survive and remain healthy. Childhood attachment styles can have an impact on how people behave in adult social situations, including romantic partnerships.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Simpson JA |year=1990 |title=Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=971–980 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971 }}</ref>
 ===Nature vs nurture===
-{{Expert needed|Psychology|talk=|reason=Nature-nurture relationship is neither a dichotomy nor a debate among developmental psychologists.|date=February 2025}}
+{{Expert needed|Psychology
+| talk =
+| reason = Nature-nurture relationship is neither a dichotomy nor a debate among developmental psychologists.
+| date = February 2025
+}}
 {{Main|Nature versus nurture}}
 A significant concern of developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influences on development. This is often referred to as "[[nature and nurture]]" or [[psychological nativism|nativism]] versus [[empiricism]]. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's [[genes]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khalidi |first1=Muhammad Ali |title=Nature and Nurture in Cognition |journal=The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science |date=June 2002 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=251–272 |doi=10.1093/bjps/53.2.251 |jstor=3541766 }}</ref> What makes a person who they are? Is it their environment or their genetics? This is the debate of nature vs nurture.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Collins WA, Maccoby EE, Steinberg L, Hetherington EM, Bornstein MH | title = Contemporary research on parenting. The case for nature and nurture | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 218–232 | date = February 2000 | pmid = 10717969 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.2.218 }}</ref>
-According to an empiricist viewpoint, those processes are learned through interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of [[evolutionary developmental psychology]].
+According to an [[Empiricism|empiricist]] viewpoint, those processes are learned through interaction with the environment. Today, most developmental psychologists take a more holistic approach, emphasizing the interaction between genetic and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of [[evolutionary developmental psychology]].
-The dispute over innateness has been well represented in the field of [[language acquisition]] studies. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through [[learning]]. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of [[statistical learning in language acquisition|statistical learning]]. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as [[perceptual learning]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sameroff A | title = A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture | journal = Child Development | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–22 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20331651 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x }}</ref>
+The dispute over innateness has been well represented in the field of [[language acquisition]] studies. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through [[learning]]. The empiricist position on language acquisition holds that language input provides the necessary information for learning language structure and that infants acquire language through a process of [[statistical learning in language acquisition|statistical learning]]. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as [[perceptual learning]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sameroff A | title = A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture | journal = Child Development | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–22 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20331651 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x }}</ref>
 The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a [[universal grammar]] that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive [[modularity of mind|module]] suited for learning language, often called the [[language acquisition device]]. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally.<ref name="Schlinger">{{cite journal |last1=Schlinger |first1=Henry D. |title=The Long Good-Bye: Why B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is Alive and Well on the 50Th Anniversary of Its Publication |journal=The Psychological Record |date=July 2008 |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=329–337 |doi=10.1007/BF03395622 }}</ref> But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.<ref name="Schlinger" />
-Maybe there could be "strong interactions of both nature and nurture".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McClearn GE | title = Nature and nurture: interaction and coaction | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics | volume = 124B | issue = 1 | pages = 124–130 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14681926 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.b.20044 }}</ref> Many researchers now emphasize that development results from a continuous, dynamic interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences. Rather than acting independently, nature and nurture are seen as intertwined forces, where genetic factors can shape sensitivity to environmental inputs, and environmental conditions can influence how genes are expressed across development. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Belsky |first=Jay |last2=Pluess |first2=Michael |date=2009 |title=The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40645698 |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=345–351 |issn=1745-6916}}</ref>
+Maybe there could be "strong interactions of both nature and nurture".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McClearn GE | title = Nature and nurture: interaction and coaction | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics | volume = 124B | issue = 1 | pages = 124–130 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14681926 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.b.20044 }}</ref> Many researchers now emphasize that development results from a continuous, dynamic interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences. Rather than acting independently, nature and nurture are seen as intertwined forces, in which genetic factors can shape sensitivity to environmental inputs, and environmental conditions can influence gene expression throughout development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Belsky |first1=Jay |last2=Pluess |first2=Michael |date=2009 |title=The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=345–351 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01136.x |jstor=40645698 |pmid=26158982 |issn=1745-6916}}</ref>
 ===Continuity vs discontinuity===
 One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous.
-Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimations of development can be measuring the stature of a child, and measuring their memory or consideration span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly."<ref name="Crain, William C., 1943">{{Cite book| vauthors = Crain WC |title=Theories of development : concepts and applications|date=2 October 2015|isbn=978-1-317-34322-6|edition=Sixth|location=London|oclc=918135643 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group}}</ref>
+Continuous development is quantifiable, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimates of development can include measuring a child's stature, memory, or attention span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly."<ref name="Crain, William C., 1943">{{Cite book| vauthors = Crain WC |title=Theories of development: concepts and applications|date=2 October 2015|isbn=978-1-317-34322-6|edition=Sixth|location=London|oclc=918135643 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group}}</ref>
-Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement includes slow and progressing changes all through the life span, with behavior within the prior stages of advancement giving the premise of abilities and capacities required for the other stages. "To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science".<ref name="Crain, William C., 1943"/>
+Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement involves slow, progressive changes throughout life, with behavior in earlier stages of development laying the foundation for the abilities and capacities required for later stages. "To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science".<ref name="Crain, William C., 1943"/>
-However, not all psychologists concur that advancement could be a continuous process. A few see advancement as a discontinuous process. They accept advancement includes unmistakable and partitioned stages with diverse sorts of behavior happening in each organization. This proposes that the development of certain capacities in each arrange, such as particular feelings or ways of considering, has a definite beginning and ending point. Nevertheless, there is no exact moment when a capacity suddenly appears or disappears. Although some sorts of considering, feeling or carrying on could seem to seem abruptly, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Carter L, Grivas J |title=Psychology for South Australia. Stage 1 |date=2004 |publisher=Jacaranda |isbn=0-7314-0094-1|location=Milton, Qld.|oclc=224074696}}</ref>
+However, not all psychologists concur that advancement could be a continuous process. A few see advancement as a discontinuous process. They accept that advancement comprises distinct stages, with different types of behavior occurring in each organization. This proposes that the development of certain capacities at each stage, such as particular feelings or ways of thinking, has definite beginning and end points. Nevertheless, there is no exact moment when a capacity suddenly appears or disappears. Although some sorts of considering, feeling, or carrying on may seem abrupt, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Carter L, Grivas J |title=Psychology for South Australia. Stage 1 |date=2004 |publisher=Jacaranda |isbn=0-7314-0094-1|location=Milton, Qld.|oclc=224074696}}</ref>
-Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process including particular stages which are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable concurring to each person, in any case, the time of each arrangement may shift separately. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which set that development is an incremental process.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = White FA, Hayes BK, Livesey DJ |author-link=Fiona A. White |title=Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood|date=18 September 2015|isbn=978-1-4860-1827-7|edition=4th|location=Melbourne, Vic.|oclc=904034548}}</ref>
+Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process, comprising distinct stages characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable from person to person; in any case, the time of each stage may vary. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which state that development is an incremental process.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = White FA, Hayes BK, Livesey DJ |author-link=Fiona A. White |title=Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood|date=18 September 2015|isbn=978-1-4860-1827-7|edition=4th|location=Melbourne, Vic.|oclc=904034548}}</ref>
 ===Stability vs change===
-This issue involves the degree to which one becomes older renditions of their early experience or whether they develop into something different from who they were at an earlier point in development.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315789255-4 |chapter=Aging, Personality, and Social Change: The Stability of Individual Differences over the Adult Life Span |title=Life-Span Development and Behavior |date=2019 |last1=Alwin |first1=Duane F. |pages=135–186 |isbn=978-1-315-78925-5 }}</ref> It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emmerich|first=Walter|date=1966 |title=Stability and Change in Early Personality Development |journal=Young Children |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=233–243 |jstor=42641912 }}</ref> Change is altering someone/something.
+This issue concerns the extent to which one becomes an older version of their earlier self or develops into something different from who they were at an earlier stage of development.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315789255-4 |chapter=Aging, Personality, and Social Change: The Stability of Individual Differences over the Adult Life Span |title=Life-Span Development and Behavior |date=2019 |last1=Alwin |first1=Duane F. |pages=135–186 |isbn=978-1-315-78925-5 }}</ref> It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emmerich|first=Walter|date=1966 |title=Stability and Change in Early Personality Development |journal=Young Children |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=233–243 |jstor=42641912 }}</ref> Change is altering someone/something.
 Most [[Development of the human body|'''''human development''''']] lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orben |first1=Amy |last2=Tomova |first2=Livia |last3=Blakemore |first3=Sarah-Jayne |title=The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health |journal=The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health |date=August 2020 |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=634–640 |doi=10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3 |pmid=32540024 |pmc=7292584 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ===Theory of mind===
-Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byom |first1=Lindsey J. |last2=Mutlu |first2=Bilge |title=Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |date=2013 |volume=7 |page=413 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413 |pmc=3737477 |pmid=23964218 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows individuals to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires different from their own. This ability enables successful social interactions by recognizing and interpreting the mental states of others. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nilsson |first1=Kristine Kahr |last2=de López |first2=Kristine Jensen |date=2016 |title=Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Child Development |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=143–153 |doi=10.1111/cdev.12462 |jstor=24698538 |pmid=26582261 }}</ref> Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourages social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theory of Mind {{!}} Simply Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/theory-of-mind.html |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=www.simplypsychology.org}}</ref>
+Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byom |first1=Lindsey J. |last2=Mutlu |first2=Bilge |title=Theory of mind: mechanisms, methods, and new directions |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |date=2013 |volume=7 |page=413 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413 |pmc=3737477 |pmid=23964218 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows individuals to understand that others have beliefs and desires that differ from their own. This ability enables successful social interactions by recognizing and interpreting others' mental states. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nilsson |first1=Kristine Kahr |last2=de López |first2=Kristine Jensen |date=2016 |title=Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Child Development |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=143–153 |doi=10.1111/cdev.12462 |jstor=24698538 |pmid=26582261 }}</ref> Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourage social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theory of Mind {{!}} Simply Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/theory-of-mind.html |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=www.simplypsychology.org}}</ref>
 ==Mathematical models==
-Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using [[model (abstract)|models]]. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the [[human brain|brain]] that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development.
+Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also with explaining the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using [[model (abstract)|models]]. A model must account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of development.
-Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development: [[symbol]]ic, [[connectionist]] ([[neural net]]work), or [[Cognitive model#Dynamical systems|dynamical systems]] models.
+[[Mathematical model]]ing is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development: [[symbol]]ic, [[connectionist]] ([[neural net]]work), or [[Cognitive model#Dynamical systems|dynamical systems]] models.
-Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Computational social psychology| vauthors = Vallacher RR |publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1138951655}}</ref> second language acquisition,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Bot K |title=A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition|journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |volume=10 |pages=7–21 |doi=10.1017/S1366728906002732|year=2007 }}</ref> and locomotion.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, D'Andrea SE, Warren WH, Aaron RK | title = Entrainment to a real time fractal visual stimulus modulates fractal gait dynamics | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 36 | pages = 20–34 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24911782 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.006 | url = http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Rhea_Entrainment_2014.pdf }}</ref>
+[[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamic systems]] models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality, such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Computational social psychology| vauthors = Vallacher RR |publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-138-95165-5}}</ref> second language acquisition,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Bot K |title=A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition|journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |volume=10 |pages=7–21 |doi=10.1017/S1366728906002732|year=2007 }}</ref> and locomotion.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, D'Andrea SE, Warren WH, Aaron RK | title = Entrainment to a real time fractal visual stimulus modulates fractal gait dynamics | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 36 | pages = 20–34 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24911782 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.006 | url = http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Rhea_Entrainment_2014.pdf }}</ref>
 ==Research areas==
 ===Neural development===
-One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which investigates how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Studies have shown that the human brain undergoes rapid changes during prenatal and early postnatal periods. These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology | year=1997 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::aid-cne1>3.0.co;2-z| pmid=9336221 | last1=Huttenlocher | first1=P. R. | last2=Dabholkar | first2=A. S. | volume=387 | issue=2 | pages=167–178 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Mark H. |date=July 2001 |title=Functional brain development in humans |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |language=en |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=475–483 |doi=10.1038/35081509 |pmid=11433372 }}</ref>
+{{Main|Development of the nervous system}}
+One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which examines how the brain changes across the lifespan. Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Studies have shown that the human brain undergoes rapid changes during the prenatal and early postnatal periods. These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex |journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology | year=1997 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::aid-cne1>3.0.co;2-z| pmid=9336221 | last1=Huttenlocher | first1=P. R. | last2=Dabholkar | first2=A. S. | volume=387 | issue=2 | pages=167–178 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Mark H. |date=July 2001 |title=Functional brain development in humans |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |language=en |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=475–483 |doi=10.1038/35081509 |pmid=11433372 }}</ref>
 Experiences and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping neural development. Early sensory experiences, such as exposure to language and visual stimuli, can influence the development of neural pathways related to perception and language processing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Werker |first1=Janet F. |last2=Hensch |first2=Takao K. |title=Critical Periods in Speech Perception: New Directions |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=3 January 2015 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=173–196 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015104 |pmid=25251488 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Genetic factors play a huge roll in neural development. Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geschwind |first1=Daniel H. |last2=Rakic |first2=Pasko |title=Cortical Evolution: Judge the Brain by Its Cover |journal=Neuron |date=October 2013 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=633–647 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.045 |pmc=3922239 |pmid=24183016 }}</ref>
+Genetic factors play a huge role in neural development. Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geschwind |first1=Daniel H. |last2=Rakic |first2=Pasko |title=Cortical Evolution: Judge the Brain by Its Cover |journal=Neuron |date=October 2013 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=633–647 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.045 |pmc=3922239 |pmid=24183016 }}</ref>
-Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity. During this period, there is a pruning process where certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blakemore |first1=Sarah-Jayne |last2=Choudhury |first2=Suparna |date=March 2006 |title=Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=47 |issue=3–4 |pages=296–312 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x |pmid=16492261 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity. During this period, a pruning process occurs in which certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blakemore |first1=Sarah-Jayne |last2=Choudhury |first2=Suparna |date=March 2006 |title=Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=47 |issue=3–4 |pages=296–312 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x |pmid=16492261 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain. By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a better understanding of cognitive, emotional, and social development in humans.
+The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain. By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a clearer picture of human cognitive, emotional, and social development.
 ===Cognitive development===
 {{Main|Cognitive development|Theory of cognitive development|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}
-Cognitive development is primarily concerned with how infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal.
-Other accounts, such as that of [[Lev Vygotsky]], have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain.
+Cognitive development is primarily concerned with how infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development include language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood, with an endpoint or goal.
+Other accounts, such as that of [[Lev Vygotsky]], have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process, which begins at birth and continues until death, is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed rather than treated as a product to obtain.
 [[K. Warner Schaie]] has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Schaie KW | date = 1990 | chapter = Intellectual development in adulthood. | veditors = Birren JE, Schaie KW | title = Handbook of the psychology of aging | edition = 3rd | pages = 291–309 | location = New York | publisher = Academic Press }}</ref>
-Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of [[cognitive psychology]] and the psychology of [[individual differences]] into the interpretation and modeling of development.<ref name="demetriou">{{cite book | vauthors = Demetriou A | date = 1998 | chapter = Cognitive development. | veditors = Demetriou A, Doise W, van Lieshout KF | title = Life-span developmental psychology | pages = 179–269 | location = London | publisher =  Wiley }}</ref> Specifically, [[the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]] showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and [[working memory]] capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of [[domain-specific]] information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.
+Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of [[cognitive psychology]] and the psychology of [[individual differences]] into the interpretation and modeling of development.<ref name="demetriou">{{cite book | vauthors = Demetriou A | date = 1998 | chapter = Cognitive development. | veditors = Demetriou A, Doise W, van Lieshout KF | title = Life-span developmental psychology | pages = 179–269 | location = London | publisher =  Wiley }}</ref> Specifically, [[the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]] showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and [[working memory]] capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences among children who are the same age and grade level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories. They are influenced by accounts of [[domain-specific]] information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate, evolutionarily specified, and content-specific information-processing mechanisms.
 ===Social and emotional development===
 {{Main|Social-emotional development in childhood|Social psychology}}
-Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior.
-[[Emotional self-regulation|Emotional regulation]] or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions.<ref name="pmid19756175">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morris AS, Silk JS, Steinberg L, Myers SS, Robinson LR | title = The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation | journal = Social Development (Oxford, England) | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 361–388 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 19756175 | pmc = 2743505 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x | url = http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/PSYCH305-11.2.pdf }}</ref>
+Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve studying the relationship between cognition, cognitive development, and social behavior.
-Music also has an influence on stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Oaklander V |title=Hidden Treasure: A Map to the Child's Inner Self |date=November 2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-85575-490-4}}</ref>
+[[Emotional self-regulation|Emotional regulation]] (ER) refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on increasing responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in their parents and caregivers, the emotional climate at home, and the reactions of parents and caregivers to the child's emotions.<ref name="pmid19756175">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morris AS, Silk JS, Steinberg L, Myers SS, Robinson LR | title = The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation | journal = Social Development (Oxford, England) | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 361–388 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 19756175 | pmc = 2743505 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x | url = http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/PSYCH305-11.2.pdf }}</ref>
-A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and [[developmental coordination disorder]] are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in [[Internalizing disorder|internalizing symptoms]] such as depression and anxiety.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cairney J, Veldhuizen S, Szatmari P | title = Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 324–329 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20520549 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833aa0aa }}</ref> Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially [[isolates|isolated]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />
+Music also influences stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Oaklander V |title=Hidden Treasure: A Map to the Child's Inner Self |date=November 2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-85575-490-4}}</ref>
-Social and emotional development focuses on five keys areas: Self-Awareness, Self Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills and Responsible Decision Making.<ref>{{Cite web|title = SEL Competencies|url = http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies|website = CASEL|access-date = 2015-10-22|archive-date = 2015-09-19|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150919011115/http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies/|url-status = dead}}</ref>
+A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, as evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and [[developmental coordination disorder]] are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in [[Internalizing disorder|internalizing symptoms]] such as depression and anxiety.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cairney J, Veldhuizen S, Szatmari P | title = Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children | journal = Current Opinion in Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 324–329 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20520549 | doi = 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833aa0aa }}</ref> Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially [[isolates|isolated]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />
+Social and emotional development focuses on five key areas: Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills, and Responsible Decision Making.<ref>{{Cite web|title = SEL Competencies|url = http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies|website = CASEL|access-date = 2015-10-22|archive-date = 2015-09-19|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150919011115/http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies/}}</ref>
 ===Physical development===
-Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts.<ref name="Eaton">{{cite book | vauthors = Eaton WO | title = Physical Maturation | publisher = University of Manitoba | location = Winnipeg, Canada <!-- | access-date = 16 March 2012 --> }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}{{isbn missing}}{{missing date}}</ref> Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.<ref name="Eaton" />
+Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts.<ref name="Eaton">{{cite book | vauthors = Eaton WO | title = Physical Maturation | publisher = University of Manitoba | location = Winnipeg, Canada}}{{pn|date=January 2025}}{{isbn missing}}{{missing date}}</ref> Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using X-rays are less commonly used nowadays than simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.<ref name="Eaton" />
-A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.<ref name="Eaton" />
+A few other studies and practices in physical developmental psychology include research on the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds and the controversial hypotheses that left-handers are maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.<ref name="Eaton" />
 ===Memory development===
-Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to [[fuzzy-trace theory]], a theory of [[cognition]] originally proposed by [[Valerie F. Reyna]] and [[Charles Brainerd]], people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age. Furthermore, one's reliance on gist memory traces increases as one ages.<ref name="Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF | title = Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–129 | date = November 1998 | pmid = 9843617 | doi = 10.1006/jecp.1998.2464 }}</ref> Neuroscientific research has contributed to understanding the biological mechanisms behind memory development. A study using diffusion MRI in children aged four to twelve found that greater maturity in white matter tracts, specifically the uncinate fasciculus and dorsal cingulum bundle, was associated with stronger episodic memory recall. These findings suggest that the structural development of white matter pathways plays a significant role in memory function during childhood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bouyeure |first=Antoine |last2=Bekha |first2=Dhaif |last3=Patil |first3=Sandesh |last4=Hertz-Pannier |first4=Lucie |last5=Noulhiane |first5=Marion |date=2022-01-01 |title=Maturity of white matter tracts is associated with episodic memory recall during development |url=https://academic.oup.com/cercorcomms/article/doi/10.1093/texcom/tgac004/6515778 |journal=Cerebral Cortex Communications |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1093/texcom/tgac004 |issn=2632-7376 |pmc=8895309}}</ref>
+Researchers interested in memory development examine how our memory develops from childhood onward. According to [[fuzzy-trace theory]], a theory of cognition originally proposed by [[Valerie F. Reyna]] and [[Charles Brainerd]], people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times and at different paces. Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases through early adulthood, after which it remains stable through old age. Furthermore, reliance on gist memory traces increases with age.<ref name="Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF | title = Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–129 | date = November 1998 | pmid = 9843617 | doi = 10.1006/jecp.1998.2464 }}</ref> Neuroscientific research has contributed to understanding the biological mechanisms behind memory development. A study using diffusion MRI in children aged 4 to 12 found that greater maturity of white matter tracts, specifically the uncinate fasciculus and dorsal cingulum bundle, was associated with stronger episodic memory recall. These findings suggest that the structural development of white matter pathways plays a significant role in memory function during childhood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bouyeure |first1=Antoine |last2=Bekha |first2=Dhaif |last3=Patil |first3=Sandesh |last4=Hertz-Pannier |first4=Lucie |last5=Noulhiane |first5=Marion |date=2022-01-01 |title=Maturity of white matter tracts is associated with episodic memory recall during development |url=https://academic.oup.com/cercorcomms/article/doi/10.1093/texcom/tgac004/6515778 |journal=Cerebral Cortex Communications |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |article-number=tgac004 |doi=10.1093/texcom/tgac004 |pmid=35261977 |issn=2632-7376 |pmc=8895309}}</ref>
 ==Research methods and designs==
@@ Line 212: / Line 229: @@
 Developmental psychology employs many of the [[psychological research methods|research methods]] used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.
-Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, including [[naturalistic observation]] or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or [[structured interviews]]; clinical or [[case study]] method; and [[ethnography]] or participant observation.{{sfn|Berk|2012|pp=31–35}} These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study.<ref name=Bruning>{{cite book| vauthors = Moshman D, Glover JA, Bruning RH |title=Developmental psychology : a topical approach|year=1987|publisher=Little, Brown|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-316-58561-3|pages=82–96}}</ref> Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the ''experimental'', ''correlational'', or ''case study'' approach.<ref name=Achenbach>{{cite book| vauthors = Achenbach TM |title=Research in development psychology.|year=1978|publisher=Free Pr. [usw.]|location=New York [usw.]|isbn=978-0-02-900180-6|pages=74–104}}</ref><ref name=Prentice-Hall>{{cite book| vauthors = Marmor RM, Liebert R, Wicks P, Gloria S |title=Developmental psychology|year=1977|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.|isbn=978-0-13-208231-0|pages=20–37|edition=2d}}</ref> The [[experimental method]] involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed;<ref name=Prentice-Hall /> the ''experimental design'' points to [[Causality|cause-and-effect relationships]].<ref name=Shaffer>{{cite book| vauthors = Shaffer DR |title=Social and personality development|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth|location=Australia|isbn=978-0-495-60038-1|pages=21–36|edition=6th}}</ref> This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more [[independent variables]] and subsequent behavior, as measured by the [[dependent variable]].<ref name=Prentice-Hall /> The advantage of using this research method is that it permits determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.<ref name=Shaffer /> On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability.<ref name=Shaffer /> The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention.<ref name=Prentice-Hall /><ref name=Shaffer /> The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment;<ref name=Shaffer /> however, the limitation is that it does not permit determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.<ref name=Shaffer /> The [[case study]] approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on [[interviews]], structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores.<ref name=Shaffer /> Each of these methods have its strengths and weaknesses but the experimental method when appropriate is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships.<ref name=Prentice-Hall />
+Developmental psychologists have many methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, such as [[naturalistic observation]] or structured observation; self-reports, such as clinical interviews or [[structured interviews]]; the clinical or [[case study]] method; and [[ethnography]] or participant observation.{{sfn|Berk|2012|pp=31–35}} These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study.<ref name=Bruning>{{cite book| vauthors = Moshman D, Glover JA, Bruning RH |title=Developmental psychology: a topical approach|year=1987|publisher=Little, Brown|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-316-58561-3|pages=82–96}}</ref> Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the ''experimental'', ''correlational'', or ''case study'' approach.<ref name=Achenbach>{{cite book| vauthors = Achenbach TM |title=Research in development psychology.|year=1978|publisher=Free Pr. [usw.]|location=New York [usw.]|isbn=978-0-02-900180-6|pages=74–104}}</ref><ref name=Prentice-Hall>{{cite book| vauthors = Marmor RM, Liebert R, Wicks P, Gloria S |title=Developmental psychology|year=1977|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.|isbn=978-0-13-208231-0|pages=20–37|edition=2d}}</ref> The [[experimental method]] involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed;<ref name=Prentice-Hall /> the ''experimental design'' points to [[Causality|cause-and-effect relationships]].<ref name=Shaffer>{{cite book| vauthors = Shaffer DR |title=Social and personality development|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth|location=Australia|isbn=978-0-495-60038-1|pages=21–36|edition=6th}}</ref> This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more [[independent variables]] and subsequent behavior, as measured by the [[dependent variable]].<ref name=Prentice-Hall /> The advantage of using this research method is that it permits the determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.<ref name=Shaffer /> On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability.<ref name=Shaffer /> The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention.<ref name=Prentice-Hall /><ref name=Shaffer /> The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment;<ref name=Shaffer /> but the limitation is that it does not permit the determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables.<ref name=Shaffer /> The [[case study]] approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores.<ref name=Shaffer /> Each of these methods has its strengths and weaknesses, but the experimental method, when appropriate, is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships.<ref name=Prentice-Hall />
 ===Research designs===
-Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs.<ref name=Bruning /> Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies such as:
+Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs.<ref name=Bruning /> Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies, such as:
 * [[cross-sectional design]]
 * [[longitudinal design]]
@@ Line 221: / Line 238: @@
 * [[microgenetic design]]
-In a [[longitudinal study]], a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]]) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or [[norm (sociology)|normative]]) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Worthington |first1=John |date=2001 |title=A longitudinal study of early literacy development and the changing perceptions of parents and teachers |doi=10.14264/105711 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
+In a [[longitudinal study]] a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]]) and conducts follow-up observations as the cohort ages. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or [[norm (sociology)|normative]]) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Worthington |first1=John |date=2001 |title=A longitudinal study of early literacy development and the changing perceptions of parents and teachers |doi=10.14264/105711 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
-Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=40}}
+Researchers may also observe how development varies among individuals and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require substantial time and funding, making them infeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=40}}
-In a [[cross-sectional study]], a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a [[lurking variable|confounding factor]]. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to ''different'' historical events.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=41}}
+In a [[cross-sectional study]] a researcher observes differences among individuals of different ages at a single point in time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are less of a [[lurking variable|confounding factor]]. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to ''different'' historical events.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=41}}
-A third study design, the [[cohort study|sequential design]], combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=42}}
+A third study design, the [[cohort study|sequential design]], combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format helps clarify the distinction between changes attributable to an individual or historical environment and those that are truly universal.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=42}}
-Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.<ref name=Prentice-Hall />
+Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on a single study or even a single method; instead, they seek consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.<ref name=Prentice-Hall />
 ==Life stages of psychological development==
@@ Line 237: / Line 254: @@
 ===Prenatal development===
 {{Main|Prenatal development}}
 {{See also|Fetal psychology}}
-Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. The whole prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. Germinal stage begins at conception until 2 weeks; embryonic stage means the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; fetal stage represents 9 weeks until birth of the baby.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Berk |first1=Laura E. |title=Development Through the Lifespan |date=2018 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0-13-441969-5 |oclc=946161390 |pages=76–81 }}</ref> The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks).{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=97}} Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=100}} Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=101}}
+Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. Prenatal development involves three main stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the fetal stage. The germinal stage begins at conception and lasts until 2 weeks; the embryonic stage is the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; the fetal stage is from 9 weeks until birth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Berk |first1=Laura E. |title=Development Through the Lifespan |date=2018 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0-13-441969-5 |oclc=946161390 |pages=76–81 }}</ref> The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks).{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=97}} Most of the brain's billions of neurons are also developed by the second trimester.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=100}} Babies are hence born with some odor, taste, and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=101}}
-Some [[primitive reflexes]] too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the [[tonic neck reflex]] may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.<ref name="butterworth">{{Cite book | vauthors = Butterworth G, Harris M |title=Principles of Developmental Psychology |year=1994 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-0-86377-280-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofdeve0000butt }}</ref>
+Some [[primitive reflexes]] also arise before birth and remain present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. [[Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the [[tonic neck reflex]] may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.<ref name="butterworth">{{Cite book | vauthors = Butterworth G, Harris M |title=Principles of Developmental Psychology |year=1994 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-0-86377-280-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofdeve0000butt }}</ref>
 Other reflexes, such as the [[walking reflex]], appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different.<ref name="bremner">{{Cite book | vauthors = Bremner JG |title=Infancy |year=1994 |publisher=Blackwell |edition=2 |isbn=978-0-631-18466-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/infancy0000brem_s1x4 }}</ref> It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the [[moro reflex|moro]] and [[walking reflex]]es) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development.<ref name="butterworth" /> Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like [[dementia]] or traumatic lesions.
-[[Ultrasound]]s have shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes.<ref name="bremner" /> By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception.<ref name="bremner" /> Prenatal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example in [[schizophrenia]]. With the advent of [[cognitive neuroscience]], [[embryology]] and the neuroscience of prenatal development is of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.
+[[Ultrasound]]s have shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes.<ref name="bremner" /> By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice, suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception.<ref name="bremner" /> Prenatal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example, in [[schizophrenia]]. With the advent of [[cognitive neuroscience]], [[embryology]], and the neuroscience of prenatal development, these areas have become of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.
-Several environmental agents—[[teratogens]]—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the [[rubella]] virus and the [[toxoplasmosis]] parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.{{sfn|Berk|2012|pp=102–115}} There are many statistics which prove the effects of the aforementioned substances. A leading example of this would be that at least 100,000 "cocaine babies" were born in the United States annually in the late 1980s. "Cocaine babies" are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties which persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. The drug also encourages behavioural problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.<ref>{{Cite news |id={{ProQuest|435860480}} |title=One of five expectant mothers use cocaine, U.S. study finds |agency = Associated Press |work=Toronto star |date=20 January 1989 |page=B5 }} Cited study: {{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=D. A. |last2=Zuckerman |first2=B. S. |last3=Amaro |first3=H. |last4=Aboagye |first4=K. |last5=Bauchner |first5=H. |last6=Cabral |first6=H. |last7=Fried |first7=L. |last8=Hingson |first8=R. |last9=Kayne |first9=H. |last10=Levenson |first10=S. M. |title=Cocaine use during pregnancy: prevalence and correlates |journal=Pediatrics |date=December 1988 |volume=82 |issue=6 |pages=888–895 |doi=10.1542/peds.82.6.888 |pmid=3186380 }}</ref>
+Theoretical extensions in the field now investigate "embryonic spiritual life". While debated, these theories cite fetal sensory capacities to suggest that prenatal experiences may influence the development of later spiritual representations and self-transcendence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alkhouri |first=Khader I. |date=2026-02-16 |title=Book Review of "Developmental Psychology of Religion [Αναπτυξιακή Ψυχολογία της Θρησκείας]": by Spyridon K. Tsitsigkos. Athens: Editions of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 2024. 518 pp. €20.00 paperback. ISBN 978-618-87365-0-4 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10508619.2026.2632432 |journal=The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion |language=en |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1080/10508619.2026.2632432 |issn=1050-8619|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
+Several environmental agents—[[teratogens]]—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the [[rubella]] virus and the [[toxoplasmosis]] parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.{{sfn|Berk|2012|pp=102–115}} Many statistics prove the effects of the aforementioned substances. A leading example of this would be that at least 100,000 "cocaine babies" were born in the United States annually in the late 1980s. "Cocaine babies" are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties that persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. The drug also encourages behavioral problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.<ref>{{Cite news |id={{ProQuest|435860480}} |title=One of five expectant mothers use cocaine, U.S. study finds |agency = Associated Press |work=Toronto star |date=20 January 1989 |page=B5 }} Cited study: {{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=D. A. |last2=Zuckerman |first2=B. S. |last3=Amaro |first3=H. |last4=Aboagye |first4=K. |last5=Bauchner |first5=H. |last6=Cabral |first6=H. |last7=Fried |first7=L. |last8=Hingson |first8=R. |last9=Kayne |first9=H. |last10=Levenson |first10=S. M. |title=Cocaine use during pregnancy: prevalence and correlates |journal=Pediatrics |date=December 1988 |volume=82 |issue=6 |pages=888–895 |doi=10.1542/peds.82.6.888 |pmid=3186380 }}</ref>
 ===Infancy===
 {{Main|Infant and child psychology|Infant cognitive development}}
 From birth until the first year, children are referred to as [[infant]]s. As they grow, children respond to their environment in unique ways.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it.
-The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hirshkowitz |first1=Max |last2=Whiton |first2=Kaitlyn |last3=Albert |first3=Steven M. |last4=Alessi |first4=Cathy |last5=Bruni |first5=Oliviero |last6=DonCarlos |first6=Lydia |last7=Hazen |first7=Nancy |last8=Herman |first8=John |last9=Katz |first9=Eliot S. |last10=Kheirandish-Gozal |first10=Leila |last11=Neubauer |first11=David N. |last12=O’Donnell |first12=Anne E. |last13=Ohayon |first13=Maurice |last14=Peever |first14=John |last15=Rawding |first15=Robert |last16=Sachdeva |first16=Ramesh C. |last17=Setters |first17=Belinda |last18=Vitiello |first18=Michael V. |last19=Ware |first19=J. Catesby |last20=Adams Hillard |first20=Paula J. |title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary |journal=Sleep Health |date=March 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=40–43 |doi=10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |pmid=29073412 }}</ref> At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become [[diurnal animal|diurnal]].<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Aakash K. |last2=Reddy |first2=Vamsi |last3=Shumway |first3=Karlie R. |last4=Araujo |first4=John F. |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526132/ |chapter=Physiology, Sleep Stages |pmid=30252388 }}</ref> In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Iwata |first1=Osuke |last2=Okamura |first2=Hisayoshi |last3=Saitsu |first3=Hiroki |last4=Saikusa |first4=Mamoru |last5=Kanda |first5=Hiroshi |last6=Eshima |first6=Nobuoki |last7=Iwata |first7=Sachiko |last8=Maeno |first8=Yasuki |last9=Matsuishi |first9=Toyojiro |date=Jan 2013 |title=Diurnal cortisol changes in newborn infants suggesting entrainment of peripheral circadian clock in utero and at birth |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=E25–32 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2750 |pmid=23150686 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, the circadian rhythm starts to take shape, and a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
+The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hirshkowitz |first1=Max |last2=Whiton |first2=Kaitlyn |last3=Albert |first3=Steven M. |last4=Alessi |first4=Cathy |last5=Bruni |first5=Oliviero |last6=DonCarlos |first6=Lydia |last7=Hazen |first7=Nancy |last8=Herman |first8=John |last9=Katz |first9=Eliot S. |last10=Kheirandish-Gozal |first10=Leila |last11=Neubauer |first11=David N. |last12=O'Donnell |first12=Anne E. |last13=Ohayon |first13=Maurice |last14=Peever |first14=John |last15=Rawding |first15=Robert |last16=Sachdeva |first16=Ramesh C. |last17=Setters |first17=Belinda |last18=Vitiello |first18=Michael V. |last19=Ware |first19=J. Catesby |last20=Adams Hillard |first20=Paula J. |title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary |journal=Sleep Health |date=March 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=40–43 |doi=10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |pmid=29073412 }}</ref> At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become [[diurnal animal|diurnal]].<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Aakash K. |last2=Reddy |first2=Vamsi |last3=Shumway |first3=Karlie R. |last4=Araujo |first4=John F. |title=StatPearls |date=2025 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526132/ |chapter=Physiology, Sleep Stages |pmid=30252388 }}</ref> In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Iwata |first1=Osuke |last2=Okamura |first2=Hisayoshi |last3=Saitsu |first3=Hiroki |last4=Saikusa |first4=Mamoru |last5=Kanda |first5=Hiroshi |last6=Eshima |first6=Nobuoki |last7=Iwata |first7=Sachiko |last8=Maeno |first8=Yasuki |last9=Matsuishi |first9=Toyojiro |date=Jan 2013 |title=Diurnal cortisol changes in newborn infants suggesting entrainment of peripheral circadian clock in utero and at birth |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=E25–32 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2750 |pmid=23150686 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, the circadian rhythm starts to take shape; a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />
 Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:
-* quiet sleep and active sleep ([[dream]]ing, when [[REM sleep]] occurs). Generally, there are various reasons as to why infants dream. Some argue that it is just a psychotherapy, which usually occurs normally in the brain. Dreaming is a form of processing and consolidating information that has been obtained during the day. Freud argues that dreams are a way of representing unconscious desires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Wei |last2=Guo |first2=Benyu |title=Freud's Dream Interpretation: A Different Perspective Based on the Self-Organization Theory of Dreaming |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2018 |volume=9 |page=1553 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01553 |pmid=30190698 |pmc=6115518 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+* quiet sleep and active sleep ([[dream]]ing, when [[REM sleep]] occurs). Generally, there are various reasons as to why infants dream. Some argue that it is just a psychotherapy, which usually occurs normally in the brain. Dreaming is a form of processing and consolidating information acquired during the day. Freud argues that dreams are a way of representing unconscious desires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Wei |last2=Guo |first2=Benyu |title=Freud's Dream Interpretation: A Different Perspective Based on the Self-Organization Theory of Dreaming |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2018 |volume=9 |article-number=1553 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01553 |pmid=30190698 |pmc=6115518 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 * quiet waking, and active waking
-* fussing and [[crying]]. In a normal set up, infants have different reasons as to why they cry. Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-07 |title=Soothing a crying baby |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/baby/caring-for-a-newborn/soothing-a-crying-baby/ |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=nhs.uk |language=en}}</ref>
+* fussing and [[crying]]. In a normal setup, infants cry for different reasons. Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-07 |title=Soothing a crying baby |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/baby/caring-for-a-newborn/soothing-a-crying-baby/ |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=nhs.uk |language=en}}</ref>
 ====Infant perception====
-Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered as the "five senses".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bee D, Boyd H |title=The developing child |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=978-0-205-25602-0 |page=36 |edition=13th|date=2011-12-12 }}</ref> Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.<ref name="bremner" />
+Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered the "five senses".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bee D, Boyd H |title=The developing child |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=978-0-205-25602-0 |page=36 |edition=13th|date=2011-12-12 }}</ref> Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.<ref name="bremner" />
-* [[Visual perception|Vision]] is significantly worse in infants than in older children. Infant sight tends to be blurry in early stages but improves over time. Color perception, similar to that seen in adults, has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months using habituation methods.<ref name="butterworth" /> Infants attain adult-like vision at about six months.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=191}}
+* [[Visual perception|Vision]] is significantly worse in infants than in older children. An infant's vision tends to be blurry in the early stages but improves over time. Color perception, similar to that seen in adults, has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months using habituation methods.<ref name="butterworth" /> Infants attain adult-like vision at about six months.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=191}}
-* [[Hearing (sense)|Hearing]] is well-developed prior to birth. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages. Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=151}} Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.
+* [[Hearing (sense)|Hearing]] is well-developed before birth. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, their mother's voice to other voices, and their native language to other languages. Scientists believe these features are probably learned in the womb.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=151}} Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months, their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.
-* [[Olfaction|Smell]] and [[taste]] are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around three days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=150}} Older infants also prefer the smell of their mother to that of others.<ref name="butterworth" />
+* [[Olfaction|Smell]] and [[taste]] are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g., sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the amniotic fluid, which, in turn, is influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around three days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=150}} Older infants also prefer the smell of their mother to that of others.<ref name="butterworth" />
-* [[Haptic perception|Touch and feel]] is one of the better-developed senses at birth as it is one of the first senses to develop inside the womb.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Feldman RD, Papalia DE |title=A child's world: infancy through adolescence |year=2010 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-353204-2 |page=57 |edition=12th}}</ref>  This is evidenced by the [[primitive reflexes]] described above, and the relatively advanced development of the [[somatosensory cortex]].<ref name="Slater">{{cite book |title=Introduction to Infant Development | vauthors = Slater A, Lewis M |isbn=978-0-19-928305-7 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |year=2006}}</ref>
+* [[Haptic perception|Touch and feel]] is one of the better-developed senses at birth, as it is one of the first senses to develop inside the womb.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Feldman RD, Papalia DE |title=A child's world: infancy through adolescence |year=2010 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-353204-2 |page=57 |edition=12th}}</ref>  This is evidenced by the [[primitive reflexes]] described above, and the relatively advanced development of the [[somatosensory cortex]].<ref name="Slater">{{cite book |title=Introduction to Infant Development | vauthors = Slater A, Lewis M |isbn=978-0-19-928305-7 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |year=2006}}</ref>
-* [[Pain]]: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received so much attention as an area of research.<ref name="MatthewMatthew">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mathew PJ, Mathew JL | title = Assessment and management of pain in infants | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 79 | issue = 934 | pages = 438–443 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12954954 | pmc = 1742785 | doi = 10.1136/pmj.79.934.438 }}</ref> Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns.<ref name="DilenElseviers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dilen B, Elseviers M | title = Oral glucose solution as pain relief in newborns: results of a clinical trial | journal = Birth | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 98–105 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20557532 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-536X.2010.00389.x }}</ref>
+* [[Pain]]: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received as much attention as an area of research.<ref name="MatthewMatthew">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mathew PJ, Mathew JL | title = Assessment and management of pain in infants | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 79 | issue = 934 | pages = 438–443 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12954954 | pmc = 1742785 | doi = 10.1136/pmj.79.934.438 }}</ref> Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns.<ref name="DilenElseviers">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dilen B, Elseviers M | title = Oral glucose solution as pain relief in newborns: results of a clinical trial | journal = Birth | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 98–105 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20557532 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-536X.2010.00389.x }}</ref>
 ====Language====
 {{Main|Language development}}
-Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=189}} Infants of around six months can differentiate between [[phoneme]]s in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants are able to differentiate between various durations and sound levels and can easily differentiate all the languages they have encountered, hence easy for infants to understand a certain language compared to an adult.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.x |title=The Handbook of Child Language |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-631-20312-4 |editor-last1=Fletcher |editor-last2=MacWhinney |editor-first1=Paul |editor-first2=Brian }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
-At this stage infants also start to [[Babbling|babble]], whereby they start making vowel consonant sound as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy whatever they are hearing in their surrounding producing their own phonemes.
+Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages.{{sfn|Berk|2012|p=189}} Infants of around six months can differentiate between [[phoneme]]s in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants can distinguish between different durations and sound levels and readily differentiate among the languages they have encountered, making it easier for them to understand a given language than for adults to do so.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.x |title=The Handbook of Child Language |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-631-20312-4 |editor-last1=Fletcher |editor-last2=MacWhinney |editor-first1=Paul |editor-first2=Brian }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
-In various cultures, a distinct form of speech called "babytalk" is used when communicating with newborns and young children. This register consists of simplified terms for common topics such as family members, food, hygiene, and familiar animals. It also exhibits specific phonological patterns, such as substituting alveolar sounds with initial velar sounds, especially in languages like English. Furthermore, babytalk often involves morphological simplifications, such as regularizing verb conjugations (for instance, saying "corned" instead of "cornered" or "goed" instead of "went"). This language is typically taught to children and is perceived as their natural way of communication. Interestingly, in mythology and popular culture, certain characters, such as the "Hausa trickster" or the Warner Bros cartoon character "Tweety Pie", are portrayed as speaking in a babytalk-like manner.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.00014.x |chapter=Phonological Development |title=The Handbook of Child Language |date=1996 |last1=Menn |first1=Lise |last2=Stoel-Gammon |first2=Carol |pages=335–360 |isbn=978-0-631-20312-4 }}</ref>
+At this stage, infants also start to [[Babbling|babble]], making vowel-consonant sounds as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy what they hear in their surroundings, producing their own phonemes.
+In various cultures, a distinct form of speech called "babytalk" is used when communicating with newborns and young children. This register consists of simplified terms for common topics such as family members, food, hygiene, and familiar animals. It also exhibits specific phonological patterns, such as substituting initial velar sounds for alveolar sounds, especially in languages like English. Furthermore, babytalk often involves morphological simplifications, such as regularizing verb conjugations (for instance, saying "corned" instead of "cornered" or "goed" instead of "went"). This language is typically taught to children and is perceived as their natural way of communication. Interestingly, in mythology and popular culture, certain characters, such as the "Hausa trickster" or the Warner Bros cartoon character "Tweety Pie", are portrayed as speaking in a babytalk-like manner.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.00014.x |chapter=Phonological Development |title=The Handbook of Child Language |date=1996 |last1=Menn |first1=Lise |last2=Stoel-Gammon |first2=Carol |pages=335–360 |isbn=978-0-631-20312-4 }}</ref>
 ===Infant cognition: the Piagetian era===
-Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lefmann |first1=Tess |last2=Combs-Orme |first2=Terri |title=Early Brain Development for Social Work Practice: Integrating Neuroscience with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development |journal=Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment |date=July 2013 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=640–647 |doi=10.1080/10911359.2013.775936 }}</ref> The concept of object permanence refers to the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not directly perceived or visible; in other words, something is still there even if it is not visible. This is a crucial developmental milestone for infants, who learn that something is not necessarily lost forever just because it is hidden. When a child displays object permanence, they will look for a toy that is hidden, showing that they are aware that the item is still there even when it is covered by a blanket. Most babies start to exhibit symptoms of object permanence around the age of eight months. According to this theory, infants develop [[object permanence]] through touching and handling objects.<ref name="bremner" />
+Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile, and motor representations of objects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lefmann |first1=Tess |last2=Combs-Orme |first2=Terri |title=Early Brain Development for Social Work Practice: Integrating Neuroscience with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development |journal=Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment |date=July 2013 |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=640–647 |doi=10.1080/10911359.2013.775936 }}</ref> The concept of object permanence refers to the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not directly perceived or visible; in other words, something is still there even if it is not visible. This is a crucial developmental milestone for infants, who learn that something is not necessarily lost forever just because it is hidden. When a child displays object permanence, they will look for a hidden toy, showing that they are aware the item is still there even when covered by a blanket. Most babies begin to exhibit signs of object permanence around 8 months of age. According to this theory, infants develop [[object permanence]] through touching and handling objects.<ref name="bremner" />
-Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see [[Theory of cognitive development#Sensorimotor stage|sensorimotor stages]] for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by [[primitive reflexes]].<ref name="Gruber">{{Cite book | vauthors = Piaget J |year=1977 |title=The essential Piaget \| veditors = Gruber HE, Voneche JJ |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7100-8778-2}}</ref> Discovery of new behaviors results from [[classical conditioning|classical]] and [[operant conditioning]], and the formation of [[habit (psychology)|habits]].<ref name="Gruber" /> From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved.
+Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see [[Theory of cognitive development#Sensorimotor stage|sensorimotor stages]] for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by [[primitive reflexes]].<ref name="Gruber">{{Cite book | vauthors = Piaget J |year=1977 |title=The essential Piaget \| veditors = Gruber HE, Voneche JJ |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7100-8778-2}}</ref> Discovery of new behaviors results from [[classical conditioning|classical]] and [[operant conditioning]], and the formation of [[habit (psychology)|habits]].<ref name="Gruber" /> From eight months the infant can uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved.
-Piaget concluded that infants lacked object permanence before 18 months when infants' before this age failed to look for an object where it had last been seen. Instead, infants continued to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "[[A-not-B error]]". Some researchers have suggested that before the age of 8–9 months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone ("Out of sight, out of mind").
+Piaget concluded that infants lacked object permanence before 18 months, as they failed to look for an object where it had last been seen. Instead, infants continued to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "[[A-not-B error]]". Some researchers have suggested that before the age of 8–9 months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people as well, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are out of sight ("Out of sight, out of mind").
 ====Recent findings in infant cognition====
-In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than first thought.
+In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods for assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget could achieve in his time. Since then, many studies using these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than was once thought.
 Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as [[Elizabeth Spelke]] and [[Renee Baillargeon]]) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.
-According to Jean Piaget's developmental psychology, object permanence, or the awareness that objects exist even when they are no longer visible, was thought to emerge gradually between the ages of 8 and 12 months. However, experts such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon have questioned this notion. They studied infants' comprehension of object permanence at a young age using novel experimental approaches such as violation-of-expectation paradigms. These findings imply that children as young as 3 to 4 months old may have an innate awareness of object permanence. Baillargeon's "drawbridge" experiment, for example, showed that infants were surprised when they saw occurrences that contradicted object permanence expectations. This proposition has important consequences for our understanding of infant cognition, implying that infants may be born with core cognitive abilities rather than developing them via experience and learning.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199692972.003.0002 |chapter=Learning about the mind from evidence |title=Understanding Other Minds |date=2013 |last1=Meltzoff |first1=Andrew N. |last2=Gopnik |first2=Alison |pages=19–34 |isbn=978-0-19-969297-2 }}</ref>
+According to Jean Piaget's developmental psychology, object permanence, or the awareness that objects exist even when they are no longer visible, was thought to emerge gradually between the ages of 8 and 12 months. However, experts such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon have questioned this notion. They studied infants' comprehension of object permanence at a young age using novel experimental approaches such as violation-of-expectation paradigms. These findings imply that children as young as 3 to 4 months old may have an innate awareness of object permanence. Baillargeon's "drawbridge" experiment, for example, showed that infants were surprised when they observed events that contradicted expectations about object permanence. This proposition has important consequences for our understanding of infant cognition, implying that infants may be born with core cognitive abilities rather than developing them via experience and learning.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199692972.003.0002 |chapter=Learning about the mind from evidence |title=Understanding Other Minds |date=2013 |last1=Meltzoff |first1=Andrew N. |last2=Gopnik |first2=Alison |pages=19–34 |isbn=978-0-19-969297-2 }}</ref>
 Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including:
@@ Line 296: / Line 318: @@
 ===Critical periods of development===
-There are [[critical period]]s in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.<ref name="Siegler">{{Cite book | vauthors = Siegler R |year=2006 |title=How Children Develop, Exploring Child Development Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop |location=New York |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-0-7167-6113-6}}</ref> [[Feral child]]ren such as [[Genie (feral child)|Genie]], deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young with no one to care about her and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in [[neurophysiology]], from the work of [[David H. Hubel|Hubel]] and [[Torsten Wiesel|Wiesel]] among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exists between neurophysiological details and clinical features and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants'''''.'''''
+There are [[critical period]]s in infancy and childhood during which the development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social, and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.<ref name="Siegler">{{Cite book | vauthors = Siegler R |year=2006 |title=How Children Develop, Exploring Child Development Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop |location=New York |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-0-7167-6113-6}}</ref> [[Feral child]]ren such as [[Genie (feral child)|Genie]], deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology, which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young, with no one to care about her, and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well established in [[neurophysiology]], as demonstrated by the work of [[David H. Hubel|Hubel]] and [[Torsten Wiesel|Wiesel]], among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exist between neurophysiological details and clinical features, and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants'''''.'''''
 ====Developmental delays====
-Studies have been done to look at the differences in children who have developmental delays versus typical development. Normally when being compared to one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional and other mental disorders. When compared to MA children there is a bigger difference between normal developmental behaviors overall. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered as normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Caplan B, Neece CL, Baker BL | title = Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 37 | pages = 143–151 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25498740 | pmc = 4314378 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.045 }}</ref>
+{{Main|Developmental delay (disambiguation){{!}}Developmental delay}}
+Studies have examined differences between children with developmental delays and those with typical development. Normally, when comparing one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional, and other mental disorders. Compared with MA children, there is a greater difference in overall normal developmental behaviors. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Caplan B, Neece CL, Baker BL | title = Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 37 | pages = 143–151 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25498740 | pmc = 4314378 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.045 }}</ref>
 ===Toddlerhood===
 {{Main|Toddler}}
-Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination.
-During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the [[Language development|development of language]], where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words.<ref name=Upton>{{cite book| vauthors = Upton P |title=Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=2011|publisher=Learning Matters|location=Exeter|isbn=978-0-85725-276-0|page=62}}</ref> Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident.<ref name=ToddlerPlay>{{cite book| vauthors = Massi WS |title=Toddler Play|year=2001|publisher=Creative Pub. international|isbn=978-0-86573-435-7|url=https://archive.org/details/toddlerplaygymbo00wend}}</ref> If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in [[gender role]]s, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do.<ref name=UPton>{{cite book| vauthors = Upton P |title=Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=2011|publisher=Learning Matters|location=Exeter|isbn=978-0-85725-276-0|page=84}}</ref>
+Infants shift between the ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is marked by self-awareness, linguistic development, and the emergence of memory and imagination.
+During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the [[Language development|development of language]], where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words.<ref name=Upton>{{cite book| vauthors = Upton P |title=Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=2011|publisher=Learning Matters|location=Exeter|isbn=978-0-85725-276-0|page=62}}</ref> Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take the initiative to explore, experiment, and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident.<ref name=ToddlerPlay>{{cite book| vauthors = Massi WS |title=Toddler Play|year=2001|publisher=Creative Pub. international|isbn=978-0-86573-435-7|url=https://archive.org/details/toddlerplaygymbo00wend}}</ref> If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify with [[gender role]]s, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do.<ref name=UPton>{{cite book| vauthors = Upton P |title=Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=2011|publisher=Learning Matters|location=Exeter|isbn=978-0-85725-276-0|page=84}}</ref>
-Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos".<ref name=Newman>{{cite book| vauthors = Newman BM, Newman PR |title=Development Through Life : A Psychosocial Approach|year=2011|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-1-111-34468-9|pages=215–217 }}</ref> Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.
+Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos".<ref name=Newman>{{cite book| vauthors = Newman BM, Newman PR |title=Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach|year=2011|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-1-111-34468-9|pages=215–217 }}</ref> Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage, testing their independence, is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.
 ===Childhood===
@@ Line 313: / Line 338: @@
 [[Erik Erikson]] divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis:<ref name="Bernardo J. Carducci 2009">{{cite book | vauthors = Carducci BJ | title = The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | date = 2009 | page = 189 }}</ref>
 :* Stage 1: [[Infancy]] (0 to 1½) in which the psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust
-:* Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
+:* Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3), in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
-:* Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age" and "toy age".)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122300/http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
+:* Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age", and "toy age".)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122300/http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|title=Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
-:* Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority
+:* Stage 4: School age (5 to 12), in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority
 ====Infancy====
-As stated, the psychosocial crisis for Erikson is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met, or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of anxiety and fear.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson">{{cite book |doi=10.31274/isudp.2022.122 |title=Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being |date=2022 |last1=Lang |first1=Diana }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
+As stated, Erikson's psychosocial crisis is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of anxiety and fear.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson">{{cite book |doi=10.31274/isudp.2022.122 |title=Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being |date=2022 |last1=Lang |first1=Diana }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
 ====Early Childhood====
-Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world in this stage and discovers preferences in what they like. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low self-esteem.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson"/>
+Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world at this stage and develops preferences. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low self-esteem.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson"/>
 ====Play (or preschool) ages 3–5====
-In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their care givers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3–5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thornton |first1=Arland |title=The Well-being of Children and Families: Research and Data Needs |date=2001 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-09758-6 |pages=73–74 }}</ref>
+In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their caregivers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3–5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thornton |first1=Arland |title=The Well-being of Children and Families: Research and Data Needs |date=2001 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-09758-6 |pages=73–74 }}</ref>
 [[Cognitive development#Preoperational stage|Preoperational]] and then [[Cognitive development#Concrete operational stage|operational]] thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lightfoot C, Cole M, Cole SR | title = The Development of Children | publisher = Macmillan | date = 2008 | pages = 275–277 }}</ref>
-The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Preschoolers (3-5 years of age) | date = 11 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/preschoolers.html }}</ref> For [[Jean Piaget]], the child is "''a little scientist'' exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|pp=7,9}}
+Preschoolers' motor skills improve, allowing them to do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on others' care, this age group's world expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Preschoolers (3–5 years of age) | date = 11 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/preschoolers.html }}</ref> For [[Jean Piaget]], the child is "''a little scientist'' exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|pp=7,9}}
-Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|p=14}}
+Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play, "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|p=14}}
-In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops guilt.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T | title = Health: You and Your World | volume =  1: Brief Edition | publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | date = 2015 | pages = 28 }}</ref> Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.
+In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops initiative. If not, the child develops guilt.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T | title = Health: You and Your World | volume =  1: Brief Edition | publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | date = 2015 | page = 28 }}</ref> Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.
 ====Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12====
-For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child.<ref name="Bernardo J. Carducci 2009" />
+According to Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority, which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competence in the child.<ref name="Bernardo J. Carducci 2009" />
-In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society."<ref name="Barbara Engler 2013">{{cite book | vauthors = Engler B | title = Personality Theories | edition = 9th | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2013 | page = 142 }}</ref> School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work.<ref name="Marc H. Bornstein 2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS | title = Lifespan Development: Infancy Through Adulthood | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2010 | page = 299 }}</ref> Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."
+In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society."<ref name="Barbara Engler 2013">{{cite book | vauthors = Engler B | title = Personality Theories | edition = 9th | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2013 | page = 142 }}</ref> School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and volunteer work.<ref name="Marc H. Bornstein 2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS | title = Lifespan Development: Infancy Through Adulthood | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2010 | page = 299 }}</ref> Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."
 The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop.<ref name="Barbara Engler 2013" /> Parents and teachers can "undermine" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts.<ref name="Marc H. Bornstein 2010" />
 Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop a belief in their competence. Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://behavioralchild.com/milestones/ | vauthors = Broutian M | publisher = Milestones | title = Your child: early school years (7 to 11 years) stage of development | work = Your Child's Development | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151115170628/http://behavioralchild.com/milestones/ | archive-date= 15 November 2015 | access-date = 13 October 2015 }}</ref>
-The [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (6-8 years of age) | date = 4 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle.html }}</ref><ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (9-11 years of age) | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle2.html | access-date = 15 October 2015 }}</ref>
+The [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (6–8 years of age) | date = 4 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle.html }}</ref><ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (9–11 years of age) | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle2.html | access-date = 15 October 2015 }}</ref>
 ====Middle Childhood (6–8)====
-Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8" />
+Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to think about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance becomes more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8" />
 ====Late Childhood (9–12)====
-For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.<ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11" />
+For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families, and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.<ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11" />
 ===Adolescence===
 {{Main|Adolescent psychology}}
-Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see [[Erik Erikson]]) and the discovery of moral purpose (see [[William Damon]]). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to [[egocentric]] thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/developmental_theory.htm|title=Developmental Theory|website=pages.uoregon.edu|access-date=2021-05-07|archive-date=2021-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516005242/https://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/developmental_theory.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-Erik Erikson labels this stage identity versus role confusion. Erikson emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of identity in adolescence because it affects the individual throughout their life. Identity is a lifelong process and is related with curiosity and active engagement. Role confusion is often considered the current state of identity of the individual. Identity exploration is the process of changing from role confusion to resolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Moin |title=Identity exploration, identity confusion, and openness as predictors of multicultural ideology |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |date=July 2013 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=491–496 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.005 }}</ref>
+Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see [[Erik Erikson]]) and the discovery of moral purpose (see [[William Damon]]). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols to represent abstract concepts and to support formal reasoning. A return to [[egocentric]] thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W., and Hummel, J., January 1998)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/developmental_theory.htm|title=Developmental Theory|website=pages.uoregon.edu|access-date=2021-05-07|archive-date=2021-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516005242/https://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/developmental_theory.htm}}</ref>
-During Erik Erikson's identity versus role uncertainty stage, which occurs in adolescence, people struggle to form a cohesive sense of self while exploring many social roles and prospective life routes. This time is characterized by deep introspection, self-examination, and the pursuit of self-understanding. Adolescents are confronted with questions regarding their identity, beliefs, and future goals. The major problem is building a strong sense of identity in the face of society standards, peer pressure, and personal preferences. Adolescents participate in identity exploration, commitment, and synthesis, actively seeking out new experiences, embracing ideals and aspirations, and merging their changing sense of self into a coherent identity. Successfully navigating this stage builds the groundwork for good psychological development in adulthood, allowing people to pursue meaningful relationships, make positive contributions to society, and handle life's adversities with perseverance and purpose.{{sfn|Erikson|Erikson|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
+Erik Erikson labels this stage identity versus role confusion. Erikson emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of identity in adolescence because it affects the individual throughout their life. Identity is a lifelong process, shaped by curiosity and active engagement. Role confusion is often considered the current state of an individual's identity. Identity exploration is the process of changing from role confusion to resolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Moin |title=Identity exploration, identity confusion, and openness as predictors of multicultural ideology |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |date=July 2013 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=491–496 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.005 }}</ref>
+During Erik Erikson's identity versus role uncertainty stage, which occurs in adolescence, people struggle to form a cohesive sense of self while exploring many social roles and prospective life routes. This time is characterized by deep introspection, self-examination, and the pursuit of self-understanding. Adolescents are confronted with questions regarding their identity, beliefs, and future goals. The major problem is building a strong sense of identity in the face of society standards, peer pressure, and personal preferences. Adolescents engage in identity exploration, commitment, and synthesis, actively seeking new experiences, embracing ideals and aspirations, and integrating their evolving sense of self into a coherent identity. Successfully navigating this stage builds the groundwork for good psychological development in adulthood, allowing people to pursue meaningful relationships, make positive contributions to society, and handle life's adversities with perseverance and purpose.{{sfn|Erikson|Erikson|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
 It is divided into three parts, namely:
@@ Line 363: / Line 389: @@
 # Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years
-The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become [[autonomous]], and commit to an [[identity (social science)|identity]], or [[sense of self]]. Different roles, behaviors and [[ideologies]] must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erikson |first1=Erik H. |title=Identity Youth and Crisis |date=1968 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-31144-0 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
+The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become [[autonomous]], and commit to an [[identity (social science)|identity]], or [[sense of self]]. Different roles, behaviors, and [[ideologies]] must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose a vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erikson |first1=Erik H. |title=Identity Youth and Crisis |date=1968 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-31144-0 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>
 ===Early adulthood===
 {{Main|Young adult (psychology)}}
-Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 to 39,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arnett JJ, Žukauskienė R, Sugimura K | title = The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 1 | issue = 7 | pages = 569–576 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 26361316 | doi = 10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7 }}</ref> and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on [[Interpersonal relationship|maintaining relationships]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Kastenbaum R |title=Encyclopedia of Adult Development|year=1993|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=978-0-89774-669-4|page=14}}</ref> Erikson shows the importance of relationships by labeling this stage ''intimacy'' vs ''isolation''. Intimacy suggests a process of becoming part of something larger than oneself by sacrificing in romantic relationships and working for both life and career goals.<ref name="Žukauskienė">{{Cite book |last=Žukauskienė |first=Rita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYs0CwAAQBAJ&dq=%22early+adulthood%22+development&pg=PA17 |title=Emerging Adulthood in a European Context |date=2015-12-07 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-317-61271-1 |language=en}}</ref> Other examples include creating bonds of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.
-''Isolation,'' on the other hand, suggests something different than most might expect. Erikson defined it as a delay of commitment in order to maintain freedom. Yet, this decision does not come without consequences. Erikson explained that choosing isolation may affect one's chances of getting married, progressing in a career, and overall development.<ref name="Žukauskienė"/>
+Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 and 39,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arnett JJ, Žukauskienė R, Sugimura K | title = The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: implications for mental health | journal = The Lancet. Psychiatry | volume = 1 | issue = 7 | pages = 569–576 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 26361316 | doi = 10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7 }}</ref> and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on [[Interpersonal relationship|maintaining relationships]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Kastenbaum R |title=Encyclopedia of Adult Development|year=1993|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=978-0-89774-669-4|page=14}}</ref> Erikson shows the importance of relationships by labeling this stage ''intimacy'' vs ''isolation''. Intimacy suggests a process of becoming part of something larger than oneself through sacrifice in romantic relationships and by working toward both life and career goals.<ref name="Žukauskienė">{{Cite book |last=Žukauskienė |first=Rita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYs0CwAAQBAJ&dq=%22early+adulthood%22+development&pg=PA17 |title=Emerging Adulthood in a European Context |date=2015-12-07 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-317-61271-1 |language=en}}</ref> Other examples include creating bonds of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists argue that the development of intimacy skills depends on the resolution of earlier developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned, the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.
-A related framework for studying this part of the lifespan is that of [[emerging adulthood]]. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period, not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.<ref name="Twenge">{{cite journal| vauthors = Twenge JM |title=Review of emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties|journal=American Journal of Psychology|year=2008|volume=121|issue=4|pages=682–687|doi=10.2307/20445494|jstor=20445494}}</ref>
+''Isolation,'' on the other hand, suggests something different than most might expect. Erikson defined it as a delay in commitment to maintain freedom. Yet, this decision does not come without consequences. Erikson explained that choosing isolation may affect one's chances of getting married, progressing in a career, and overall development.<ref name="Žukauskienė"/>
+A related framework for studying this stage of the lifespan is [[emerging adulthood]]. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period, not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.<ref name="Twenge">{{cite journal| vauthors = Twenge JM |title=Review of emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties|journal=American Journal of Psychology|year=2008|volume=121|issue=4|pages=682–687|doi=10.2307/20445494|jstor=20445494}}</ref>
 ===Middle adulthood===
 {{Main|Middle age}}
-Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 64. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is the sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or their immediate community. On the other hand, stagnation results in a lack of purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helson R, Soto CJ | title = Up and down in middle age: monotonic and nonmonotonic changes in roles, status, and personality | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 89 | issue = 2 | pages = 194–204 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16162053 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.194 }}</ref> The adult's identity continues to develop in middle-adulthood. Middle-aged adults often adopt opposite gender characteristics. The adult realizes they are half-way through their life and often reevaluate vocational and social roles. Life circumstances can also cause a reexamination of identity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sokol |first1=Justin T. |title=Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory |journal=Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology |date=March 2009 |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp/vol1/iss2/14/ }}</ref>
-Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience [[menopause]] at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone [[estrogen]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD | title = Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors and age at natural menopause: a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 43 | issue = 5 | pages = 1542–1562 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 24771324 | pmc = 4190515 | doi = 10.1093/ije/dyu094 }}</ref> Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. [[Andropause]] in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in [[spermatozoa|sperm]] count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in [[erection]] and longer periods of [[penile stimulation]] required to achieve [[ejaculation]].
+Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 and 64. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is the sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or one's immediate community. On the other hand, stagnation results in a lack of purpose.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helson R, Soto CJ | title = Up and down in middle age: monotonic and nonmonotonic changes in roles, status, and personality | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 89 | issue = 2 | pages = 194–204 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16162053 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.194 }}</ref> The adult's identity continues to develop in middle-adulthood. Middle-aged adults often adopt opposite gender characteristics. The adult realizes they are halfway through their life and often reevaluates vocational and social roles. Life circumstances can also cause a reexamination of identity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sokol |first1=Justin T. |title=Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory |journal=Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology |date=March 2009 |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp/vol1/iss2/14/ }}</ref>
+Physically, middle-aged individuals experience declines in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory acuity, and cardiac output. Also, women experience [[menopause]] at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone [[estrogen]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD | title = Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors and age at natural menopause: a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 43 | issue = 5 | pages = 1542–1562 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 24771324 | pmc = 4190515 | doi = 10.1093/ije/dyu094 }}</ref> Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. [[Andropause]] in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in [[spermatozoa|sperm]] count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in [[erection]] and longer periods of [[penile stimulation]] required to achieve [[ejaculation]].
 The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in the fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ | title = Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle? | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 66 | issue = 8 | pages = 1733–1749 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18316146 | doi = 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030 | url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w12935.pdf }}</ref>
@@ Line 383: / Line 411: @@
 ===Old age===
 {{Main|Old age}}
-The [[World Health Organization]] finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most [[Developed country|"developed countries"]] set the age as 65 or 70. However, in [[Developing country|developing countries]] inability to make "active contribution" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age.<ref>{{cite web | title = Definition of an older or elderly person | work = World Health Organization | url = http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/ | access-date = 11 October 2015 | archive-date = 8 October 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151008043813/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/ | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orimo |first1=Hajime |last2=Ito |first2=Hideki |last3=Suzuki |first3=Takao |last4=Araki |first4=Atsushi |last5=Hosoi |first5=Takayuki |last6=Sawabe |first6=Motoji |title=Reviewing the definition of 'elderly' |journal=Geriatrics & Gerontology International |date=September 2006 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1111/j.1447-0594.2006.00341.x }}</ref> According to [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]], old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives.<ref name="Miller2003">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPcwuEe9MBQC&pg=PA242 |title=Encyclopedia of Human Ecology: I-Z |vauthors=Miller JR |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57607-852-5 |pages=242– |access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>
-Erikson labels this stage as integrity versus despair. For integrated persons, there is a sense of fulfillment in life. They have become self-aware and optimistic due to life's commitments and connection to others. While reflecting on life, people in this stage develop feelings of contentment with their experiences. If a person falls into despair, they are often disappointed about failures or missed chances in life. They may feel that the time left in life is an insufficient amount to turn things around.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hearn |first1=Simon |last2=Saulnier |first2=Gary |last3=Strayer |first3=Janet |last4=Glenham |first4=Margarete |last5=Koopman |first5=Ray |last6=Marcia |first6=James E. |title=Between Integrity and Despair: Toward Construct Validation of Erikson's Eighth Stage |journal=Journal of Adult Development |date=March 2012 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1007/s10804-011-9126-y }}</ref>
+The [[World Health Organization]] finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most [[Developed country|"developed countries"]] set the age as 65 or 70. However, in [[Developing country|developing countries]], the inability to make an "active contribution" to society, rather than chronological age, marks the beginning of old age.<ref>{{cite web | title = Definition of an older or elderly person | work = World Health Organization | url = http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/ | access-date = 11 October 2015 | archive-date = 8 October 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151008043813/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orimo |first1=Hajime |last2=Ito |first2=Hideki |last3=Suzuki |first3=Takao |last4=Araki |first4=Atsushi |last5=Hosoi |first5=Takayuki |last6=Sawabe |first6=Motoji |title=Reviewing the definition of 'elderly' |journal=Geriatrics & Gerontology International |date=September 2006 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1111/j.1447-0594.2006.00341.x }}</ref> According to [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]], old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives.<ref name="Miller2003">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPcwuEe9MBQC&pg=PA242 |title=Encyclopedia of Human Ecology: I-Z |vauthors=Miller JR |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57607-852-5 |pages=242– |access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>
+Erikson labels this stage as integrity versus despair. For integrated persons, there is a sense of fulfillment in life. They have become self-aware and optimistic through life's commitments and connections with others. While reflecting on life, people at this stage develop a sense of contentment with their experiences. If a person falls into despair, they are often disappointed about failures or missed chances in life. They may feel that the time left in life is an insufficient amount to turn things around.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hearn |first1=Simon |last2=Saulnier |first2=Gary |last3=Strayer |first3=Janet |last4=Glenham |first4=Margarete |last5=Koopman |first5=Ray |last6=Marcia |first6=James E. |title=Between Integrity and Despair: Toward Construct Validation of Erikson's Eighth Stage |journal=Journal of Adult Development |date=March 2012 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1007/s10804-011-9126-y }}</ref>
 Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell.<ref name="Deary2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Deary IJ, Johnson W, Gow AJ, Pattie A, Brett CE, Bates TC, Starr JM | title = Losing one's grip: a bivariate growth curve model of grip strength and nonverbal reasoning from age 79 to 87 years in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921 | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences | volume = 66 | issue = 6 | pages = 699–707 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 21743039 | doi = 10.1093/geronb/gbr059 | doi-access = free | hdl = 20.500.11820/a59dc7c1-af60-4f02-a8be-37987b26f9a4 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larbi |first1=Anis |last2=Rymkiewicz |first2=Paulina |last3=Vasudev |first3=Anusha |last4=Low |first4=Ivy |last5=Shadan |first5=Nurhidaya Binte |last6=Mustafah |first6=Seri |last7=Ayyadhury |first7=Shamini |last8=Fulop |first8=Tamas |title=The Immune System in the Elderly: A Fair Fight Against Diseases? |journal=Aging Health |date=February 2013 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=35–47 |doi=10.2217/ahe.12.78 }}</ref> Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.<ref name="Gill2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gill TM, Baker DI, Gottschalk M, Peduzzi PN, Allore H, Byers A | title = A program to prevent functional decline in physically frail, elderly persons who live at home | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 347 | issue = 14 | pages = 1068–1074 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12362007 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa020423 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
@@ Line 396: / Line 425: @@
 Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.<ref name=Flaherty>{{cite journal | vauthors = Flaherty SC, Sadler LS | title = A review of attachment theory in the context of adolescent parenting | journal = Journal of Pediatric Health Care | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 114–121 | date = 1 March 2011 | pmid = 21320683 | pmc = 3051370 | doi = 10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005 }}</ref>
-All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior; control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior."<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Kopoko K |title=Parenting Styles and Adolescents|journal=Cornell University Cooperative Extension|date=2007|pages=1–8|url=http://www.human.cornell.edu/pam/outreach/parenting/research/upload/Parenting-20Styles-20and-20Adolescents.pdf|access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>
+All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior: control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior."<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Kopoko K |title=Parenting Styles and Adolescents|journal=Cornell University Cooperative Extension|date=2007|pages=1–8|url=https://www.human.cornell.edu/pam/outreach/parenting/research/upload/Parenting-20Styles-20and-20Adolescents.pdf|access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>
 ===Parenting styles===
 The following [[parenting styles]] have been described in the child development literature:
-* Authoritative parenting is characterized as parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Lorraine C. |last2=Clayton |first2=Jennifer D. |last3=Rowley |first3=Stephanie J. |title=Academic Socialization: Understanding Parental Influences on Children's School-Related Development in the Early Years |journal=Review of General Psychology |date=September 2004 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=163–178 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.163 |hdl=2027.42/108158 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive.<ref name=Baumrind>{{cite journal| vauthors = Baumrind D |title=The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use|journal=The Journal of Early Adolescence|date=February 1991|volume=11|issue=1|pages=56–95|doi=10.1177/0272431691111004 }}</ref> This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement.<ref name=Taylor /> Children who are raised by authoritative parents are "more likely to become independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved. They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behavior like delinquency and drug use."<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Dewar G |title=The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards." A guide for the science-minded parent|url=http://www.parentingscience.com/authoritative-parenting-style.html|website=Parenting Science|access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>
+* Authoritative parenting is characterized by parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Lorraine C. |last2=Clayton |first2=Jennifer D. |last3=Rowley |first3=Stephanie J. |title=Academic Socialization: Understanding Parental Influences on Children's School-Related Development in the Early Years |journal=Review of General Psychology |date=September 2004 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=163–178 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.163 |hdl=2027.42/108158 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive.<ref name=Baumrind>{{cite journal| vauthors = Baumrind D |title=The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use|journal=The Journal of Early Adolescence|date=February 1991|volume=11|issue=1|pages=56–95|doi=10.1177/0272431691111004 }}</ref> This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement in the absence of peer support for achievement.<ref name=Taylor /> Children who authoritative parents raise are "more likely to become independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved. They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behavior like delinquency and drug use."<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Dewar G |title=The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards." A guide for the science-minded parent|url=http://www.parentingscience.com/authoritative-parenting-style.html|website=Parenting Science|access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>
-* Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control.<ref name=Taylor /> These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly.<ref name=Baumrind /> In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys.<ref name=Baumrind />
+* Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control.<ref name=Taylor /> These parents focus on obedience, and they monitor their children regularly.<ref name=Baumrind /> In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys.<ref name=Baumrind />
-* Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness.<ref name=Baumrind /> These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior.<ref name=Baumrind /> They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation.<ref name=Baumrind /> Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive.<ref name=Baumrind /> Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles.<ref name=Baumrind /> A subtype of this style, known as indulgent parenting, includes patterns of excessive emotional and behavioral leniency. Adolescents raised by highly indulgent parents have been found to report lower self-worth and higher levels of depression, suggesting that this form of permissive parenting may contribute to negative psychological outcomes. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cui |first=Ming |last2=Jiao |first2=Chengfei |last3=Darling |first3=Carol A. |date=2023 |title=Patterns of indulgent parenting and adolescents' psychological development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/fare.12853 |journal=Family Relations |language=en |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=2695–2709 |doi=10.1111/fare.12853 |issn=1741-3729 |pmc=10683937}}</ref>
+* Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness.<ref name=Baumrind /> These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior.<ref name=Baumrind /> They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation.<ref name=Baumrind /> Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive.<ref name=Baumrind /> Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles.<ref name=Baumrind /> A subtype of this style, known as indulgent parenting, includes patterns of excessive emotional and behavioral leniency. Adolescents raised by highly indulgent parents have been found to report lower self-worth and higher levels of depression, suggesting that this form of permissive parenting may contribute to negative psychological outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cui |first1=Ming |last2=Jiao |first2=Chengfei |last3=Darling |first3=Carol A. |date=2023 |title=Patterns of indulgent parenting and adolescents' psychological development |journal=Family Relations |language=en |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=2695–2709 |doi=10.1111/fare.12853 |pmid=38031571 |issn=1741-3729 |pmc=10683937}}</ref>
-* Rejecting or neglectful parenting is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are usually unsupportive, unstructured, and disinterested in their children's lives. Low degrees of reactivity and demandingness are characteristics of this parenting style.<ref name=Baumrind /> Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories.<ref name=Baumrind />
+* Rejecting or neglectful parenting is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are usually unsupportive, unstructured, and uninterested in their children's lives. Low degrees of reactivity and demandingness are characteristics of this parenting style.<ref name=Baumrind /> Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories.<ref name=Baumrind />
 ===Mother and father factors===
-Parenting research has traditionally focused on mothers, but recent studies highlight the important role of fathers in child development. Children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father.<ref name="aredos">{{cite report |id={{ERIC|ED482051}} |last1=Gadsden |first1=Vivian |last2=Ray |first2=Aisha |date=November 2003 |title=Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2125328669291708941|title="Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (2:57)}}</ref> In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls.<ref name="pmid12795391">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L | title = Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? | journal = Child Development | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 801–21 | date = 2003 | pmid = 12795391 | pmc = 2764264 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00569 }}</ref> However, neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and both single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes.<ref name=Silverstein>{{cite journal |last1=Silverstein |first1=Louise B. |last2=Auerbach |first2=Carl F. |title=Deconstructing the essential father. |journal=American Psychologist |date=June 1999 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=397–407 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.397 }}</ref> Children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom they can form a positive emotional bond. Having multiple such figures further increases the likelihood of positive outcomes.<ref name=Silverstein /> Recent research also suggests that the way parents interact with infants can influence early brain development. Parents who guide their baby's attention during play by shifting their gaze between a toy and the child tend to have infants with more complex brain activity. This attention-guiding behavior helps infants process social cues more effectively. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Cabell L. |last2=Belkowitz |first2=Allison R. |last3=Nance |first3=Madelyn G. |last4=Mortman |first4=Emily T. |last5=Bae |first5=Sonie |last6=Ahmed |first6=Sheher-Bano |last7=Puglia |first7=Meghan H. |date=2025 |title=Parent attention-orienting behavior is associated with neural entropy in infancy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/infa.12595 |journal=Infancy |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=e12595 |doi=10.1111/infa.12595 |issn=1532-7078 |pmc=11512688}}</ref>
+Parenting research has traditionally focused on mothers, but recent studies highlight the important role of fathers in child development. Children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father.<ref name="aredos">{{cite report |id={{ERIC|ED482051}} |last1=Gadsden |first1=Vivian |last2=Ray |first2=Aisha |date=November 2003 |title=Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2125328669291708941|title="Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (2:57)}}</ref> In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls.<ref name="pmid12795391">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L | title = Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? | journal = Child Development | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 801–21 | date = 2003 | pmid = 12795391 | pmc = 2764264 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00569 }}</ref> However, neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and both single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes.<ref name=Silverstein>{{cite journal |last1=Silverstein |first1=Louise B. |last2=Auerbach |first2=Carl F. |title=Deconstructing the essential father. |journal=American Psychologist |date=June 1999 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=397–407 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.397 }}</ref> Children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom they can form a positive emotional bond. Having multiple such figures further increases the likelihood of positive outcomes.<ref name=Silverstein /> Recent research also suggests that the way parents interact with infants can influence early brain development. Parents who guide their baby's attention during play by shifting their gaze between a toy and the child tend to have infants with more complex brain activity. This attention-guiding behavior helps infants process social cues more effectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Cabell L. |last2=Belkowitz |first2=Allison R. |last3=Nance |first3=Madelyn G. |last4=Mortman |first4=Emily T. |last5=Bae |first5=Sonie |last6=Ahmed |first6=Sheher-Bano |last7=Puglia |first7=Meghan H. |date=2025 |title=Parent attention-orienting behavior is associated with neural entropy in infancy |journal=Infancy |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |article-number=e12595 |doi=10.1111/infa.12595 |pmid=38676934 |issn=1532-7078 |pmc=11512688}}</ref>
 ===Divorce===
-Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning.<ref name=Whiteside>{{cite journal | vauthors = Whiteside MF, Becker BJ | title = Parental factors and the young child's postdivorce adjustment: a meta-analysis with implications for parenting arrangements | journal = Journal of Family Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–26 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10740679 | doi = 10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.5 | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref> A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children.<ref name=Whiteside /> Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk.<ref name=Whiteside /> Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child relationship, and cooperation between parents.<ref name=Whiteside />
+Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning.<ref name=Whiteside>{{cite journal | vauthors = Whiteside MF, Becker BJ | title = Parental factors and the young child's postdivorce adjustment: a meta-analysis with implications for parenting arrangements | journal = Journal of Family Psychology | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–26 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10740679 | doi = 10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.5 | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref> Many mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children.<ref name=Whiteside /> Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern, leaving children at risk.<ref name=Whiteside /> Additionally, a direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors that facilitate positive child development after a divorce include maternal warmth, a positive father-child relationship, and parental cooperation.<ref name=Whiteside />
 == Cross-cultural ==
-A way to improve developmental psychology is a representation of cross-cultural studies. The psychology field in general assumes that "basic" human developments are represented in any population, specifically the Western-Educated-Industrialized-Rich and Democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) subjects that are relied on for a majority of their studies. Previous research generalizes the findings done with W.E.I.R.D. samples because many in the Psychological field assume certain aspects of development are exempted from or are not affected by life experiences. However, many of the assumptions have been proven incorrect or are not supported by empirical research. For example, according to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is dependent on cognitive abilities. While both analytical and holistic cognitive systems do have the potential to develop in any adult, the West is still on the extreme end of analytical thinking, and the non-West tend to use holistic processes. Furthermore, moral reasoning in the West only considers aspects that support autonomy and the individual, whereas non-Western adults emphasize moral behaviors supporting the community and maintaining an image of holiness or divinity. Not all aspects of human development are universal and we can learn a lot from observing different regions and subjects.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal |last1=Henrich |first1=Joseph |last2=Heine |first2=Steven J. |last3=Norenzayan |first3=Ara |title=The weirdest people in the world? |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |date=June 2010 |volume=33 |issue=2–3 |pages=61–83 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X0999152X |pmid=20550733 |url=https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/WeirdPeople.pdf }}</ref>
+A way to improve developmental psychology is through cross-cultural studies. The field of psychology in general assumes that "basic" human developments are representative of any population, specifically the Western-Educated-Industrialized-Rich and Democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) subjects relied on for the majority of its studies. Previous research generalizes findings from W.E.I.R.D. samples because many in the Psychological field assume certain aspects of development are exempt from, or unaffected by, life experiences. However, many of the assumptions have been proven incorrect or are not supported by empirical research. For example, according to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is dependent on cognitive abilities. While both analytical and holistic cognitive systems can develop in any adult, the West remains on the analytical end of the spectrum. In contrast, the non-West tends to rely on holistic processes. Furthermore, moral reasoning in the West focuses on aspects that support autonomy and the individual. In contrast, non-Western adults emphasize moral behaviors that support the community and maintain an image of holiness or divinity. Not all aspects of human development are universal, and we can learn a lot from observing different regions and subjects.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal |last1=Henrich |first1=Joseph |last2=Heine |first2=Steven J. |last3=Norenzayan |first3=Ara |title=The weirdest people in the world? |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |date=June 2010 |volume=33 |issue=2–3 |pages=61–83 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X0999152X |pmid=20550733 |url=https://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~henrich/pdfs/WeirdPeople.pdf }}</ref>
 === Indian model of human development ===
-An example of a [[non-Western]] model for development stages is the Indian model, focusing a large amount of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress. The developmental stages in Indian models are founded by Hinduism, which primarily teaches stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or [[Dharma]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Kakar |first=Sudhir |date=1968 |title=The Human Life Cycle: The Traditional Hindu View and the Psychology of Erik Erikson |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=127–136 |doi=10.2307/1398255 |jstor=1398255 }}</ref> This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion.<ref name=":03" />
+An example of a [[non-Western]] model of development stages is the Indian model, which focuses much of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress. The developmental stages in Indian models are rooted in Hinduism, which primarily outlines stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or [[Dharma]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Kakar |first=Sudhir |date=1968 |title=The Human Life Cycle: The Traditional Hindu View and the Psychology of Erik Erikson |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=127–136 |doi=10.2307/1398255 |jstor=1398255 }}</ref> This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion.<ref name=":03" />
-Indian psychologists study the relevance of attentive families during the early stages of life. The early life stages conceptualize a different parenting style from the West because it does not try to rush children out of dependency. The family is meant to help the child grow into the next developmental stage at a particular age. This way, when children finally integrate into society, they are interconnected with those around them and reach [[Sannyasa|renunciation]] when they are older. Children are raised in joint families so that in early childhood (ages 6 months to 2 years) the other family members help gradually wean the child from its mother. During ages 2 to 5, the parents do not rush toilet training. Instead of training the child to perform this behavior, the child learns to do it as they mature at their own pace.
+Indian psychologists study the relevance of attentive families during the early stages of life. The early life stages conceptualize a different parenting style from the West because they do not try to rush children out of dependence. The family is meant to help the child grow into the next developmental stage at a particular age. This way, when children finally integrate into society, they are interconnected with those around them and reach [[Sannyasa|renunciation]] when they are older. Children are raised in joint families so that, in early childhood (ages 6 months to 2 years), other family members gradually help wean the child from its mother. During ages 2 to 5, the parents do not rush toilet training. Instead of training the child to perform this behavior, the child learns to do it as they mature at their own pace.
-This model of early human development encourages dependency, unlike Western models that value autonomy and independence. By being attentive and not forcing the child to become independent, they are confident and have a sense of belonging by late childhood and adolescence. This stage in life (5–15 years) is also when children start education and increase their knowledge of Dharma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rangaswami |first=K. |date=1992 |title=Indian Model of Stages in Human Development and Developmental Tasks |journal=Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=77–82 |doi=10.1177/0975156419920112 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress. Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma. The main distinction between early adulthood to middle or late adulthood is how far their influence reaches. Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public. The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma.<ref name=":12" />
+This model of early human development encourages dependency, unlike Western models that value autonomy and independence. By being attentive and not forcing the child to become independent, the child becomes confident and develops a sense of belonging by late childhood and adolescence. This stage in life (5–15 years) is also when children start education and increase their knowledge of Dharma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rangaswami |first=K. |date=1992 |title=Indian Model of Stages in Human Development and Developmental Tasks |journal=Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=77–82 |doi=10.1177/0975156419920112 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress. Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma. The main distinction between early adulthood and middle or late adulthood lies in the extent of their influence. Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood, when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public. The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma.<ref name=":12" />
-The current mainstream views in the psychological field are against the Indian model for human development. The criticism against such models is that the parenting style is overly protective and encourages too much dependency. It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals. Also, there are some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model but both of them still have major differences. The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because they are supported by scientific studies. The life cycles based on Hinduism are not as favored, because it is not supported with research and it focuses on the ideal human development.<ref name=":12" />
+Current mainstream views in psychology are opposed to the Indian model of human development. The criticism of such models is that they promote an overly protective parenting style and encourage excessive dependence. It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals. Also, there are some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model, but both of them still have major differences. The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because scientific studies support them. Life cycles based on Hinduism are less favored because they are not supported by research and focus on ideal human development.<ref name=":12" />
 ==See also==
@@ Line 499: / Line 528: @@
 *[http://www.devpsy.org/ Developmental Psychology]: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20031121184610/http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/topic.html GMU's On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology]: a web directory of developmental psychology organizations
-*[http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/ Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319070746/https://digital.library.cornell.edu/collections/hearth|date =19 March 2022}}<br />An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's [https://mann.library.cornell.edu/ Mann Library]{{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220302151303/https://mann.library.cornell.edu/|date = 2 March 2022}}. Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a [https://web.archive.org/web/20031117054622/http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/h/hearth/bibs/child.pdf specific bibliography].
+*[https://hearth.library.cornell.edu/ Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319070746/https://digital.library.cornell.edu/collections/hearth|date =19 March 2022}}<br />An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's [https://mann.library.cornell.edu/ Mann Library]{{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220302151303/https://mann.library.cornell.edu/|date = 2 March 2022}}. Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a [https://web.archive.org/web/20031117054622/http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/h/hearth/bibs/child.pdf specific bibliography].
 *[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/browse/developmental_psychology Developmental psychology] Subject Area page at [[PLOS]]

Developmental psychology: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:31, 12 May 2026

Historical antecedents

Theories

Psychosexual development

Theories of cognitive development

Stages of moral development

Stages of psychosocial development

Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity

Ecological systems theory

Zone of proximal development

Constructivism

Evolutionary developmental psychology

Attachment theory

Nature vs nurture

Continuity vs discontinuity

Stability vs change

Theory of mind

Mathematical models

Research areas

Neural development

Cognitive development

Social and emotional development

Physical development

Memory development

Research methods and designs

Main research methods

Research designs

Life stages of psychological development

Prenatal development

Infancy

Infant perception

Language

Infant cognition: the Piagetian era

Recent findings in infant cognition

Critical periods of development

Developmental delays

Toddlerhood

Childhood

Infancy

Early Childhood

Play (or preschool) ages 3–5

Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12

Middle Childhood (6–8)

Late Childhood (9–12)

Adolescence

Early adulthood

Middle adulthood

Old age

Parenting

Parenting styles

Mother and father factors

Divorce

Cross-cultural

Indian model of human development

See also

Journals

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Navigation menu

Search