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|region = [[Western philosophy]]
|region = [[Western philosophy]]
|era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]]
|era = [[Hellenistic philosophy]]
|image = Epicteti Enchiridion Latinis versibus adumbratum (Oxford 1715) frontispiece.jpg
|image = Epicteti Enchiridion Latinis versibus adumbratum (Oxford 1715) frontispiece (cropped).jpg
|alt = A line drawing of Epictetus writing at a table with a crutch draped across his lap and shoulder
|alt = A line drawing of Epictetus writing at a table with a crutch draped across his lap and shoulder
|caption = Eighteenth-century line drawing<br>depicting Epictetus with his crutch
|caption = Eighteenth-century line drawing<br>depicting Epictetus with his crutch
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|school_tradition = [[Stoicism]]
|school_tradition = [[Stoicism]]
|main_interests = [[Ethics]]
|main_interests = [[Ethics]]
|notable_ideas = ''[[Memento mori]]''<ref>''[[Discourses of Epictetus]]'', 3.24.</ref>
|notable_ideas = ''[[Prohairesis]]''<ref>''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus]]'', 4.</ref><br>''[[Memento mori]]''<ref>''[[Discourses of Epictetus]]'', 3.24.</ref>
}}
}}


'''Epictetus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|p|ɪ|k|ˈ|t|iː|t|ə|s|}}, {{respell|EH|pick|TEE|təss}};<ref>Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. ''Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary''. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἐπίκτητος}}, ''Epíktētos''; {{circa}} 50 {{ndash}} {{circa}} 135 AD) was a Greek [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]].<ref name="CarterEpictetus2017">{{cite book | author1 = Elizabeth Carter | author2 = Epictetus | date = 9 July 2017 | title = The Complete Works of Epictetus | publisher = Independently Published | pages = | isbn = 978-1521800355 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yDpEswEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Stevens2022">{{cite book | author = Rowan Stevens | date = 28 February 2022 | title = <nowiki>Wise Quotes – Epictetus (294 Epictetus Quotes): Greek Stoic Philosophy | Quote Collections | Epicurean</nowiki> | publisher = Rowan Stevens | pages = | isbn = 978-1636051833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bgf2zgEACAAJ}}</ref> He was born [[Slavery in ancient Greece|into slavery]] at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]] (present-day [[Pamukkale]], in western [[Turkey]]) and lived in [[Rome]] until his banishment, when he went to [[Nicopolis]] in northwestern [[Greece]], where he spent the rest of his life.  
'''Epictetus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|p|ɪ|k|ˈ|t|iː|t|ə|s}} {{respell|EH|pick|TEE|təss}};<ref>Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. ''Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary''. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἐπίκτητος}}, ''Epíktētos''; {{circa}} 50 {{ndash}} {{circa}} 135 AD) was a Greek [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]].<ref name="CarterEpictetus2017">{{cite book | author1 = Elizabeth Carter | author2 = Epictetus | date = 9 July 2017 | title = The Complete Works of Epictetus | publisher = Independently Published | pages = | isbn = 978-1521800355 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yDpEswEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Stevens2022">{{cite book | author = Rowan Stevens | date = 28 February 2022 | title = <nowiki>Wise Quotes – Epictetus (294 Epictetus Quotes): Greek Stoic Philosophy | Quote Collections | Epicurean</nowiki> | publisher = Rowan Stevens | pages = | isbn = 978-1636051833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bgf2zgEACAAJ}}</ref> He was born [[Slavery in ancient Greece|into slavery]] at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]] (present-day [[Pamukkale]], in western [[Turkey]]) and lived in [[Rome]] until his banishment, after which he spent the rest of his life in [[Nicopolis]] in northwestern [[Greece]].  


Epictetus studied Stoic philosophy under [[Musonius Rufus]] and after manumission, his formal emancipation from slavery, he began to teach philosophy. When philosophers were banished from Rome by Emperor [[Domitian]] toward the end of the first century, Epictetus founded a school of philosophy in [[Nicopolis]]. Epictetus taught that philosophy is [[Modus vivendi|a way of life]] and not simply a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are [[determinism|beyond our control]]; he argues that we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, he held that individuals are [[Moral responsibility|responsible for their own actions]], which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil [[Arrian]] in his ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|Discourses]]'' and ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]''. They influenced many later thinkers, including [[Marcus Aurelius]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], [[Montesquieu]], [[François Rabelais|Rabelais]], and [[Samuel Johnson]].
Epictetus studied Stoic philosophy under [[Musonius Rufus]] and after [[manumission]], his formal emancipation from slavery, he began to teach philosophy. When philosophers were banished from Rome by Emperor [[Domitian]] toward the end of the first century, Epictetus founded a school of philosophy in [[Nicopolis]]. He taught that philosophy is [[Modus vivendi|a way of life]] and not simply a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are [[determinism|beyond our control]]; he argues that we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, he held that individuals are [[Moral responsibility|responsible for their own actions]], which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil [[Arrian]] in his ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|Discourses]]'' and ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]''. They influenced many later thinkers, including [[Marcus Aurelius]], [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]], [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], [[Montesquieu]], [[François Rabelais|Rabelais]], and [[Samuel Johnson]].


== Life ==
== Life ==
Having described himself as old in 108 AD, Epictetus is presumed to have been born around AD 50,<ref>{{cite SEP |url-id=epictetus |title=Epictetus |last=Graver |first=Margaret}}</ref><ref>The year of his birth is uncertain. He was born a slave. We do know that he was born early enough to be teaching philosophy by around AD 93, when Domitian banished all philosophers from [[Rome]], because he was among those who left the city under that decree. Around 108 AD, he described himself to Arrian as being an old man cf. [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.9.10; i.16.20; ii.6.23; etc.</ref> at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]].<ref>Suda. ''Epictetus''.</ref> The name given by his parents is unknown. The name by which he is known is derived from the word ''epíktētos'' (ἐπίκτητος) that in [[Greek language|Greek]], simply means "gained" or "acquired";<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%E1%BC%90%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82&la=greek#Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=e)pi/kthtos-contents|title=Greek Word Study Tool|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> the Greek philosopher [[Plato]], in his ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'', used that term to mean property that is "added to one's hereditary property".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0059,034:924a&lang=original|title=Plato, Laws, section 924a|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Epictetus spent his youth in Rome as a [[slavery|slave]] to [[Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)|Epaphroditus]], a wealthy [[freedman]] who was secretary to [[Nero]].<ref>[https://www.livius.org/ei-er/epaphroditus/epaphroditus.html Epaphroditus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802005238/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/epaphroditus/epaphroditus.html |date=2014-08-02 }}, livius.org</ref> His social position was thus complicated, combining the low status of a slave with the high status of one with a personal connection to Imperial power.<ref>P. Christoforou, ''Imagining the Roman Emperor'' (2023), p. 22</ref>
Having described himself as old in AD&nbsp;108, Epictetus is presumed to have been born around AD 50,<ref>{{cite SEP |url-id=epictetus |title=Epictetus |last=Graver |first=Margaret}}</ref><ref>The year of his birth is uncertain. He was born a slave. We do know that he was born early enough to be teaching philosophy by around AD 93, when Domitian banished all philosophers from [[Rome]], because he was among those who left the city under that decree. Around AD 108, he described himself to Arrian as being an old man cf. [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.9.10; i.16.20; ii.6.23; etc.</ref> at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]].<ref>Suda. ''Epictetus''.</ref> The name given by his parents is unknown. The name by which he is known is derived from the word ''epíktētos'' (ἐπίκτητος) that in [[Greek language|Greek]], simply means "gained" or "acquired";<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%E1%BC%90%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82&la=greek#Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=e)pi/kthtos-contents|title=Greek Word Study Tool|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> the Greek philosopher [[Plato]], in his ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'', used that term to mean property that is "added to one's hereditary property".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0059,034:924a&lang=original|title=Plato, Laws, section 924a|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Epictetus spent his youth in Rome as a [[slavery|slave]] to [[Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)|Epaphroditus]], a wealthy [[freedman]] who was secretary to [[Nero]].<ref>[https://www.livius.org/ei-er/epaphroditus/epaphroditus.html Epaphroditus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802005238/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/epaphroditus/epaphroditus.html |date=2014-08-02 }}, livius.org</ref> Epictetus's social position was thus complicated, combining the low status of a slave with the high status of one with a personal connection to imperial power.<ref>P. Christoforou, ''Imagining the Roman Emperor'' (2023), p. 22</ref>


Early in life, Epictetus acquired a passion for philosophy and, with the permission of his wealthy master, he studied [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy under [[Musonius Rufus]].<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses'']. i.7.32.</ref> Becoming more educated in this way raised his social status.<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.9.29.</ref> At some point, he became disabled. [[Celsus]], quoted by [[Origen]], wrote that this was because his leg had been deliberately broken by his master.<ref>Origen, [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen167.html ''Contra Celcus''. vii.]</ref> Without citing a cause, [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]] wrote that Epictetus had been disabled from childhood.<ref name="simpl1">Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 13.</ref>
Early in life, Epictetus acquired a passion for philosophy and, with the permission of his wealthy master, he studied [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy under [[Musonius Rufus]].<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses'']. i.7.32.</ref> Becoming more educated in this way raised his social status.<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.9.29.</ref> At some point, he became disabled. [[Celsus]], quoted by [[Origen]], wrote that this was because his leg had been deliberately broken by his master.<ref>Origen, [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen167.html ''Contra Celcus''. vii.]</ref> Without citing a cause, [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]] wrote that Epictetus had been disabled from childhood.<ref name="simpl1">Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 13.</ref>
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His most famous pupil, [[Arrian]], studied under him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have written his famous ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|Discourses]]'' based on the notes he took about lectures by Epictetus. Arrian argued that his Discourses should be considered comparable to the [[Socrates|Socratic]] literature.<ref>Hendrik Selle: ''Dichtung oder Wahrheit&nbsp;– Der Autor der Epiktetischen Predigten''. Philologus 145 [2001] 269–290</ref> Arrian described Epictetus as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel".<ref name="arrian1">Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], prologue.</ref> Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.11; ii.14; iii.4; iii. 7; etc.</ref> Emperor [[Hadrian]] was friendly with him,<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/aelius-hadrian.html Historia Augusta, ''Hadrian''], 16.</ref> possibly having heard Epictetus speak at his school in Nicopolis.<ref>Fox, Robin ''The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian'' Basic Books. 2006 p. 578</ref><ref>A surviving second- or third-century work, ''Altercatio Hadriani Et Epicteti'' gives a fictitious account of a conversation between Hadrian and Epictetus.</ref>
His most famous pupil, [[Arrian]], studied under him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have written his famous ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|Discourses]]'' based on the notes he took about lectures by Epictetus. Arrian argued that his Discourses should be considered comparable to the [[Socrates|Socratic]] literature.<ref>Hendrik Selle: ''Dichtung oder Wahrheit&nbsp;– Der Autor der Epiktetischen Predigten''. Philologus 145 [2001] 269–290</ref> Arrian described Epictetus as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel".<ref name="arrian1">Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], prologue.</ref> Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], i.11; ii.14; iii.4; iii. 7; etc.</ref> Emperor [[Hadrian]] was friendly with him,<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/aelius-hadrian.html Historia Augusta, ''Hadrian''], 16.</ref> possibly having heard Epictetus speak at his school in Nicopolis.<ref>Fox, Robin ''The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian'' Basic Books. 2006 p. 578</ref><ref>A surviving second- or third-century work, ''Altercatio Hadriani Et Epicteti'' gives a fictitious account of a conversation between Hadrian and Epictetus.</ref>


Epictetus lived a life of great [[simple living|simplicity]], with few possessions.<ref name="simpl1"/> He lived alone for a long time,<ref>Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 46. There is a joke at Epictetus' expense in Lucian's [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6829 ''Life of Demonax''] about the fact that he had no family.</ref> but in his old age, he adopted the child of a friend who otherwise would have been left to die, and raised him with the aid of a woman.<ref>Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 46. It is possible that they were married, but Simplicius' language on that subject is ambiguous.</ref> It is unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.<ref>Lucian, Demoxan, c. 55, torn, ii., ed Hemsterh., p. 393; as quoted in ''A Selection from the Discourses of Epictetus With the Encheiridion'' (2009), p. 6</ref> He died sometime around AD 135.<ref>He apparently was alive in the reign of [[Hadrian]] (117–138). [[Marcus Aurelius]] (born AD 121) was an admirer, but never met him, and [[Aulus Gellius]] ([https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/2*.html#18.10 ii.18.10]) writing mid-second century, speaks of him as if he belonged to the recent past.</ref> After his death, according to [[Lucian]], his [[oil lamp]] was purchased by an admirer for 3,000 [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]e.<ref>Lucian, [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6829 ''Remarks to an illiterate book-lover''].</ref>
Epictetus lived a life of great [[simple living|simplicity]], with few possessions.<ref name="simpl1"/> He lived alone for a long time,<ref>Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 46. There is a joke at Epictetus' expense in Lucian's [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6829 ''Life of Demonax''] about the fact that he had no family.</ref> but in his old age, he adopted the child of a friend who otherwise would have been left to die, and raised him with the aid of a woman.<ref>Simplicius, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion'', 46. It is possible that they were married, but Simplicius' language on that subject is ambiguous.</ref> It is unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.<ref>Lucian, Demoxan, c. 55, torn, ii., ed Hemsterh., p. 393; as quoted in ''A Selection from the Discourses of Epictetus With the Encheiridion'' (2009), p. 6</ref> He died sometime around AD 135.<ref>He apparently was alive in the reign of [[Hadrian]] (117–138). [[Marcus Aurelius]] (b. AD 121) was an admirer, but never met him, and [[Aulus Gellius]] ([https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/2*.html#18.10 ii.18.10]) writing mid-second century, speaks of him as if he belonged to the recent past.</ref> After his death, according to [[Lucian]], his [[oil lamp]] was purchased by an admirer for 3,000 [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]e.<ref>Lucian, [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6829 ''Remarks to an illiterate book-lover''].</ref>


== Thought ==
== Thought ==
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== Legacy ==
== Legacy ==
[[File:MS. Canon. Misc. 378 fols. 78r - Bodleian library - Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi.jpg|thumb|right|Hadrian and Epictetus are depicted in a fifteenth century manuscript, Bodleian library]]
[[File:MS. Canon. Misc. 378 fols. 78r - Bodleian library - Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi.jpg|thumb|right|Hadrian and Epictetus are depicted in a fifteenth century manuscript, Bodleian library]]
No writings by Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his pupil [[Arrian]] ({{circa|86/89|after 146/160 AD}}).<ref name="arrian1"/> The main work is ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|The Discourses]]'', four books of which have been preserved (out of the original eight).<ref>[[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], ''Bibliotheca,'' states that there were eight books.</ref> Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled the ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]'', or ''Handbook'', of Epictetus. In a preface to the ''Discourses'' that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech".<ref name="arrian1"/>  
No writings by Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his pupil [[Arrian]] ({{circa|86/89|after 146/160 AD}}).<ref name="arrian1"/> The main work is ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|The Discourses]]'', four books of which have been preserved (out of the original eight).<ref>[[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], ''Bibliotheca,'' states that there were eight books.</ref> Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled the ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]'', or ''Handbook'', of Epictetus. In a preface to the ''Discourses'' that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech".<ref name="arrian1"/> Some scholars, however, have doubted this claim and suggest that Epictetus in fact wrote the ''Discourses'' himself, though it is not the consensus opinion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dobbin |first=Robert F. |title=Epictetus: Discourses, Book 1. |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1998 |isbn=9780199235995 |location=Oxford |pages=xx}}</ref>  


The philosophy of Epictetus influenced the Roman emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] (AD 121 to AD 180), who cites Epictetus in his ''[[Meditations]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher |first=G. R. |last=Stanton |journal=[[Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte]] |year=1969 |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=570–587 |jstor=4435105}}</ref> Epictetus also appears in a second or third century ''[[Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi|Dialogue Between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher]]''.<ref name="boter">{{Cite book|author-last=Boter|author-first=Gerard J.|contribution=Epictetus|page=6|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Virginia|editor2-last=Hankins|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Kaster|editor3-first=Robert A.|title=Catalogus Translationum Et Commentariorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries|volume=9|year=2011|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|isbn=978-0813217291}}</ref> This short Latin text consists of seventy-three short questions supposedly posed by [[Hadrian]] and answered by Epictetus.<ref name="boter"/> This dialogue was very popular in the [[Middle Ages]] with many translations and adaptations.<ref name="boter"/>
The philosophy of Epictetus influenced the Roman emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] (AD 121 to 180), who cites Epictetus in his ''[[Meditations]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher |first=G. R. |last=Stanton |journal=[[Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte]] |year=1969 |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=570–587 |jstor=4435105}}</ref> Epictetus also appears in a second or third century ''[[Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi|Dialogue Between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher]]''.<ref name="boter">{{Cite book|author-last=Boter|author-first=Gerard J.|contribution=Epictetus|page=6|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Virginia|editor2-last=Hankins|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Kaster|editor3-first=Robert A.|title=Catalogus Translationum Et Commentariorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries|volume=9|year=2011|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|isbn=978-0813217291}}</ref> This short Latin text consists of seventy-three short questions supposedly posed by [[Hadrian]] and answered by Epictetus.<ref name="boter"/> This dialogue was very popular in the [[Middle Ages]] with many translations and adaptations.<ref name="boter"/>


Epictetus exhibited an influence on French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers, such as [[Voltaire]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Denis Diderot]], and [[Baron d'Holbach]], who all read the [[Enchiridion of Epictetus|''Enchiridion'']] when they were students.<ref>{{cite book|title=Atheism in France, 1650–1729, Volume 1: The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief|last=Kors|first=Alan Charles|date=1990|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691055750|location=Princeton, New Jersey|page=188}}</ref> [[Blaise Pascal]] listed Epictetus as among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him as a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the world who have best understood the duties" of an individual.<ref>{{cite book |title=Blaise Pascal Thoughts, Letters, and Minor Works |date=2007 |publisher=Cosimo |page=393}}</ref>
Epictetus exhibited an influence on French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers, such as [[Voltaire]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Denis Diderot]], and [[Baron d'Holbach]], who all read the [[Enchiridion of Epictetus|''Enchiridion'']] when they were students.<ref>{{cite book|title=Atheism in France, 1650–1729, Volume 1: The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief|last=Kors|first=Alan Charles|date=1990|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691055750|location=Princeton, New Jersey|page=188}}</ref> [[Blaise Pascal]] listed Epictetus as among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him as a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the world who have best understood the duties" of an individual.<ref>{{cite book |title=Blaise Pascal Thoughts, Letters, and Minor Works |date=2007 |publisher=Cosimo |page=393}}</ref>
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{{Wikisourcelang|el|Επίκτητος|Ἐπίκτητος}}
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Επίκτητος|Ἐπίκτητος}}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/epictetus}}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/epictetus}}
* [https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674991453 Discourses, Books 1–2 — Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press]
* [https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674992405 Discourses, Books 3–4. Fragments. The Encheiridion — Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press]
*
* {{Gutenberg author |id=452}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=452}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}

Latest revision as of 04:42, 3 April 2026

This article is about the philosopher. For the vase painter, see Epiktetos.
Not to be confused with Epicurus.
Epictetus
A line drawing of Epictetus writing at a table with a crutch draped across his lap and shoulder
Eighteenth-century line drawing
depicting Epictetus with his crutch
Bornc. AD 50
Hierapolis, Phrygia
(presumed)
Diedc. 135 (aged c. 85)
Nicopolis, Epirus[1]
Notable work
EraHellenistic philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
SchoolStoicism
Main interests
Ethics
Notable ideas
Prohairesis[2]
Memento mori[3]

Epictetus (/ˌɛpɪkˈtiːtəs/ EH-pick-TEE-təss;[4] Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., Epíktētos; c. 50 – c. 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher.[5][6] He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, after which he spent the rest of his life in Nicopolis in northwestern Greece.

Epictetus studied Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus and after manumission, his formal emancipation from slavery, he began to teach philosophy. When philosophers were banished from Rome by Emperor Domitian toward the end of the first century, Epictetus founded a school of philosophy in Nicopolis. He taught that philosophy is a way of life and not simply a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are beyond our control; he argues that we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, he held that individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses and Enchiridion. They influenced many later thinkers, including Marcus Aurelius, Pascal, Diderot, Montesquieu, Rabelais, and Samuel Johnson.

Life

Having described himself as old in AD 108, Epictetus is presumed to have been born around AD 50,[7][8] at Hierapolis, Phrygia.[9] The name given by his parents is unknown. The name by which he is known is derived from the word epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) that in Greek, simply means "gained" or "acquired";[10] the Greek philosopher Plato, in his Laws, used that term to mean property that is "added to one's hereditary property".[11] Epictetus spent his youth in Rome as a slave to Epaphroditus, a wealthy freedman who was secretary to Nero.[12] Epictetus's social position was thus complicated, combining the low status of a slave with the high status of one with a personal connection to imperial power.[13]

Early in life, Epictetus acquired a passion for philosophy and, with the permission of his wealthy master, he studied Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus.[14] Becoming more educated in this way raised his social status.[15] At some point, he became disabled. Celsus, quoted by Origen, wrote that this was because his leg had been deliberately broken by his master.[16] Without citing a cause, Simplicius wrote that Epictetus had been disabled from childhood.[17]

Epictetus obtained his freedom sometime after the death of Nero in AD 68,[18] and he began to teach philosophy in Rome. Around AD 93, when the Roman emperor Domitian banished all philosophers from the city,[19] Epictetus moved to Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, where he founded a school of philosophy.[20]

His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied under him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have written his famous Discourses based on the notes he took about lectures by Epictetus. Arrian argued that his Discourses should be considered comparable to the Socratic literature.[21] Arrian described Epictetus as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel".[22] Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.[23] Emperor Hadrian was friendly with him,[24] possibly having heard Epictetus speak at his school in Nicopolis.[25][26]

Epictetus lived a life of great simplicity, with few possessions.[17] He lived alone for a long time,[27] but in his old age, he adopted the child of a friend who otherwise would have been left to die, and raised him with the aid of a woman.[28] It is unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.[29] He died sometime around AD 135.[30] After his death, according to Lucian, his oil lamp was purchased by an admirer for 3,000 drachmae.[31]

Thought

File:Epictetus.png
An eighteenth century engraving depicting Epictetus

Epictetus maintains that the foundation of all philosophy is self-knowledge; that is, the conviction of our ignorance and gullibility ought to be the first subject of our study.[32] Logic provides valid reasoning and certainty in judgment, but it is subordinate to practical needs.[33] He also maintained that the first and most necessary part of philosophy concerns the application of doctrine, for example, that people should not lie. The second concerns reasons, e.g., why people should not lie. The third, lastly, examines and establishes the reasons.[34] This is the logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and that a given reason is a correct one.[34] This last part is necessary, but only on account of the second, which again is rendered necessary by the first.[35]

Legacy

File:MS. Canon. Misc. 378 fols. 78r - Bodleian library - Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi.jpg
Hadrian and Epictetus are depicted in a fifteenth century manuscript, Bodleian library

No writings by Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his pupil Arrian (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD).[22] The main work is The Discourses, four books of which have been preserved (out of the original eight).[36] Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled the Enchiridion, or Handbook, of Epictetus. In a preface to the Discourses that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech".[22] Some scholars, however, have doubted this claim and suggest that Epictetus in fact wrote the Discourses himself, though it is not the consensus opinion.[37]

The philosophy of Epictetus influenced the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to 180), who cites Epictetus in his Meditations.[38] Epictetus also appears in a second or third century Dialogue Between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher.[39] This short Latin text consists of seventy-three short questions supposedly posed by Hadrian and answered by Epictetus.[39] This dialogue was very popular in the Middle Ages with many translations and adaptations.[39]

Epictetus exhibited an influence on French Enlightenment philosophers, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and Baron d'Holbach, who all read the Enchiridion when they were students.[40] Blaise Pascal listed Epictetus as among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him as a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the world who have best understood the duties" of an individual.[41]

In the sixth century, the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote an extant commentary on the Enchiridion.[42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Nicopolis Actia | Greece | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
  2. ↑ Enchiridion of Epictetus, 4.
  3. ↑ Discourses of Epictetus, 3.24.
  4. ↑ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.
  5. ↑ Elizabeth Carter; Epictetus (9 July 2017). The Complete Works of Epictetus. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1521800355.
  6. ↑ Rowan Stevens (28 February 2022). Wise Quotes – Epictetus (294 Epictetus Quotes): Greek Stoic Philosophy | Quote Collections | Epicurean. Rowan Stevens. ISBN 978-1636051833.
  7. ↑ Graver, Margaret. "Epictetus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  8. ↑ The year of his birth is uncertain. He was born a slave. We do know that he was born early enough to be teaching philosophy by around AD 93, when Domitian banished all philosophers from Rome, because he was among those who left the city under that decree. Around AD 108, he described himself to Arrian as being an old man cf. Discourses, i.9.10; i.16.20; ii.6.23; etc.
  9. ↑ Suda. Epictetus.
  10. ↑ "Greek Word Study Tool". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  11. ↑ "Plato, Laws, section 924a". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  12. ↑ Epaphroditus Archived 2014-08-02 at the Wayback Machine, livius.org
  13. ↑ P. Christoforou, Imagining the Roman Emperor (2023), p. 22
  14. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses. i.7.32.
  15. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, i.9.29.
  16. ↑ Origen, Contra Celcus. vii.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 13.
  18. ↑ Douglas J. Soccio, Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy (2012), p. 197
  19. ↑ Suetonius, Domitian, x.
  20. ↑ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, xv. 11.
  21. ↑ Hendrik Selle: Dichtung oder Wahrheit – Der Autor der Epiktetischen Predigten. Philologus 145 [2001] 269–290
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Epictetus, Discourses, prologue.
  23. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, i.11; ii.14; iii.4; iii. 7; etc.
  24. ↑ Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 16.
  25. ↑ Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 p. 578
  26. ↑ A surviving second- or third-century work, Altercatio Hadriani Et Epicteti gives a fictitious account of a conversation between Hadrian and Epictetus.
  27. ↑ Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. There is a joke at Epictetus' expense in Lucian's Life of Demonax about the fact that he had no family.
  28. ↑ Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. It is possible that they were married, but Simplicius' language on that subject is ambiguous.
  29. ↑ Lucian, Demoxan, c. 55, torn, ii., ed Hemsterh., p. 393; as quoted in A Selection from the Discourses of Epictetus With the Encheiridion (2009), p. 6
  30. ↑ He apparently was alive in the reign of Hadrian (117–138). Marcus Aurelius (b. AD 121) was an admirer, but never met him, and Aulus Gellius (ii.18.10) writing mid-second century, speaks of him as if he belonged to the recent past.
  31. ↑ Lucian, Remarks to an illiterate book-lover.
  32. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, ii.11.1
  33. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, i.7.1–8
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 201
  35. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.1–6; Enchiridion, 52
  36. ↑ Photius, Bibliotheca, states that there were eight books.
  37. ↑ Dobbin, Robert F. (1998). Epictetus: Discourses, Book 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. xx. ISBN 9780199235995.
  38. ↑ Stanton, G. R. (1969). "Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 18 (5): 570–587. JSTOR 4435105.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Boter, Gerard J. (2011). "Epictetus". In Brown, Virginia; Hankins, James; Kaster, Robert A. (eds.). Catalogus Translationum Et Commentariorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries. 9. The Catholic University of America Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0813217291.
  40. ↑ Kors, Alan Charles (1990). Atheism in France, 1650–1729, Volume 1: The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0691055750.
  41. ↑ Blaise Pascal Thoughts, Letters, and Minor Works. Cosimo. 2007. p. 393.
  42. ↑ George Long, (1890), The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheridion and Fragments, p. 390. George Bell and Sons

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