Elbridge Gerry: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Founding Father, U.S. vice president from 1813 to 1814}} | {{Short description|Founding Father, U.S. vice president from 1813 to 1814}} | ||
{{About|the vice president of the United States}} | {{About|the Founding Father and vice president of the United States}} | ||
{{Good article}} | {{Good article}} | ||
{{Use American English|date=June 2024}} | {{Use American English|date=June 2024}} | ||
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| name = Elbridge Gerry | | name = Elbridge Gerry | ||
| image = Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg | | image = Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg | ||
| caption = 1861 | | caption = Posthumous portrait, {{circa|1861}} | ||
| order = 5th | | order = 5th | ||
| office = Vice President of the United States | | office = Vice President of the United States | ||
| Line 26: | Line 26: | ||
| term_start2 = March 4, 1789 | | term_start2 = March 4, 1789 | ||
| term_end2 = March 3, 1793 | | term_end2 = March 3, 1793 | ||
| predecessor2 = '' | | predecessor2 = ''District established'' | ||
| successor2 = [[Shearjashub Bourne]]<br/>[[Peleg Coffin Jr.]] | | successor2 = [[Shearjashub Bourne]]<br/>[[Peleg Coffin Jr.]] | ||
| office3 = Member of the {{nowrap|[[Congress of the Confederation]]}}<br/>from Massachusetts | | office3 = Member of the {{nowrap|[[Congress of the Confederation]]}}<br/>from Massachusetts | ||
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| term_end4 = February 19, 1780 | | term_end4 = February 19, 1780 | ||
| birth_date = {{birth date|1744|7|17}} | | birth_date = {{birth date|1744|7|17}} | ||
| birth_place = [[Marblehead, Massachusetts|Marblehead]], Province of Massachusetts Bay, British America | | birth_place = [[Marblehead, Massachusetts|Marblehead]], Province of Massachusetts Bay, [[British America]] | ||
| death_date = {{death date and age|1814|11|23|1744|7|17}} | | death_date = {{death date and age|1814|11|23|1744|7|17}} | ||
| death_place = [[Washington County, D.C.|Washington]], [[District of Columbia (until 1871)|District of Columbia]], U.S. | | death_place = [[Washington County, D.C.|Washington]], [[District of Columbia (until 1871)|District of Columbia]], U.S. | ||
| Line 42: | Line 42: | ||
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Ann Gerry|Ann Thompson]]|1786}} | | spouse = {{marriage|[[Ann Gerry|Ann Thompson]]|1786}} | ||
| children = 10, including [[Thomas Russell Gerry]] | | children = 10, including [[Thomas Russell Gerry]] | ||
| education = [[Harvard College]] ([[ | | education = [[Harvard College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]]) | ||
| signature = Elbridge Gerry Signature.svg | | signature = Elbridge Gerry Signature.svg | ||
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''Elbridge Thomas Gerry''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɛr|i}}; {{OldStyleDate|July 17|1744|July 6}} – November 23, 1814) was an American [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Father]], merchant, politician, and diplomat, who as a member of the [[Second Continental Congress]], signed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and [[Articles of Confederation]]. From 1813 until his death in 1814, he served as the fifth [[vice president of the United States]] under President [[James Madison]].<ref name="Bernstein2001">{{Cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Richard B. |author-link=Richard B. Bernstein |title=The Founding Fathers Reconsidered |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199832576 |location=New York |chapter=Appendix: The Founding Fathers: A Partial List |orig-date=2009 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/foundingfathersr0000bern/page/176/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Signers |url=https://declaration.fas.harvard.edu/resources/signers |access-date=February 9, 2023 |website=harvard.edu |publisher=Declaration Resources Project, [[Harvard University]]}}</ref> The political practice of [[gerrymandering]] is named after him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bischoff |first=Manon |title=Geometry Reveals the Tricks behind Gerrymandering |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/geometry-reveals-the-tricks-behind-gerrymandering |access-date=March 26, 2023 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref> | |||
Born into a wealthy merchant family, Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy in the 1760s and was active in the early stages of organizing the resistance in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. In addition to signing the Declaration and the Articles, he was one of three men who attended the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in 1787, but refused to sign the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] because originally it did not include a [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]. After its ratification, he was elected to the inaugural [[United States Congress]], where he was actively involved in the drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties. | |||
Born into a wealthy merchant family, Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy in the 1760s and was active in the early stages of organizing the resistance in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. | |||
Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between [[Federalist Party|Federalists]] and [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republicans]]. He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the [[XYZ Affair]], in which Federalists held him responsible for a breakdown in negotiations. Gerry thereafter became a Democratic-Republican, running unsuccessfully for [[Governor of Massachusetts]] several times before winning the office in 1810. During his second term, the legislature approved new state senate districts that led to the coining of the word "gerrymander"; he lost the next election, although the state senate remained Democratic-Republican. | Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between [[Federalist Party|Federalists]] and [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republicans]]. He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the [[XYZ Affair]], in which Federalists held him responsible for a breakdown in negotiations. Gerry thereafter became a Democratic-Republican, running unsuccessfully for [[Governor of Massachusetts]] several times before winning the office in 1810. During his second term, the legislature approved new state senate districts that led to the coining of the word "gerrymander"; he lost the next election, although the state senate remained Democratic-Republican. | ||
Gerry was nominated by the Democratic-Republican party and elected as vice president in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 election]]. Advanced in age and in poor health, Gerry served 21 months of his term before dying in office. Gerry is the only signatory of the Declaration of Independence to be buried in [[Washington, | Gerry was nominated by the Democratic-Republican party and elected as vice president in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 election]]. Advanced in age and in poor health, Gerry served 21 months of his term before dying in office. Gerry is the only [[signatory of the Declaration of Independence]] to be buried in [[Washington, DC]]. | ||
==Early life and education== | ==Early life and education== | ||
Elbridge Thomas Gerry was born on July 17, 1744, in the [[North Shore (Massachusetts)|North Shore]] town of [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]]. His father, Thomas Gerry (1702–1774), was a merchant who operated ships out of Marblehead, and his mother, Elizabeth (Greenleaf) Gerry (1716–1771), was the daughter of a successful [[Boston]] merchant.<ref name="Purcell46">Purcell, p. 46</ref> Gerry's first name came from John Elbridge, one of his mother's ancestors.<ref>Greenleaf, p. 77</ref> Gerry's parents had 11 children in all, although only five survived to adulthood. Of these, Elbridge was the third.<ref>Billias, p. 5</ref> He was first educated by private tutors and entered [[Harvard College]] shortly before turning 14. After receiving a [[ | Elbridge Thomas Gerry was born on July 17, 1744, in the [[North Shore (Massachusetts)|North Shore]] town of [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]]. His father, Thomas Gerry (1702–1774), was a merchant who operated ships out of Marblehead, and his mother, Elizabeth (Greenleaf) Gerry (1716–1771), was the daughter of a successful [[Boston]] merchant.<ref name="Purcell46">Purcell, p. 46</ref> Gerry's first name came from John Elbridge, one of his mother's ancestors.<ref>Greenleaf, p. 77</ref> Gerry's parents had 11 children in all, although only five survived to adulthood. Of these, Elbridge was the third.<ref>Billias, p. 5</ref> He was first educated by private tutors and entered [[Harvard College]] shortly before turning 14. After receiving a [[bachelor of arts]] degree in 1762 and a [[master of arts]] in 1765, he entered his father's merchant business. By the 1770s, the Gerrys numbered among the wealthiest Massachusetts merchants, with trading connections in [[Spain]], the [[West Indies]], and along the North American coast.<ref name=Purcell46/><ref>Billias, p. 4</ref> Gerry's father, who had emigrated from England in 1730, was active in local politics and had a leading role in the local militia.<ref>Billias, p. 3</ref> | ||
==Colonial business and politics== | ==Colonial business and politics== | ||
Gerry was from an early time a vocal opponent of [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliamentary]] efforts to tax the colonies after the [[French and Indian War]] ended in 1763. In 1770, he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce importation bans on taxed British goods. He frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy, including [[Samuel Adams]], [[John Adams]], [[Mercy Otis Warren]], and others.<ref name=Purcell46/> | Gerry was from an early time a vocal opponent of [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliamentary]] efforts to tax the colonies after the [[French and Indian War]] ended in 1763. In 1770, he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce importation bans on taxed British goods. He frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy, including [[Samuel Adams]], [[John Adams]], [[Mercy Otis Warren]], and others.<ref name=Purcell46/> | ||
In May 1772, he won election to the Great and General Court of the [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]], which served as the state's legislative assembly. He worked closely with Samuel Adams to advance colonial opposition to Parliamentary colonial policies. He was responsible for establishing Marblehead's [[Committees of correspondence|committee of correspondence]], one of the first to be set up after that of | In May 1772, he won election to the Great and General Court of the [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]], which served as the state's legislative assembly. He worked closely with Samuel Adams to advance colonial opposition to Parliamentary colonial policies. He was responsible for establishing Marblehead's [[Committees of correspondence|committee of correspondence]], one of the first to be set up after that of Boston.<ref>Austin, pp. 6–27</ref> However, an incident of mob action prompted him to resign from the committee the next year. Gerry and other prominent Marbleheaders had [[Essex Hospital|established a hospital]] for performing [[Smallpox vaccine|smallpox inoculations]] on [[Children's Island|Cat Island]]; because the means of transmission of the disease were not known at the time, fears among the local population led to protests, which escalated into violence that wrecked the hospital and threatened the proprietors' other properties.<ref>Gilje, pp. 44–45</ref> | ||
Gerry | Gerry re-entered politics after the [[Boston Port Act]] closed that city's port in 1774, and Marblehead became an alternative port to which relief supplies from other colonies could be delivered. As one of the town's leading merchants and [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]], Gerry played a major role in ensuring the storage and delivery of supplies from Marblehead to Boston, interrupting those activities only to care for his dying father. He was elected as a representative to the [[First Continental Congress]] in September 1774, but declined, still grieving the loss of his father.<ref>Billias, pp. 42–44</ref> | ||
==American Revolution== | ==American Revolution== | ||
[[File:Ann Thompson Gerry.jpg|thumb|[[Ann Gerry|Ann Thompson]]]] | [[File:Ann Thompson Gerry.jpg|thumb|[[Ann Gerry|Ann Thompson]]]] | ||
Gerry was elected to the provincial assembly, which reconstituted itself as the [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]] after Governor [[Thomas Gage]] dissolved the body in October 1774.<ref>Billias, p. 46</ref> He was assigned to its [[Committee of safety (American Revolution)|committee of safety]], responsible for ensuring that the province's limited supplies of weapons and gunpowder did not fall into British hands. His actions were partly responsible for the storage of weapons and ammunition in [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]]; these stores were the target of the British expedition that sparked the start of the | Gerry was elected to the provincial assembly, which reconstituted itself as the [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress]] after Governor [[Thomas Gage]] dissolved the body in October 1774.<ref>Billias, p. 46</ref> He was assigned to its [[Committee of safety (American Revolution)|committee of safety]], responsible for ensuring that the province's limited supplies of weapons and gunpowder did not fall into British hands. His actions were partly responsible for the storage of weapons and ammunition in [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]]; these stores were the target of the British expedition that sparked the start of the American Revolutionary War with the [[battles of Lexington and Concord]] in April 1775.<ref>Billias, p. 49</ref> (Gerry was staying at an inn at Menotomy, now [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Arlington]], when the [[British Army]] marched through on the night of April 18.)<ref>Billias, p. 52</ref> During the [[Siege of Boston]] that followed, Gerry continued to take a leading role in supplying the nascent [[Continental Army]], something he continued to do as the war progressed.<ref>Billias, pp. 55–56</ref> He leveraged business contacts in France and Spain to acquire not just munitions, but also supplies of all types, and was involved in the transfer of financial subsidies from Spain to Congress. He sent ships to ports all along the American coast and dabbled in financing [[privateer]]ing operations against British merchant shipping.<ref>Billias, pp. 124–30</ref> | ||
Unlike some other merchants, | Unlike some other merchants, no evidence indicates that Gerry profiteered directly from the hostilities. He spoke out against [[price gouging]] and in favor of [[price controls]], although his war-related merchant activities notably increased the family's wealth.<ref>Billias, pp. 56, 123</ref> His gains were tempered to some extent by the precipitous decline in the value of [[Banknote|paper currencies]], which he held in large quantities and speculated.<ref>Billias, pp. 134–35</ref> | ||
Gerry served in the [[Second Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]] from February 1776 to 1780, when matters of the ongoing war occupied the body's attention. He was influential in convincing several delegates to support passage of the Declaration of Independence in the debates held during the summer of 1776; John Adams wrote of him, "If every Man here was a Gerry, the Liberties of America would be safe against the Gates of Earth and Hell."<ref name="SenateBio" /> He was implicated as a member of the so-called "[[Conway Cabal]]", a group of | Gerry served in the [[Second Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]] from February 1776 to 1780, when matters of the ongoing war occupied the body's attention. He was influential in convincing several delegates to support passage of the Declaration of Independence in the debates held during the summer of 1776; John Adams wrote of him, "If every Man here was a Gerry, the Liberties of America would be safe against the Gates of Earth and Hell."<ref name="SenateBio" /> He was implicated as a member of the so-called "[[Conway Cabal]]", a group of congressmen and military officers who were dissatisfied with the performance of General [[George Washington]] during the [[Philadelphia campaign|1777 military campaign]]. However, Gerry took Pennsylvania leader [[Thomas Mifflin]], one of Washington's critics, to task early in the episode and specifically denied knowledge of any sort of conspiracy against Washington in February 1778.<ref>Billias, pp. 76–77</ref> | ||
[[File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792) (farther 3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[John Adams]], who held Gerry in high regard | [[File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792) (farther 3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[John Adams]], who held Gerry in high regard, 1793, by [[John Trumbull]]]] | ||
Gerry's political philosophy was one of [[Limited government|limited central government]], and he regularly advocated for the maintenance of [[civilian control of the military]]. He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political career (wavering principally on the need for stronger central government in the wake of the 1786–87 [[Shays' Rebellion]]) and was well known for his personal integrity.<ref>Billias, pp. 140, 152, 192</ref> In later years he opposed the idea of political parties, remaining somewhat distant from both the developing Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties until later in his career. | Gerry's political philosophy was one of [[Limited government|limited central government]], and he regularly advocated for the maintenance of [[civilian control of the military]]. He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political career (wavering principally on the need for stronger central government in the wake of the 1786–87 [[Shays' Rebellion]]) and was well known for his personal integrity.<ref>Billias, pp. 140, 152, 192</ref> In later years, he opposed the idea of political parties, remaining somewhat distant from both the developing Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties until later in his career. Until 1800, he had not formally associated with the Democratic-Republicans in opposition to what he saw as attempts by the Federalists to centralize too much power in the national government.<ref>Billias, p. 105</ref> | ||
In 1780, he resigned from the Continental Congress over the issue and refused offers from the state legislature to return to the Congress.<ref>Billias, p. 101</ref> He also refused appointment to the state senate, claiming he would be more effective in the state's lower chamber, and also refused appointment as a county judge, comparing the offer by Governor [[John Hancock]] to those made by royally | In 1780, he resigned from the Continental Congress over the issue and refused offers from the state legislature to return to the Congress.<ref>Billias, p. 101</ref> He also refused appointment to the state senate, claiming he would be more effective in the state's lower chamber, and also refused appointment as a county judge, comparing the offer by Governor [[John Hancock]] to those made by royally appointed governors to benefit their political allies.<ref>Billias, p. 102</ref> He was elected a fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1781.<ref name="AAAS">{{Cite web |title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter G |url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterG.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116114129/http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/Chapterg.pdf |archive-date=January 16, 2014 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences}}</ref> | ||
Gerry was convinced to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783, when the state legislature agreed to support his call for needed reforms.<ref>Billias, p. 103</ref> He served in that body, which met in New York City, until September 1785. The following year, he married Ann Thompson, the daughter of a wealthy New York City merchant who was 20 years his junior; his best man was his good friend [[James Monroe]].<ref name=SenateBio/><ref>Ammon, p. 61</ref> The couple had | Gerry was convinced to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783, when the state legislature agreed to support his call for needed reforms.<ref>Billias, p. 103</ref> He served in that body, which met in New York City, until September 1785. The following year, he married Ann Thompson, the daughter of a wealthy New York City merchant who was 20 years his junior; his best man was his good friend [[James Monroe]].<ref name=SenateBio/><ref>Ammon, p. 61</ref> The couple had 10 children between 1787 and 1801, straining Ann's health.<ref name="SenateBio">{{Cite web |last=Hatfield |first=Mark |title=Vice Presidents of the United States: Elbridge Gerry (1813–1814) |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDOC-104sdoc26/pdf/CDOC-104sdoc26.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019145506/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/elbridge_gerry.pdf |archive-date=October 19, 2012 |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=Senate Historical Office}}</ref> | ||
The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it ended he sold off his merchant interests and began investing in land. In 1787, he purchased the [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], estate of the last royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, [[Thomas Oliver (lieutenant governor)|Thomas Oliver]], which had been confiscated by the state. This {{convert|100|acre|ha|adj=on}} property, known as [[Elmwood (Cambridge, Massachusetts)|Elmwood]], became the family home for the rest of Gerry's life.<ref name="Elmwood_NRHP">{{Cite web |title=National Register Nomination for Elmwood |url={{NHLS url|id=66000364}} |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> He continued to own property in Marblehead and bought several properties in other Massachusetts communities. He also owned shares in the [[Ohio Company of Associates|Ohio Company]], prompting some political opponents to characterize him as an owner of vast tracts of western lands.<ref>Billias, p. 137</ref> | The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it ended, he sold off his merchant interests and began investing in land. In 1787, he purchased the [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], estate of the last royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, [[Thomas Oliver (lieutenant governor)|Thomas Oliver]], which had been confiscated by the state. This {{convert|100|acre|ha|adj=on}} property, known as [[Elmwood (Cambridge, Massachusetts)|Elmwood]], became the family home for the rest of Gerry's life.<ref name="Elmwood_NRHP">{{Cite web |title=National Register Nomination for Elmwood |url={{NHLS url|id=66000364}} |access-date=October 24, 2012 |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> He continued to own property in Marblehead and bought several properties in other Massachusetts communities. He also owned shares in the [[Ohio Company of Associates|Ohio Company]], prompting some political opponents to characterize him as an owner of vast tracts of western lands.<ref>Billias, p. 137</ref> | ||
===Constitutional Convention=== | ===Constitutional Convention=== | ||
Gerry played a major role in the Constitutional Convention held in | Gerry played a major role in the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787.<ref>Billias, p. 158</ref> In its deliberations, he consistently advocated for a strong delineation between state and federal governmental powers, with state legislatures shaping the membership of federal government positions. Gerry's opposition to popular election of representatives was rooted in part by the events of Shays' Rebellion in western Massachusetts in the year preceding the convention. He also sought to maintain individual liberties by providing checks on government power that might abuse or limit those freedoms.<ref>Billias, pp. 153–54</ref> | ||
He supported the idea that the [[United States Senate|Senate]] composition should not be determined by population; the view that it should instead be composed of equal numbers of members for each state prevailed in the [[Connecticut Compromise]]. The compromise was adopted on a narrow vote in which the Massachusetts delegation was divided, Gerry and [[Caleb Strong]] voting in favor.<ref>Billias, p. 178</ref> Gerry further proposed that senators of a state, rather than casting a single vote on behalf of the state, vote instead as individuals.<ref>Billias, p. 182</ref> Gerry was also vocal in opposing the [[Three-fifths Compromise]], which counted [[slavery in the United States|slaves]] as three-fifths of | He supported the idea that the [[United States Senate|Senate]] composition should not be determined by population; the view that it should instead be composed of equal numbers of members for each state prevailed in the [[Connecticut Compromise]]. The compromise was adopted on a narrow vote in which the Massachusetts delegation was divided, Gerry and [[Caleb Strong]] voting in favor.<ref>Billias, p. 178</ref> Gerry further proposed that senators of a state, rather than casting a single vote on behalf of the state, vote instead as individuals.<ref>Billias, p. 182</ref> Gerry was also vocal in opposing the [[Three-fifths Compromise]], which counted [[slavery in the United States|slaves]] as three-fifths of the slave population for the purposes of determining the number of each states' votes in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]]. The Southern states wanted the full slave population to be counted, whereas the Northern states did not want them to count at all. Gerry asked, why should "blacks, who were property in the South", count toward representation "any more than the Cattle & horses of the North"?<ref>[https://www.aaihs.org/a-compact-for-the-good-of-america-slavery-and-the-three-fifths-compromise/ Black Perspectives: A Compact for the Good of America? Slavery and the Three-Fifths Compromise]</ref><ref>Billias, p. 168</ref> Gerry opposed slavery and said the constitution should have "nothing to do" with slavery so as "not to sanction it."<ref>Thomas III, William G., ''A Question of Freedom: The Families Who Challenged Slavery from the Nation’s Founding to the Civil War''. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 2020, p. 35.</ref> | ||
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During the ratification debates that took place in the states following the convention, Gerry continued his opposition, publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution.<ref name="Billias209">Billias, p. 209</ref> In the document, he cites the lack of a Bill of Rights as his primary objection but also expresses qualified approval of the Constitution, indicating that he would accept it with some amendment.<ref>Billias, pp. 207–08</ref> Strong pro-Constitution forces attacked him in the press, comparing him unfavorably to the Shaysites. [[Henry Jackson (Continental Army general)|Henry Jackson]] was particularly vicious: "[Gerry has] done more injury to this country by that infamous Letter than he will be able to make atonement in his whole life",<ref name=Billias209/> and [[Oliver Ellsworth]], a convention delegate from Connecticut, charged him with deliberately courting the Shays faction.<ref>Billias, p. 212</ref> | During the ratification debates that took place in the states following the convention, Gerry continued his opposition, publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution.<ref name="Billias209">Billias, p. 209</ref> In the document, he cites the lack of a Bill of Rights as his primary objection but also expresses qualified approval of the Constitution, indicating that he would accept it with some amendment.<ref>Billias, pp. 207–08</ref> Strong pro-Constitution forces attacked him in the press, comparing him unfavorably to the Shaysites. [[Henry Jackson (Continental Army general)|Henry Jackson]] was particularly vicious: "[Gerry has] done more injury to this country by that infamous Letter than he will be able to make atonement in his whole life",<ref name=Billias209/> and [[Oliver Ellsworth]], a convention delegate from Connecticut, charged him with deliberately courting the Shays faction.<ref>Billias, p. 212</ref> | ||
One consequence of the furor over his letter was that he was not selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts ratifying convention<ref>Billias, p. 211</ref> although he was later invited to attend by the convention's leadership. The convention leadership was dominated by Federalists, and Gerry was not given any formal opportunity to speak. He left the convention after a shouting match with convention chair [[Francis Dana]].<ref>Billias, p. 213</ref> Massachusetts ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.<ref>Billias, p. 214</ref> The debate had the result of estranging Gerry from several previously-friendly politicians, including chairman Dana and [[Rufus King]].<ref>Billias, pp. 207–08, 213</ref> | One consequence of the furor over his letter was that he was not selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts ratifying convention,<ref>Billias, p. 211</ref> although he was later invited to attend by the convention's leadership. The convention leadership was dominated by Federalists, and Gerry was not given any formal opportunity to speak. He left the convention after a shouting match with convention chair [[Francis Dana]].<ref>Billias, p. 213</ref> Massachusetts ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.<ref>Billias, p. 214</ref> The debate had the result of estranging Gerry from several previously-friendly politicians, including chairman Dana and [[Rufus King]].<ref>Billias, pp. 207–08, 213</ref> | ||
===U.S. House of Representatives=== | ===U.S. House of Representatives=== | ||
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Anti-Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor in 1788, but he was predictably defeated by the popular incumbent [[John Hancock]].<ref>Billias, p. 215</ref> Following its ratification, Gerry recanted his opposition to the Constitution, noting that other state ratifying conventions had called for amendments that he supported.<ref>Billias, p. 207</ref> He was nominated by friends (over his own opposition to the idea) for a seat in the inaugural House of Representatives, where he served two terms.<ref>Billias, pp. 216, 243</ref> | Anti-Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor in 1788, but he was predictably defeated by the popular incumbent [[John Hancock]].<ref>Billias, p. 215</ref> Following its ratification, Gerry recanted his opposition to the Constitution, noting that other state ratifying conventions had called for amendments that he supported.<ref>Billias, p. 207</ref> He was nominated by friends (over his own opposition to the idea) for a seat in the inaugural House of Representatives, where he served two terms.<ref>Billias, pp. 216, 243</ref> | ||
In June 1789, Gerry proposed that Congress consider all of the proposed constitutional amendments | In June 1789, Gerry proposed that Congress consider all of the proposed constitutional amendments for which various state ratifying conventions had called (notably those of [[Rhode Island]] and [[North Carolina]], which had at the time still not ratified the Constitution).<ref>Billias, p. 229</ref> In the debate that followed, he led opposition to some of the proposals, arguing that they did not go far enough in ensuring individual liberties. He successfully lobbied for inclusion of [[freedom of assembly]] in the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] and was a leading architect of the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] protections against [[search and seizure]].<ref>Billias, p. 231</ref> He sought unsuccessfully to insert the word "expressly" into the [[Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Tenth Amendment]], which might have more significantly limited the federal government's power.<ref>Billias, pp. 233–34</ref> | ||
He was successful in efforts to severely limit the federal government's ability to control [[State defense force|state militias]].<ref>Billias, p. 232</ref> In tandem with this protection, he had once argued against the idea of the federal government controlling a large [[standing army]], saying, "A standing army is like a standing member. It's an excellent assurance of domestic tranquility, but a dangerous temptation to foreign adventure."<ref name="Isaacson">{{Cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Isaacson |url=https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00isaa_0/page/456 |title=Benjamin Franklin: An American Life |date=2003 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-684-80761-0 |location=New York, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00isaa_0/page/456 456] |access-date=May 24, 2013}}</ref> | He was successful in efforts to severely limit the federal government's ability to control [[State defense force|state militias]].<ref>Billias, p. 232</ref> In tandem with this protection, he had once argued against the idea of the federal government controlling a large [[standing army]], saying, "A standing army is like a standing member. It's an excellent assurance of domestic tranquility, but a dangerous temptation to foreign adventure."<ref name="Isaacson">{{Cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Isaacson |url=https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00isaa_0/page/456 |title=Benjamin Franklin: An American Life |date=2003 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-684-80761-0 |location=New York, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/benjaminfranklin00isaa_0/page/456 456] |access-date=May 24, 2013}}</ref> | ||
Gerry vigorously supported [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s reports on public credit, including the assumption at full value of state debts, and supported Hamilton's [[First Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]], positions consistent with earlier calls he had made for economic centralization.<ref>Billias, pp. 223, 237</ref> Although he had speculated in depreciated Continental bills of credit (the [[IOU]]s at issue), | Gerry vigorously supported [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s reports on public credit, including the assumption at full value of state debts, and supported Hamilton's [[First Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]], positions consistent with earlier calls he had made for economic centralization.<ref>Billias, pp. 223, 237</ref> Although he had speculated in depreciated Continental bills of credit (the [[IOU]]s at issue), no evidence shows he participated in large-scale speculation that attended the debate when it took place in 1790, and he became a major investor in the new bank.<ref>Billias, pp. 240, 242</ref> He used the floor of the House to speak out against aristocratic and monarchical tendencies he saw as threats to [[Republicanism in the United States|republican ideals]], and generally opposed laws and their provisions that he perceived as limiting individual and state liberties. He opposed any attempt to give officers of the executive significant powers, specifically opposing establishment of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] because its head might gain more power than the president.<ref>Billias, p. 225</ref> He opposed measures that strengthened the presidency, such as the ability to fire [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] officers, seeking instead to give the legislature more power over appointments.<ref>Billias, p. 226</ref> | ||
Gerry did not stand for re-election in 1792, returning home to raise his children and care for his sickly wife.<ref>Billias, p. 243</ref> He agreed to serve as a [[United States Electoral College|presidential elector]] for John Adams in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 election]].<ref>Billias, p. 245</ref> | Gerry did not stand for re-election in 1792, returning home to raise his children and care for his sickly wife.<ref>Billias, p. 243</ref> He agreed to serve as a [[United States Electoral College|presidential elector]] for John Adams in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 election]].<ref>Billias, p. 245</ref> | ||
During Adams' term in office, Gerry maintained good relations with both Adams and Vice President [[Thomas Jefferson]], hoping that the divided executive might lead to less friction. His hopes were not realized: the split between Federalists (Adams) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) widened.<ref name="P51_52">Purcell, pp. 51–52</ref> | During Adams' term in office, Gerry maintained good relations with both Adams and Vice President [[Thomas Jefferson]], hoping that the divided executive might lead to less friction. His hopes were not realized: the split between Federalists (Adams) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) widened.<ref name="P51_52">Purcell, pp. 51–52</ref> | ||
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President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of a special diplomatic commission sent to [[French First Republic|Republican France]] in 1797.<ref name=Ferling345/> Tensions had risen between the two nations after the 1796 ratification of the [[Jay Treaty]], made between the United States and Great Britain. It was seen by French leaders as signs of an Anglo-American alliance, and France had consequently stepped up seizures of American ships.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 537–38</ref> Adams chose Gerry over his cabinet's opposition (on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist), because of their long-standing relationship; Adams described Gerry as one of the "two most impartial men in America" (Adams himself being the other).<ref name="Ferling345">Ferling, p. 345</ref> | President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of a special diplomatic commission sent to [[French First Republic|Republican France]] in 1797.<ref name=Ferling345/> Tensions had risen between the two nations after the 1796 ratification of the [[Jay Treaty]], made between the United States and Great Britain. It was seen by French leaders as signs of an Anglo-American alliance, and France had consequently stepped up seizures of American ships.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 537–38</ref> Adams chose Gerry over his cabinet's opposition (on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist), because of their long-standing relationship; Adams described Gerry as one of the "two most impartial men in America" (Adams himself being the other).<ref name="Ferling345">Ferling, p. 345</ref> | ||
Gerry joined co-commissioners [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] and [[John Marshall]] in France in October 1797 and met briefly with Foreign Minister [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand|Talleyrand]].<ref>Stinchcombe, pp. 596–97</ref> Some days after that meeting, the delegation was approached by three French agents (at first identified as "X", "Y", and "Z" in published papers, leading the controversy to be called the "XYZ Affair") who demanded substantial bribes from the commissioners before negotiations could continue.<ref>Billias, pp. 268–69</ref> The commissioners refused and sought unsuccessfully to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations.<ref>Billias, pp. 272–75</ref> Believing Gerry to be the most approachable of the commissioners, Talleyrand successively froze first Pinckney and then Marshall out of the informal negotiations, and they left France in April 1798.<ref>Stinchcombe, pp. 598–613</ref> Gerry, who sought to leave with them, stayed behind because Talleyrand threatened war if he left.<ref>Billias, p. 280</ref> Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations afterward and left Paris in August.<ref>Billias, p. 283</ref> | Gerry joined co-commissioners [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] and [[John Marshall]] in France in October 1797 and met briefly with Foreign Minister [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand|Talleyrand]].<ref>Stinchcombe, pp. 596–97</ref> Some days after that meeting, the delegation was approached by three French agents (at first identified as "X", "Y", and "Z" in published papers, leading the controversy to be called the "XYZ Affair"), who demanded substantial bribes from the commissioners before negotiations could continue.<ref>Billias, pp. 268–69</ref> The commissioners refused and sought unsuccessfully to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations.<ref>Billias, pp. 272–75</ref> Believing Gerry to be the most approachable of the commissioners, Talleyrand successively froze first Pinckney and then Marshall out of the informal negotiations, and they left France in April 1798.<ref>Stinchcombe, pp. 598–613</ref> Gerry, who sought to leave with them, stayed behind because Talleyrand threatened war if he left.<ref>Billias, p. 280</ref> Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations afterward and left Paris in August.<ref>Billias, p. 283</ref> | ||
By then, dispatches describing the commission's reception had been published in the United States, raising calls for war.<ref>Ferling, pp. 354–57</ref> The undeclared naval [[Quasi-War]] (1798–1800) followed.<ref>Smith, p. 130</ref> Federalists, notably Secretary of State [[Timothy Pickering]], accused Gerry of supporting the French and abetting the breakdown of the talks, while Adams and Republicans such as Thomas Jefferson supported him.<ref>Billias, pp. 289–93</ref> The negative press damaged Gerry's reputation, and he was [[Effigy|burned in effigy]] by protestors in front of his home. He was only later vindicated, when his correspondence with Talleyrand was published in 1799.<ref name=P51_52/> In response to the Federalist attacks on him, and because of his perception that the Federalist-led military buildup threatened republican values, Gerry formally joined the Democratic-Republican Party in early 1800, standing for election as [[ | By then, dispatches describing the commission's reception had been published in the United States, raising calls for war.<ref>Ferling, pp. 354–57</ref> The undeclared naval [[Quasi-War]] (1798–1800) followed.<ref>Smith, p. 130</ref> Federalists, notably Secretary of State [[Timothy Pickering]], accused Gerry of supporting the French and abetting the breakdown of the talks, while Adams and Democratic-Republicans such as Thomas Jefferson supported him.<ref>Billias, pp. 289–93</ref> The negative press damaged Gerry's reputation, and he was [[Effigy|burned in effigy]] by protestors in front of his home. He was only later vindicated, when his correspondence with Talleyrand was published in 1799.<ref name=P51_52/> In response to the Federalist attacks on him, and because of his perception that the Federalist-led military buildup threatened republican values, Gerry formally joined the Democratic-Republican Party in early 1800, standing for election as [[governor of Massachusetts]].<ref>Billias, pp. 289, 301</ref> | ||
==Governor of Massachusetts== | ==Governor of Massachusetts== | ||
[[File:The Gerry-Mander Edit.png|thumb|The word "[[Gerrymandering|gerrymander]]", originally written as "Gerry-mander", was used for the first time in the ''Boston Gazette'' on March 26, 1812.<ref name="Griffith 1907 72–73">Griffith, pp. 72–73</ref> Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was this political cartoon, which depicts a state senate district in [[Essex County, Massachusetts]] as a strange animal with claws, wings, and a dragon-type head, satirizing the district's odd shape.]] | [[File:The Gerry-Mander Edit.png|thumb|The word "[[Gerrymandering|gerrymander]]", originally written as "Gerry-mander", was used for the first time in the ''Boston Gazette'' on March 26, 1812.<ref name="Griffith 1907 72–73">Griffith, pp. 72–73</ref> Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was this political cartoon, which depicts a state senate district in [[Essex County, Massachusetts]], as a strange animal with claws, wings, and a dragon-type head, satirizing the district's odd shape.]] | ||
For years (in the [[1800 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1800]], [[1801 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1801]], [[1802 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1802]], and [[1803 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1803 elections]]) Gerry unsuccessfully sought the governorship of Massachusetts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Biography of Elbridge Gerry 1744–1814; American History – From Revolution to Reconstruction and Beyond |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/elbridge-gerry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818140523/http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/elbridge-gerry |archive-date=August 18, 2019 |access-date=August 24, 2019}}</ref> His opponent in these races, [[Caleb Strong]], was a popular moderate Federalist, whose party dominated the state's politics despite a national shift toward the Republicans.<ref>Buel, pp. 39–44</ref> In 1803, Republicans in the state were divided, and Gerry only had regional support of the party. He decided not to run in the [[1804 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1804 election]], returning to semi-retirement<ref>Billias, pp. 304–305</ref> and to deal with a personal financial crisis. His brother Samuel Russell had mismanaged his own business affairs, and Gerry had propped him up by [[Loan guarantee|guaranteeing a loan]] that was due. The matter ultimately ruined Gerry's finances for his remaining years.<ref>Billias, pp. 305–06</ref> | For years (in the [[1800 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1800]], [[1801 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1801]], [[1802 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1802]], and [[1803 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1803 elections]]), Gerry unsuccessfully sought the governorship of Massachusetts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Biography of Elbridge Gerry 1744–1814; American History – From Revolution to Reconstruction and Beyond |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/elbridge-gerry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818140523/http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/elbridge-gerry |archive-date=August 18, 2019 |access-date=August 24, 2019}}</ref> His opponent in these races, [[Caleb Strong]], was a popular moderate Federalist, whose party dominated the state's politics despite a national shift toward the Democratic-Republicans.<ref>Buel, pp. 39–44</ref> In 1803, Democratic-Republicans in the state were divided, and Gerry only had regional support of the party. He decided not to run in the [[1804 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1804 election]], returning to semi-retirement<ref>Billias, pp. 304–305</ref> and to deal with a personal financial crisis. His brother Samuel Russell had mismanaged his own business affairs, and Gerry had propped him up by [[Loan guarantee|guaranteeing a loan]] that was due. The matter ultimately ruined Gerry's finances for his remaining years.<ref>Billias, pp. 305–06</ref> | ||
Republican [[James Sullivan (governor)|James Sullivan]] won the governor's seat from Strong in the [[1807 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1807 election]], but his successor was unable to hold the seat in the [[1809 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1809 election]], which went to Federalist [[Christopher Gore]].<ref>Buel, pp. 73–82, 103–04</ref> Gerry stood for election again in the [[1810 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1810 election]] against Gore and won a narrow victory. Republicans cast Gore as an ostentatious British-loving [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] who wanted to restore the monarchy (his parents were [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] during the Revolution), and Gerry as a patriotic American, while Federalists described Gerry as a "French | Democratic-Republican [[James Sullivan (governor)|James Sullivan]] won the governor's seat from Strong in the [[1807 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1807 election]], but his successor was unable to hold the seat in the [[1809 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1809 election]], which went to Federalist [[Christopher Gore]].<ref>Buel, pp. 73–82, 103–04</ref> Gerry stood for election again in the [[1810 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|1810 election]] against Gore and won a narrow victory. Democratic-Republicans cast Gore as an ostentatious British-loving [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]], who wanted to restore the monarchy (his parents were [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] during the Revolution), and Gerry as a patriotic American, while Federalists described Gerry as a "French partisan" and Gore as an honest man devoted to ridding the government of foreign influence.<ref>Billias, p. 313</ref> A temporary lessening in the threat of war with Britain aided Gerry.<ref>Buel, pp. 104–07</ref> The two [[1811 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|battled again in 1811]], with Gerry once again victorious in a highly acrimonious campaign.<ref>Buel, pp. 116–17</ref><ref>Formisano, p. 74</ref> | ||
Gerry's first year as governor was less controversial than his second, because the Federalists controlled the state senate. He preached moderation in the political discourse, noting that it was important that the nation present a unified front in its dealings with foreign powers.<ref>Buel, pp. 107–08</ref> In his second term, with full Republican control of the legislature, he became notably more partisan, purging much of the state government of Federalist appointees. The legislature also enacted "reforms" of the court system that resulted in an increase in the number of judicial appointments, which Gerry filled with Republican partisans. However, infighting within the party and a shortage of qualified candidates played against Gerry, and the Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of the reforms.<ref>Buel, pp. 144–47</ref> | Gerry's first year as governor was less controversial than his second, because the Federalists controlled the state senate. He preached moderation in the political discourse, noting that it was important that the nation present a unified front in its dealings with foreign powers.<ref>Buel, pp. 107–08</ref> In his second term, with full Democratic-Republican control of the legislature, he became notably more partisan, purging much of the state government of Federalist appointees. The legislature also enacted "reforms" of the court system that resulted in an increase in the number of judicial appointments, which Gerry filled with Democratic-Republican partisans. However, infighting within the party and a shortage of qualified candidates played against Gerry, and the Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of the reforms.<ref>Buel, pp. 144–47</ref> | ||
Other legislation passed during Gerry's second year included a bill broadening the membership of [[Harvard Board of Overseers|Harvard's Board of Overseers]] to diversify its religious membership, and another that liberalized religious taxes. The Harvard bill had significant political slant because the recent split between orthodox [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] also divided the state to some extent along party lines, and Federalist Unitarians had recently gained control over the Harvard board.<ref>Formisano, p. 76</ref> | Other legislation passed during Gerry's second year included a bill broadening the membership of [[Harvard Board of Overseers|Harvard's Board of Overseers]] to diversify its religious membership, and another that liberalized religious taxes. The Harvard bill had significant political slant because the recent split between orthodox [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] also divided the state to some extent along party lines, and Federalist Unitarians had recently gained control over the Harvard board.<ref>Formisano, p. 76</ref> | ||
In 1812, the state adopted new constitutionally mandated electoral district boundaries. The Republican-controlled legislature had created district boundaries designed to enhance their party's control over state and national offices, leading to some oddly shaped legislative districts.<ref name="Hart_3_458">Hart, p. 3:458</ref> Although Gerry was unhappy about the highly partisan districting (according to his son-in-law, he thought it "highly disagreeable"), he signed the legislation. The shape of one of the state senate districts in [[Essex County, Massachusetts|Essex County]] was compared to a [[Salamanders in folklore|salamander]]<ref>Chisholm, p. 904</ref> by a local Federalist newspaper in a political cartoon, calling it a "Gerry-mander".<ref>Billias, p. 317</ref> Ever since, the creation of such districts has been called [[gerrymandering]].{{efn|"Gerrymandering" is a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power, although the pronunciation of the initial "g" has softened to {{IPAslink|dʒ}} rather than the hard {{IPAslink|ɡ}} of his name.<ref>Elster, p. 224</ref><ref name="WSJ">[https://www.wsj.com/video/gerrymandering-youre-saying-it-wrong/090A5D97-4928-4A08-A800-8305465AC5F5.html "Gerrymandering: You're Saying It Wrong!"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506203239/https://www.wsj.com/video/gerrymandering-youre-saying-it-wrong/090A5D97-4928-4A08-A800-8305465AC5F5.html |date=May 6, 2021}}, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' (May 24, 2018).</ref>}}<ref name="Hart_3_458" / | In 1812, the state adopted new constitutionally mandated electoral district boundaries. The Democratic-Republican-controlled legislature had created district boundaries designed to enhance their party's control over state and national offices, leading to some oddly shaped legislative districts.<ref name="Hart_3_458">Hart, p. 3:458</ref> Although Gerry was unhappy about the highly partisan districting (according to his son-in-law, he thought it "highly disagreeable"), he signed the legislation. The shape of one of the state senate districts in [[Essex County, Massachusetts|Essex County]] was compared to a [[Salamanders in folklore|salamander]]<ref>Chisholm, p. 904</ref> by a local Federalist newspaper in a political cartoon, calling it a "Gerry-mander".<ref>Billias, p. 317</ref> Ever since, the creation of such districts has been called [[gerrymandering]].{{efn|"Gerrymandering" is a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power, although the pronunciation of the initial "g" has softened to {{IPAslink|dʒ}} rather than the hard {{IPAslink|ɡ}} of his name.<ref>Elster, p. 224</ref><ref name="WSJ">[https://www.wsj.com/video/gerrymandering-youre-saying-it-wrong/090A5D97-4928-4A08-A800-8305465AC5F5.html "Gerrymandering: You're Saying It Wrong!"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506203239/https://www.wsj.com/video/gerrymandering-youre-saying-it-wrong/090A5D97-4928-4A08-A800-8305465AC5F5.html |date=May 6, 2021}}, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' (May 24, 2018).</ref>}}<ref name="Hart_3_458" /> | ||
Gerry | Gerry also engaged in partisan investigations of potential libel against him by elements of the Federalist press, further damaging his popularity with moderates. The redistricting controversy, along with the libel investigation and the impending [[War of 1812]], contributed to Gerry's defeat in 1812 (once again at the hands of Caleb Strong, whom the Federalists had brought out of retirement).<ref>Buel, pp. 148–49</ref><ref name="Billias, p. 323">Billias, p. 323</ref> The gerrymandering of the state Senate was a notable success in the 1812 election: the body was thoroughly dominated by Democratic-Republicans, even though the house and the governor's seat [[1812 Massachusetts gubernatorial election|went to Federalists by substantial margins]].<ref name="Griffith 1907 72–73" /> | ||
== Vice presidency and death == | |||
{{anchor|Death|Death and burial}} | |||
= | Gerry's financial difficulties prompted him to ask President James Madison for a federal position after his loss in the 1812 election held earlier in the year.<ref name="Billias, p. 323" /> He was chosen by the [[Democratic-Republican Party]]'s [[Congressional nominating caucus|congressional caucus]] of the to be Madison's vice presidential running mate in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]], although the nomination was first offered to [[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]. He was viewed as a relatively safe choice who would attract Northern votes, but not pose a threat to James Monroe, who was thought likely to succeed Madison. Madison narrowly won reelection.<ref name="Billias, p. 324">Billias, p. 324</ref> | ||
[[ | |||
On November 23, 1814, Gerry suffered a [[heart attack]] while visiting [[Joseph Nourse]] of the | Gerry took the oath of office at Elmwood in March 1813.<ref name="Billias, p. 324"/> During this time, the office of vice president was largely a [[sinecure]]. Gerry's duties included advancing the administration's agenda in Congress and dispensing [[patronage]] positions in New England.<ref>Billias, p. 327</ref> Gerry's actions in support of the War of 1812 had a partisan edge; he expressed concerns over a possible Federalist seizure of Fort Adams (as Boston's [[Fort Independence (Massachusetts)|Fort Independence]] was then known) as a prelude to Anglo-Federalist cooperation and sought the arrest of printers of Federalist newspapers.<ref>Morison, p. 2:57</ref>[[File:Elbridge Gerry VP CC DC.JPG|thumb|Gerry's grave in [[Congressional Cemetery]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] | ||
On November 23, 1814, Gerry suffered a [[heart attack]] while visiting [[Joseph Nourse]] of the Treasury Department,<ref>{{Cite web |title=To John Adams from Rufus King, 23 November 1814 |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-6352 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081248/http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-6352 |archive-date=May 18, 2015 |access-date=May 12, 2015 |website=archive.gov}}</ref> and he died soon after returning to his home in the [[Seven Buildings]]. He was 70 years old.<ref name="Billias329">Billias, p. 329</ref> Gerry became the second vice president in a row to die in office, after [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Vice-Presidents Who Died In Office Or Resigned |url=https://australianpolitics.com/usa/president/vice-presidents-died-resigned/ |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=April 7, 2026 |website=australianpolitics.com}}</ref> | |||
He is buried in the [[Congressional Cemetery]] in Washington, | He is buried in the [[Congressional Cemetery]] in Washington, DC,<ref>Purcell, p. 53</ref> with a memorial by [[John Frazee (sculptor, born 1790)|John Frazee]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search results for: Frazee John, page 2 – Collections Search Center, Smithsonian Institution |url=http://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?q=Frazee+John&start=20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000150/http://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?q=Frazee+John&start=20 |archive-date=December 31, 2013 |access-date=November 4, 2013 |website=collections.si.edu}}</ref> He is the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who was buried in the nation's capital city.<ref>Roberts and Schmidt, p. 47</ref> The estate he left his wife and children was rich in land and poor in cash, but he had managed to repay his brother's debts with his pay as vice president.<ref name=Billias329/> Aged 68 at the start of his vice presidency, he was the oldest person to become vice president until [[Charles Curtis]] in 1929.{{Citation needed|date=April 2026}} | ||
==Legacy== | ==Legacy== | ||
Gerry is generally remembered for the use of his name in the word | Gerry is generally remembered for the use of his name in the word [[Gerrymandering|gerrymander]], for his refusal to sign the United States Constitution, and for his role in the [[XYZ Affair]] and for his time as vice president. His path through the politics of the age has been difficult to characterize. Early biographers, including his son-in-law [[James T. Austin]] and [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], struggled to explain his apparent changes in position. Biographer [[George Athan Billias]] posits that Gerry was a consistent advocate and practitioner of republicanism as it was originally envisioned,<ref>Billias, p. 2</ref> and that his role in the Constitutional Convention had a significant impact on the document it eventually produced.<ref>Billias, p. 204</ref> | ||
Gerry had | Gerry had 10 children, 9 of whom survived into adulthood: | ||
# Catharine Gerry (1787–1850) | # Catharine Gerry (1787–1850) | ||
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# [[Thomas Russell Gerry]] (1794–1848), who married Hannah Green Goelet (1804–1845)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kestenbaum |first=Lawrence |title=The Political Graveyard: Gerry family |url=http://politicalgraveyard.com/families/10001-166.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827193004/http://politicalgraveyard.com/families/10001-166.html |archive-date=August 27, 2018 |access-date=September 14, 2016 |website=politicalgraveyard.com |publisher=The Political Graveyard}}</ref> | # [[Thomas Russell Gerry]] (1794–1848), who married Hannah Green Goelet (1804–1845)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kestenbaum |first=Lawrence |title=The Political Graveyard: Gerry family |url=http://politicalgraveyard.com/families/10001-166.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827193004/http://politicalgraveyard.com/families/10001-166.html |archive-date=August 27, 2018 |access-date=September 14, 2016 |website=politicalgraveyard.com |publisher=The Political Graveyard}}</ref> | ||
# Helen Maria Gerry (1796–1864) | # Helen Maria Gerry (1796–1864) | ||
# James Thompson Gerry (1797–1854), who left [[West Point]] upon his father's death and was commander of the war-sloop [[USS Albany (1846)|USS ''Albany'']]; the sloop disappeared with all hands September 28 or 29, 1854 near the West Indies.<ref>See U.S. Military and Naval Academies, Cadet Records and Applications, 1805–1908, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); Washington, DC; U.S. Military Academy Cadet Application Papers, 1805–1866; Microfilm Serial: M688; Microfilm Roll: 3, File #1–108 and Unnumbered; 1814: [http://interactive.ancestry.com/1299/31638_218001-00529/100927?backurl=http://person.ancestry.com/tree/85114865/person/40514803775/facts/citation/263447212672/edit/record James T. Gerry, 1814]. Retrieved November 4, 2015. {{Subscription required}}. See also Charles R. Hale Collection. Hale Collection of Connecticut Cemetery Inscriptions. Hartford, Connecticut: Connecticut State Library. Connecticut Headstone Inscriptions Vol 32, [http://interactive.ancestry.com/2900/32971_301924-00089?pid=680270&backurl=http%3a%2f%2fsearch.ancestry.com%2f%2fcgi-bin%2fsse.dll%3fgss%3dangs-g%26new%3d1%26rank%3d1%26msT%3d1%26gsfn%3dJames%2bT.%26gsfn_x%3d0%26gsln%3dGerry%26gsln_x%3d0%26MSAV%3d1%26msddy%3d1854%26cpxt%3d1%26cp%3d12%26catbucket%3drstp%26uidh%3d5vf%26pcat%3dROOT_CATEGORY%26h%3d680270%26recoff%3d5%2b7%26db%3dHaleCemeteryInscriptions%26indiv%3d1%26ml_rpos%3d11&treeid=&personid=&hintid=&usePUB=true Transcription here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305143112/http://interactive.ancestry.com/2900/32971_301924-00089?pid=680270&backurl=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ancestry.com%2F%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsse.dll%3Fgss%3Dangs-g%26new%3D1%26rank%3D1%26msT%3D1%26gsfn%3DJames%2BT.%26gsfn_x%3D0%26gsln%3DGerry%26gsln_x%3D0%26MSAV%3D1%26msddy%3D1854%26cpxt%3D1%26cp%3D12%26catbucket%3Drstp%26uidh%3D5vf%26pcat%3DROOT_CATEGORY%26h%3D680270%26recoff%3D5%2B7%26db%3DHaleCemeteryInscriptions%26indiv%3D1%26ml_rpos%3D11&treeid=&personid=&hintid=&usePUB=true |date=March 5, 2016}}. Retrieved November 4, 2015.</ref> | # James Thompson Gerry (1797–1854), who left [[West Point]] upon his father's death and was commander of the war-sloop [[USS Albany (1846)|USS ''Albany'']]; the sloop disappeared with all hands September 28 or 29, 1854, near the West Indies.<ref>See U.S. Military and Naval Academies, Cadet Records and Applications, 1805–1908, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); Washington, DC; U.S. Military Academy Cadet Application Papers, 1805–1866; Microfilm Serial: M688; Microfilm Roll: 3, File #1–108 and Unnumbered; 1814: [http://interactive.ancestry.com/1299/31638_218001-00529/100927?backurl=http://person.ancestry.com/tree/85114865/person/40514803775/facts/citation/263447212672/edit/record James T. Gerry, 1814]. Retrieved November 4, 2015. {{Subscription required}}. See also Charles R. Hale Collection. Hale Collection of Connecticut Cemetery Inscriptions. Hartford, Connecticut: Connecticut State Library. Connecticut Headstone Inscriptions Vol 32, [http://interactive.ancestry.com/2900/32971_301924-00089?pid=680270&backurl=http%3a%2f%2fsearch.ancestry.com%2f%2fcgi-bin%2fsse.dll%3fgss%3dangs-g%26new%3d1%26rank%3d1%26msT%3d1%26gsfn%3dJames%2bT.%26gsfn_x%3d0%26gsln%3dGerry%26gsln_x%3d0%26MSAV%3d1%26msddy%3d1854%26cpxt%3d1%26cp%3d12%26catbucket%3drstp%26uidh%3d5vf%26pcat%3dROOT_CATEGORY%26h%3d680270%26recoff%3d5%2b7%26db%3dHaleCemeteryInscriptions%26indiv%3d1%26ml_rpos%3d11&treeid=&personid=&hintid=&usePUB=true Transcription here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305143112/http://interactive.ancestry.com/2900/32971_301924-00089?pid=680270&backurl=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ancestry.com%2F%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsse.dll%3Fgss%3Dangs-g%26new%3D1%26rank%3D1%26msT%3D1%26gsfn%3DJames%2BT.%26gsfn_x%3D0%26gsln%3DGerry%26gsln_x%3D0%26MSAV%3D1%26msddy%3D1854%26cpxt%3D1%26cp%3D12%26catbucket%3Drstp%26uidh%3D5vf%26pcat%3DROOT_CATEGORY%26h%3D680270%26recoff%3D5%2B7%26db%3DHaleCemeteryInscriptions%26indiv%3D1%26ml_rpos%3D11&treeid=&personid=&hintid=&usePUB=true |date=March 5, 2016}}. Retrieved November 4, 2015.</ref> | ||
# Eleanor Stanford Gerry (1800–1871)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eleanor Stanford Gerry 1800-1871 - Ancestry® |url=https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/eleanor-stanford-gerry-24-4f0wb3?geo_a=r&geo_s=uk&geo_t=uk&geo_v=2.0.0&o_iid=41012&o_lid=41012&o_sch=Web+Property |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924032207/https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/eleanor-stanford-gerry-24-4f0wb3?geo_a=r&geo_s=uk&geo_t=uk&geo_v=2.0.0&o_iid=41012&o_lid=41012&o_sch=Web+Property |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |access-date=August 9, 2020}}</ref> | # Eleanor Stanford Gerry (1800–1871)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eleanor Stanford Gerry 1800-1871 - Ancestry® |url=https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/eleanor-stanford-gerry-24-4f0wb3?geo_a=r&geo_s=uk&geo_t=uk&geo_v=2.0.0&o_iid=41012&o_lid=41012&o_sch=Web+Property |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924032207/https://www.ancestry.co.uk/genealogy/records/eleanor-stanford-gerry-24-4f0wb3?geo_a=r&geo_s=uk&geo_t=uk&geo_v=2.0.0&o_iid=41012&o_lid=41012&o_sch=Web+Property |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |access-date=August 9, 2020}}</ref> | ||
# Emily Louisa Gerry (1802–1894)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emily Louisa Gerry 1802-1894 - Ancestry® |url=https://www.ancestry.com/genealogy/records/emily-louisa-gerry-24-4nn8kb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924030707/https://www.ancestry.com/genealogy/records/emily-louisa-gerry-24-4nn8kb |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |access-date=August 9, 2020 |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> | # Emily Louisa Gerry (1802–1894)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emily Louisa Gerry 1802-1894 - Ancestry® |url=https://www.ancestry.com/genealogy/records/emily-louisa-gerry-24-4nn8kb |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924030707/https://www.ancestry.com/genealogy/records/emily-louisa-gerry-24-4nn8kb |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |access-date=August 9, 2020 |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> | ||
Gerry's grandson [[Elbridge Thomas Gerry]] became a distinguished lawyer and philanthropist in New York. His great-grandson, [[Peter G. Gerry]], was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives and later a U.S. Senator from Rhode Island.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biographical Abstract of Peter G. Gerry |url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805003833/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000141 |archive-date=August 5, 2011 |access-date=December 8, 2012 |publisher=United States Congress}}</ref> | Gerry's grandson, [[Elbridge Thomas Gerry]], became a distinguished lawyer and philanthropist in New York. His great-grandson, [[Peter G. Gerry]], was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives and later a U.S. Senator from Rhode Island.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biographical Abstract of Peter G. Gerry |url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805003833/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000141 |archive-date=August 5, 2011 |access-date=December 8, 2012 |publisher=United States Congress}}</ref> | ||
Gerry is depicted in two of [[John Trumbull]]'s paintings, the ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'' and ''[[General George Washington Resigning His Commission]]''.<ref>Weir, pp. 66–67</ref> Both are on view in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|rotunda]] of the [[United States Capitol]].<ref name=aoc/> | Gerry is depicted in two of [[John Trumbull]]'s paintings, the ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'' and ''[[General George Washington Resigning His Commission]]''.<ref>Weir, pp. 66–67</ref> Both are on view in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|rotunda]] of the [[United States Capitol]].<ref name=aoc/> | ||
The upstate New York town of [[Elbridge, New York|Elbridge]] is believed to have been named in his honor, as is the western New York town of [[Gerry, New York|Gerry]].<ref>Beauchamp, p. 361</ref><ref>Downs and Hedley, p. 187</ref> The town of [[Phillipston, Massachusetts]] was originally incorporated in 1786 under the name Gerry in his honor but was changed to its present name after the town submitted a petition in 1812, citing Democratic-Republican support for the War of 1812.<ref>Marvin, pp. 220–21</ref> | The upstate New York town of [[Elbridge, New York|Elbridge]] is believed to have been named in his honor, as is the western New York town of [[Gerry, New York|Gerry]].<ref>Beauchamp, p. 361</ref><ref>Downs and Hedley, p. 187</ref> The town of [[Phillipston, Massachusetts]], was originally incorporated in 1786 under the name Gerry in his honor, but was changed to its present name after the town submitted a petition in 1812, citing Democratic-Republican support for the War of 1812.<ref>Marvin, pp. 220–21</ref> | ||
Gerry's Landing Road in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], is located near the [[Eliot Bridge]] not far from Elmwood. During the 19th century, the area was known as Gerry's Landing (formerly known as Sir Richard's Landing) and was used by a Gerry relative for a short time as a landing and storehouse.<ref>''Publications of the Cambridge Historical Society'', p. 85</ref><ref>Bethell et al., p. 62</ref> The supposed house of his birth, the [[Elbridge Gerry House]] ( | Gerry's Landing Road in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], is located near the [[Eliot Bridge]] not far from Elmwood. During the 19th century, the area was known as Gerry's Landing (formerly known as Sir Richard's Landing) and was used by a Gerry relative for a short time as a landing and storehouse.<ref>''Publications of the Cambridge Historical Society'', p. 85</ref><ref>Bethell et al., p. 62</ref> The supposed house of his birth, the [[Elbridge Gerry House]] (whether he was born in the house currently standing on the site or an earlier structure is uncertain) stands in Marblehead, and Marblehead's Elbridge Gerry School is named in his honor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MACRIS Inventory: Elbridge Gerry House |url=https://mhc-macris.net/details?mhcid=mar.654 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130222060902/http://mhc-macris.net/Details.aspx?MhcId=MAR.654 |archive-date=February 22, 2013 |access-date=December 8, 2012 |publisher=Commonwealth of Massachusetts}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MACRIS Inventory: Eldridge<nowiki>[sic]</nowiki> Gerry School |url=https://mhc-macris.net/details?mhcid=mar.544 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221223644/http://mhc-macris.net/Details.aspx?MhcId=MAR.544 |archive-date=February 21, 2013 |access-date=December 8, 2012 |publisher=Commonwealth of Massachusetts}}</ref> | ||
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[[Category:Gerrymandering in the United States]] | [[Category:Gerrymandering in the United States]] | ||
[[Category:Madison administration cabinet members]] | [[Category:Madison administration cabinet members]] | ||
[[Category:Massachusetts Democratic-Republicans]] | [[Category:Massachusetts Democratic-Republicans]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:United States representatives from Massachusetts]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Politicians from Marblehead, Massachusetts]] | ||
[[Category:People from colonial Massachusetts]] | [[Category:People from colonial Massachusetts]] | ||
[[Category:People of the Quasi-War]] | [[Category:People of the Quasi-War]] | ||
[[Category:Politicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts]] | [[Category:Politicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Signatories of the Articles of Confederation]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence]] | ||
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[[Category:18th-century American merchants]] | [[Category:18th-century American merchants]] | ||
[[Category:18th-century | [[Category:18th-century United States representatives]] | ||
[[Category:Candidates in the 1788–1789 United States elections]] | [[Category:Candidates in the 1788–1789 United States elections]] | ||
[[Category:Candidates in the 1800 United States elections]] | [[Category:Candidates in the 1800 United States elections]] | ||