Amaranth: Difference between revisions

Amaranth
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Amaranthus is a genus of plants commonly known as amaranths. Some species are known by variants of the common name "pigweed".^[1] Some members are annual and others are perennial. The plant can grow from 1 to 2.5 metres (3 to 8 feet) tall with a succulent, hollow stem. Parts of the plant vary from green to reddish. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in the summer or fall.

There are 75 recognized species in the genus, some monoecious and some dioecious. The name amaranth was originally applied to the closely related genus Celosia. Amaranthus is cosmopolitan in tropical regions. Some species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals (with amaranth grain being collected), and ornamental plants.

Description

Amaranth is a herbaceous plant or shrub that is either annual or perennial across the genus.^[2] The plant has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures.^[3] Amaranths contain concentric rings of vascular bundles and fix carbon efficiently with a C4 photosynthetic pathway.^[2] Amaranth can grow from 1 to 2.5 metres (3 to 8 feet) tall with a cylindrical, succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and bracteoles when mature varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson.^[2] The leaves are approximately 6.5–15 centimetres (2+1⁄2–6 inches) and of oval or elliptical shape that are either opposite or alternate across species, although most are whole and simple with entire margins.^[2]

File:Amaranth Grain.jpg

Amaranth grain

Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in the summer or fall.^[4] The inflorescences are in the form a large panicle that varies from terminal to axial, color, and sex. The tassel of fluorescence is either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species. The flowers are radially symmetric and either bisexual or unisexual with very small, bristly perianth and pointy bracts.^[3] The flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5 tepals and stamens, whereas a 7-porate pollen grain structure remains consistent across the family.^[2]

Species in this genus are either monoecious (e.g. A. hybridus,) or dioecious (e.g. A. palmeri).^[3] The fruits are in the form of capsules referred to as a unilocular pixdio that opens at maturity.^[3] The top (operculum) of the capsule releases the urn that contains the seed.^[3] The seeds are circular, 1 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter and range in color with a shiny, smooth seed coat.^[3] The panicle is harvested 200 days after cultivation with approximately 1,000 to 3,000 seeds harvested per gram.^[5]

Taxonomy

Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Amaranthus is part of the Amaranthaceae that is part of the larger grouping of the Carophyllales.^[2] Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 75 species present across six continents.^[6] This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus and to hybridize often.^[7]

In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus.^[7] Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Mosyakin and Robertson 1996 later divided into three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia.^[8] The support for the addition of the subdivision Albersia because of its indehiscent fruits coupled with three elliptic to linear tepals to be exclusive characters to members of this subgenus. The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence.^[6]^[9]^[10]

The phylogenies of Amaranthus using maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of nuclear and chloroplast genes suggest five groups within the genus: Dioecious/Pumilus clade; Hybridus clade; Galapagos (three clades); Eurasian + South African + Australian (ESA) clade; ESA + South American clade (with South American samples forming an evolutionary grade).^[9]

File:Amaranthus flowers.jpg

A. hypochondriacus

Amaranthus includes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridisation and species concepts.^[2] Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.^[6] Bracteole morphology present on the stem is used for taxonomic classification of Amaranth. Wild species have longer bracteoles compared to cultivated species.^[7] A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus includes three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia, with the taxonomy further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera.^[11] According to one source, 10 species are dioecious and native to North America, while the rest are monoecious and cosmopolitan.^[12]

There is near certainty that A. hypochondriacus is the common ancestor to the cultivated grain species, but their later domestication remains unclear. There has been opposing hypotheses of a single as opposed to multiple domestication events of the three grain species.^[6]^[13] There is evidence of phylogenetic and geographical support for clear groupings that indicate separate domestication events in South America and Central America.^[6] A. hybridus may derive from South America, whereas A. caudatus, A. hypochondriacus, and A. quentiensis are native to Central America and elsewhere in North America.^[6]^[13]

Species

Species include:^[14]^[15]

Amaranthus acanthochiton – greenstripe
Amaranthus acutilobus – a synonym of Amaranthus viridis^[14]
Amaranthus albus – white pigweed, tumble pigweed
Amaranthus anderssonii
Amaranthus arenicola – sandhill amaranth
Amaranthus australis – southern amaranth
Amaranthus bigelovii – Bigelow's amaranth
Amaranthus blitoides – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed
Amaranthus blitum – purple amaranth
†Amaranthus brownii – Brown's amaranth
Amaranthus californicus – California amaranth, California pigweed
Amaranthus cannabinus – tidal-marsh amaranth
Amaranthus caudatus – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, quilete
Amaranthus chihuahuensis – Chihuahuan amaranth
Amaranthus crassipes – spreading amaranth
Amaranthus crispus – crispleaf amaranth
Amaranthus cruentus – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth
Amaranthus deflexus – large-fruit amaranth
Amaranthus dubius – spleen amaranth, khada sag
Amaranthus fimbriatus – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed
Amaranthus floridanus – Florida amaranth
Amaranthus furcatus
Amaranthus graecizans
Amaranthus grandiflorus
Amaranthus greggii – Gregg's amaranth
Amaranthus hybridus – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth
Amaranthus hypochondriacus – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather
Amaranthus interruptus – Australian amaranth^[16]
Amaranthus minimus
Amaranthus mitchellii
Amaranthus muricatus – African amaranth^[17]
Amaranthus obcordatus – Trans-Pecos amaranth
Amaranthus palmeri – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed
Amaranthus polygonoides – tropical amaranth
Amaranthus powellii – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed
Amaranthus pringlei – Pringle's amaranth
Amaranthus pumilus – seaside amaranth
Amaranthus quitensis - Mucronate Amaranth
Amaranthus retroflexus – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth
Amaranthus saradhiana - purpal stem amaranth, green leaf amaranth
Amaranthus scleranthoides – variously Amaranthus sclerantoides
Amaranthus scleropoides – bone-bract amaranth
Amaranthus spinosus – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth
Amaranthus standleyanus
Amaranthus thunbergii – Thunberg's amaranth
Amaranthus torreyi – Torrey's amaranth
Amaranthus tricolor – Joseph's-coat
Amaranthus tuberculatus – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp
Amaranthus viridis – slender amaranth, green amaranth
Amaranthus watsonii – Watson's amaranth
Amaranthus wrightii – Wright's amaranth

Names and etymology

The word amaranth derives from Ancient Greek ἀμάραντος (amárantos), meaning 'unfading', a name used across cultures. Its development is associated with the Greek word for 'flower', ἄνθος (ánthos), giving rise to the idea of the 'unfading flower'. Amarant is an archaic variant of the name.

The botanical name Amaranthus likewise comes from the Ancient Greek ἀμάραντος. The noun is formed from the privative prefix ἀ- (a-), meaning 'without', and the verb μαραίνω (maraínō), meaning 'to consume' or 'to exhaust'. Classical references to the plant appear in the works of Dioscorides (Book 3, section 9; Book 4, sections 55 and 57).^[18]^[19]

The name amaranth was first applied in Europe to the related genus Celosia. At the time, plants of the genus Amaranthus were not yet known in Europe. Amaranthus and Celosia share long-lasting dried flowers, which contributed to the transfer of the name.^[20]

The Latin form amaranthus, which includes the letter h, arose from an erroneous association with the Greek word ἄνθος (anthos), meaning 'flower'. This element appears in the names of many plants, such as Agapanthus, and influenced later botanical spelling.

In the languages of Indigenous peoples who cultivated amaranth in the Americas since ancient times, the plant is known by a variety of names. In Nahuatl, it is called huauhtli.^[21] In Quechua, it is known as kiwicha and ataĉo.^[22] In Maya, it is called tez or xtes. Additional names include ahparie in the Purépecha language, wa've in Huichol, and guegui in the Tarahumara.^{[citation needed]}

Distribution and habitat

The genus most likely originated in Central America.^[6]^[13] The native range of the genus is cosmopolitan^[5] in tropical regions. It is found in elevations ranging from lowlands to mountain ranges such as the Himalayas.^[12]

Ecology

Amaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production.^[23] Farmers have considered them problematic since the mid-1990s, partially due to the reduction in tillage and herbicide use, as well as the evolution of herbicide resistance in several species.^[24] In the United States and Canada, nine species of Amaranthus are considered invasive and noxious weeds: A. albus, A. blitoides, A. hybridus, A. palmeri, A. powellii, A. retroflexus, A. spinosus, A. tuberculatus, and A. viridis.^[25]^[26]

A new herbicide-resistant strain of A. palmeri has appeared; it is glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. A. palmeri (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17–68% in field experiments.^[23] According to one source, A. palmeri is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the U.S. and has already evolved resistances to dinitroaniline herbicides and acetolactate synthase inhibitors.^[27] This makes the proper identification of Amaranthus species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions.

An evolutionary lineage of around 90 species within the genus has acquired the [[C4 carbon fixation|Template:C4 carbon fixation]] pathway, which increases their photosynthetic efficiency. This probably occurred in the Miocene.^[28]^[29]

Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus Coleophora: C. amaranthella, C. enchorda (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. immortalis (feeds exclusively on Amaranthus), C. lineapulvella, and C. versurella (recorded on A. spinosus).

Conservation

Amaranthus pumilus (seabeach amaranth) has been listed as an endangered species in the U.S. since 1993.^[30]

Cultivation

Amaranth grain has been found in Antofagasta de la Sierra Department, Catamarca, in the southern Puna desert of northern Argentina dating from 4,500 years ago, with evidence suggesting earlier use.^[3] Archeological digs unearthed A. cruentus seeds in a cave in Tehuacán, Mexico that dated to 6,000 years before present, while other digs in the same caves found A. hypochondriacus seeds dating to 1,500 years before present.^[31] Ancient amaranth grains still used include A. caudatus, A. cruentus, and A. hypochondriacus.^[32] Evidence from single-nucleotide polymorphisms and chromosome structure supports A. hypochondriacus as the common ancestor of the three grain species.^[33]

In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize.^[34] Known to the Aztecs as huāuhtli,^[35] amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest.^{[citation needed]}

Amaranth has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons:

A small amount of seed plants a large area (seeding rate 1 kg/ha).
Yields are high compared to the seeding rate: 1,000 kg or more per hectare.
It is easily harvested and easily processed, post harvest, as there are no hulls to remove.
Its seeds are a source of protein.^[5]^[36]
It has rich content of the dietary minerals, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.
In cooked and edible forms, amaranth retains adequate content of several dietary minerals.
It grows fast and, in three cultivated species, the large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kg and contain a half-million small seeds.^[5]

In the U.S., the amaranth crop is mostly used for seed production. Most amaranth in American food products starts as a ground flour, blended with wheat or other flours to create cereals, crackers, cookies, bread or other baked products.^[37] Despite utilization studies showing that amaranth can be blended with other flours at levels above 50% without affecting functional properties or taste, most commercial products use amaranth only as a minor portion of their ingredients despite them being marketed as "amaranth" products.^[37]

Potential adverse effects

Amaranth grain contains phytochemicals that are not defined as nutrients and may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and oxalates. These compounds are reduced in content and antinutrient effect by cooking.^[38]^[39]

The stalks may have sharp spines that need to be removed before consumption.^[40]

Uses

All parts of the plant are considered edible.^[41] It is well established as a highly nutritious and stress-tolerant crop well-suited for climate change-related stress if cultivated with agrivoltaics.^[42] Its high oxalic content may be partially offset by its yield of calcium.^[43]

The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants such as A. caudatus and A. hypochondriacus.

Nutrition

Template:Nutritional value Template:Nutritional value Uncooked amaranth grain by weight is 11% water, 65% carbohydrates (including 7% dietary fiber), 14% protein, and 7% fat. A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides 1,550 kilojoules (371 kilocalories) of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate, and several dietary minerals. Uncooked amaranth is particularly rich in manganese (159% DV), phosphorus (80% DV), magnesium (70% DV), iron (59% DV), and selenium (34% DV). Amaranth has a high oxalate content. Cooking leads to an apparent substantial decrease in nutritional value, though this is mainly due to an increase in water content to 75% by weight.^[44]

Raw and cooked amaranth leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and manganese, with moderate levels of folate, iron, magnesium, and potassium.^[45]

Amaranth does not contain gluten.^[46]^[47]^[48]

Seed

Interest in amaranth seeds (especially A. cruentus and A. hypochondriacus) revived in the 1970s during the health movement.^[49] It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties.^[49]

Amaranth and its relative quinoa are considered pseudocereals because of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking.^{[citation needed]} The grain can be ground into a flour for use like other grain flours.^[37] It can be popped like popcorn or flaked like oatmeal.^[50]

Amaranth being roasted in a comal

Amaranth being roasted in a comal
Amaranth muesli mix

Amaranth muesli mix
Alegría, traditional Mexican candy made with amaranth

Alegría, traditional Mexican candy made with amaranth

Leaves, roots, and stems

File:Travancore Cheera Thoran.JPG

Southern Kerala-style traditional Thoran made with Cheera (amaranth) leaves

Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world.^[51]

In Brazil, green amaranth is often consumed with rice and beans. In the Caribbean, the leaves are sautéed or used in a soup called Callaloo, which is also the local name for the amaranth plant.^[52]^[53]

In Greece, A. blitum is boiled and served like a salad.^{[citation needed]}

Four Amaranthus species are documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: A. cruentus, A. blitum, A. dubius, and A. tricolor.^[54] In India, the greens can be prepared as curry, stir fry, saag, and thoran. In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable or in soups. In Vietnam, it is used to make soup, mostly popularly A. tricolor and A. viridis.^{[citation needed]}

A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.^[55]^[56]^[57]

Oil

Making up about 5% of the total fatty acids of amaranth, squalene^[58] is extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensive shark oil for use in dietary supplements and cosmetics.^[59]

Dyes

The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western U.S.) as the source of a deep red dye. A synthetic dye was named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union.^[60]

In culture

Amaranth's cosmopolitan distribution has led some to cite it as supporting pre-Columbian contact between Old and New World human cultures.^[61]^[62] The earliest archeological evidence for amaranth in the Old World is in Narhan, India, dated to 1000–800 BCE.^[63]

File:Día de muertos.jpg

Skull shapes made of amaranth and honey for Day of the Dead in Mexico

In the 16th century, Dominican friar Diego Durán described the festivities for the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli. The Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices were held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration.^{[citation needed]} Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica was in ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses, or chocolate to make a treat called alegría, meaning "joy" in Spanish.^[64]

Amaranth is associated with longevity and, poetically, with death and immortality.^[65] The immortality symbolism is linked to the persistence of its calyx, which does not readily wither; for this reason, some species of amaranth are used in dry bouquets.^[66] Amaranth garlands were used in the mourning of Achilles.^[65]^[67]

John Milton's Paradise Lost portrays a showy amaranth in the Garden of Eden, "remov'd from Heav'n" when it blossoms because the flowers "shade the fountain of life".^[68] He describes amaranth as "immortal" in reference to the flowers that generally do not wither and retain bright reddish tones of color, even when deceased.

Gallery

Love-lies-bleeding (A. caudatus)

Love-lies-bleeding (A. caudatus)
Green amaranth (A. hybridus)

Green amaranth (A. hybridus)
Seabeach amaranth (A. pumilus)

Seabeach amaranth (A. pumilus)
Red-root amaranth (A. retroflexus) by Otto Wilhelm Thomé (1885)

Red-root amaranth (A. retroflexus) by Otto Wilhelm Thomé (1885)
Spiny amaranth (A. spinosus)

Spiny amaranth (A. spinosus)
Green amaranth (A. viridis)

Green amaranth (A. viridis)
Popping amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)

Popping amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
Amaranth from Chilpancingo

Amaranth from Chilpancingo

References

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↑ "Seabeach amaranth (Amaranthus pumilus)". Environmental Conservation Online System. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
↑ Brenner, D. M.; Baltensperger, D. D.; Kulakow, P. A.; Lehmann, J. W.; Myers, R. L.; Slabbert, M. M.; Sleugh, B. B. (2010-07-23), "Genetic Resources and Breeding of Amaranthus", Plant Breeding Reviews, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 227–285, doi:10.1002/9780470650172.ch7, ISBN 978-0-470-65017-2, archived from the original on 2025-05-11
↑ Costea, M.; Brenner, D. M.; Tardif, F. J.; Tan, Y. F.; Sun, M. (6 October 2006). "Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 53 (8): 1625–1633. doi:10.1007/s10722-005-0036-3. ISSN 0925-9864.
↑ Stetter, Markus G.; Zeitler, Leo; Steinhaus, Adrian; Kroener, Karoline; Biljecki, Michelle; Schmid, Karl J. (2016-06-07). "Crossing Methods and Cultivation Conditions for Rapid Production of Segregating Populations in Three Grain Amaranth Species". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 816. Bibcode:2016FrPS....7..816S. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00816. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 4894896. PMID 27375666.
↑ Mapes, Cristina, Eduardo Espitia, and Scott Sessions. "Amaranth." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195108159
↑ Coe, S.D. (1994). America's First Cuisines. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292711594.
↑ De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 Delate, Kathleen (2013). "Amaranth: Alternative Agriculture". Iowa State University. Archived from the original on 2019-10-02. Retrieved 2026-02-02.
↑ "Legacy: The Official Newsletter of Amaranth Institute" (PDF). Amaranth Institute. 1992. pp. 6–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-12. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
↑ Hotz C, Gibson RS (2007). "Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets". J Nutr. 137 (4): 1097–100. doi:10.1093/jn/137.4.1097. PMID 17374686.
↑ United States Department of the Army (2009). The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC 277203364.
↑ Nowell, Cecelia (20 August 2022). "Diet for a hotter climate: five plants that could help feed the world". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2023. From leaf to seed, the entirety of the amaranth plant is edible.
↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
↑ Radek, M.; Savage, G. P. (2008). "Oxalates in some Indian green leafy vegetables". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 59 (3): 246–260. doi:10.1080/09637480701791176. ISSN 0963-7486. PMID 18335334.
↑ "Amaranth grain, cooked, per 100 g". USDA FoodData Central. 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2025.
↑ "Amaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt, per 100 g". USDA FoodData Central. 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2025.
↑ Lamacchia C, Camarca A, Picascia S, Di Luccia A, Gianfrani C (Jan 29, 2014). "Cereal-based gluten-free food: how to reconcile nutritional and technological properties of wheat proteins with safety for celiac disease patients". Nutrients (Review). 6 (2): 575–90. doi:10.3390/nu6020575. PMC 3942718. PMID 24481131.
↑ Penagini F, Dilillo D, Meneghin F, Mameli C, Fabiano V, Zuccotti GV (Nov 18, 2013). "Gluten-free diet in children: an approach to a nutritionally adequate and balanced diet". Nutrients (Review). 5 (11): 4553–65. doi:10.3390/nu5114553. PMC 3847748. PMID 24253052.
↑ Gallagher, E.; T. R. Gormley; E. K. Arendt (2004). "Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products". Trends in Food Science & Technology (Review). 15 (3–4): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012.
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 "Amaranth - May Grain of the Month". The Whole Grains Council. Retrieved 2026-02-02.
↑ D. H. Putnam; E. S. Oplinger; J. D. Doll; E. M. Schulte (November 1989). "Amaranth". University of Wisconsin - Corn Agronomy.
↑ Wong, James (9 February 2020). "Amaranth tastes as good as it looks". The Guardian.
↑ DeMers, John (1998-08-01). Food of Jamaica: Authentic Recipes from the Jewel of the Caribbean. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1643-6.
↑ Sansavior, Eva; Scholar, Richard (2015). Caribbean Globalizations, 1492 to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-151-9.
↑ Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649
↑ National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Amaranth". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. 2. National Academies Press. Bibcode:2006nap..book11763N. doi:10.17226/11763. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. OCLC 34344933. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
↑ Goode, P. M. (1989). Edible plants of Uganda. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 25–6. ISBN 9789251027134.
↑ Enama, M. (1994). "Culture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective". Ecological Economics. 10 (2): 93–95. Bibcode:1994EcoEc..10...93E. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7.
↑ He, Han-Ping; Cai, Yizhong; Sun, Mei; Corke, Harold (2002). "Extraction and Purification of Squalene from Amaranthus Grain". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (2): 368–372. Bibcode:2002JAFC...50..368H. doi:10.1021/jf010918p. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 11782209.
↑ "Squalene Market Size to Exceed USD 240 Million by 2022". Global Market Insights Inc. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
↑ "The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
↑ "Singh Anurudh K (2017) Early History of Crop Introductions into India: II. Amaranthus (L.) spp. Asian Agri-History 21(4): 319-324". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2020-08-27.
↑ Sorenson, John L.; Johannessen, Carl L. (April 2004). "Scientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 133. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
↑ Saraswat, K.S.; Sharma, N.K.; Saini, D.C. (1994). Plant Economy at Ancient Narhan (ca. 1300 B.C.-300/400 A.D.) in Excavations at Narhan (1984-1989), Appendix IV. Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India: Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University. pp. 225–337.
↑ "Feria de la Alegría y el Olivo 2011". Página web oficial del Gobierno del Distrito Federal. Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
↑ ^65.0 ^65.1 Nabais Freitas, Guilherme (2022-02-25). "Anti-Spenserian Amaranth In Milton's Lycidas". Notes and Queries. 69 (1): 28–31. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjac007. ISSN 0029-3970.
↑ "Histoire Amarante". amaranto.cl (in Spanish).
↑ Allen, D. C. (1957). "Milton's Amarant". Modern Language Notes. 72 (4): 256–258. doi:10.2307/3043098. ISSN 0149-6611. JSTOR 3043098. The amaranthus was known to antiquity as an unfading flower, and it was used as a garland in the veneration of the wraith of Achilles
↑ Milton, John (2000). Paradise Lost. Penguin Books. OCLC 647024119.

External links

Template:Unimelb

Grain amaranth, Crops For A Future

Template:Cereals Template:Taxonbar

[1] "Amaranthaceae | plant family". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-06-02.

[Schmid-2007-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 ^2.6 Schmid, Rudolf; Judd, Walter S.; Campbell, Christopher S.; et al. (1 October 2007). "Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach". Taxon. 56 (4): 1316. doi:10.2307/25065934. ISSN 0040-0262. JSTOR 25065934.

[Arreguez-2013-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 ^3.4 ^3.5 ^3.6 Arreguez, Guillermo A.; Martínez, Jorge G.; Ponessa, Graciela (September 2013). "Amaranthus hybridus L. ssp. hybridus in an archaeological site from the initial mid-Holocene in the Southern Argentinian Puna". Quaternary International. 307: 81–85. Bibcode:2013QuInt.307...81A. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2013.02.035. hdl:11336/21990.

[4] RHS A–Z encyclopedia of garden plants. Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965.

[Tucker-1986-5] 5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 ^5.3 Tucker, Jonathan B. (January 1986). "Amaranth: The Once and Future Crop". BioScience. 36 (1): 9–13. doi:10.2307/1309789. ISSN 0006-3568. JSTOR 1309789.

[Stetter-2017-6] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 ^6.4 ^6.5 ^6.6 Stetter, Markus G.; Schmid, Karl J (April 2017). "Analysis of phylogenetic relationships and genome size evolution of the Amaranthus genus using GBS indicates the ancestors of an ancient crop". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 109: 80–92. Bibcode:2017MolPE.109...80S. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.12.029. PMID 28057554.

[Costea-2001-7] 7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 Costea, Mihai; DeMason, Darleen A. (2001). "Stem Morphology and Anatomy in Amaranthus L. (Amaranthaceae), Taxonomic Significance". Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 128 (3): 254. Bibcode:2001JTBS..128..254C. doi:10.2307/3088717. ISSN 1095-5674. JSTOR 3088717. S2CID 84211686.

[8] Mosyakin, Sergei L.; Clemants, Steven E. (1996). "New Infrageneric Taxa and Combinations in Chenopodium L. (Chenopodiaceae)". Novon. 6 (4): 398. Bibcode:1996Novon...6..398M. doi:10.2307/3392049. ISSN 1055-3177. JSTOR 3392049.

[Waselkov-2018-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Waselkov, Katherine E.; Boleda, Alexis S.; Olsen, Kenneth M. (2018-06-21). "A Phylogeny of the Genus Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) Based on Several Low-Copy Nuclear Loci and Chloroplast Regions". Systematic Botany. 43 (2): 439–458. Bibcode:2018SysBo..43..439W. doi:10.1600/036364418x697193. ISSN 0363-6445. S2CID 49568120.

[10] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[11] Sergei L. Mosyakin; Kenneth R. Robertson (1996). "New infrageneric taxa and combinations in Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae)". Ann. Bot. Fennici. 33 (4): 275–281. JSTOR 23726306.

[:0-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Steckel, Lawrence E. (April 2007). "The Dioecious Amaranthus spp.: Here to Stay". Weed Technology. 21 (2): 567–570. Bibcode:2007WeedT..21..567S. doi:10.1614/WT-06-045.1. S2CID 84733087.

[Joshi-2018-13] 13.0 ^13.1 ^13.2 Joshi, Dinesh C.; Sood, Salej; Hosahatti, Rajashekara; Kant, Lakshmi; Pattanayak, A.; Kumar, Anil; Yadav, Dinesh; Stetter, Markus G. (2018-07-10). "From zero to hero: the past, present and future of grain amaranth breeding". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 131 (9): 1807–1823. doi:10.1007/s00122-018-3138-y. ISSN 0040-5752. PMID 29992369. S2CID 49669284.

[theplantlist.org-14] 14.0 ^14.1 "Search results—The Plant List". theplantlist.org.

[15] Kumar, Thaliyangal Rajesh; Vishnu, Walsan Kalarikkal; Kumar, Venugopalan Nair Saradamma Anil; Arya, Sindu (2019-05-13). "Amaranthus saradhiana (Amaranthaceae)—a new species from southern Western Ghats of Kerala, India". Phytotaxa. 403 (3): 230–238. Bibcode:2019Phytx.403..230A. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.403.3.7. ISSN 1179-3163. S2CID 181814195.

[16] "Type of Amaranthus interruptus R.Br. [family AMARANTHACEAE] on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org. Retrieved 2020-10-08.

[17] "Amaranthus muricatus (Moquin-Tandon) Hieronymus [family AMARANTHACEAE] on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org. Retrieved 2020-10-08.

[18] Bailly, Anatole (2020). "μαραίνω". Le Bailly. Retrieved 29 December 2023.

[19] Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, 3.9; 4.55, 4.57.

[20] Costea, Mihai; Tardif, François J. (2003). "The Name of the Amaranth: Histories of Meaning". SIDA, Contributions to Botany. 20 (3): 1073–1083. JSTOR 41968150.

[21] Karttunen, Frances (1992). An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 82.

[22] Gen, Emmanuelle (1992). "La re-découverte des Amériques". Cahiers d'Outre-Mer (in French). 45 (179–180): 495–514. doi:10.3406/caoum.1992.3461.

[Bensch-2003-23] 23.0 ^23.1 Bensch; et al. (2003). "Interference of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), Palmer amaranth (A. palmeri), and common waterhemp (A. rudis) in soybean". Weed Science. 51: 37–43. doi:10.1614/0043-1745(2003)051[0037:IORPAR]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86018188.

[24] Wetzel et al. (1999). Use of PCR-based molecular markers to identify weedy Amaranthus species. Weed Science 47: 518–523.

[25] USDA Plant Database. Plants Profile- Amaranthus L

[26] [Assad, R., Reshi, Z. A., Jan, S., & Rashid, I. (2017). "Biology of amaranths". The Botanical Review, 83(4), 382–436.]

[27] Culpepper et al. (2006). Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) confirmed in Georgia. Weed Science 54: 620–626.

[Sage-2016-28] Sage, R.F. (2016). "A portrait of the [[:Template:C4]] photosynthetic family on the 50th anniversary of its discovery: species number, evolutionary lineages, and Hall of Fame". Journal of Experimental Botany. 67 (14): 4039–4056. doi:10.1093/jxb/erw156. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 27053721. URL–wikilink conflict (help)

[Sage-2007-29] Sage, R.F.; Sage, T.L.; Pearcy, R.W.; Borsch, T. (2007). "The taxonomic distribution of Template:C4 photosynthesis in Amaranthaceae sensu stricto". American Journal of Botany. 94 (12): 1992–2003. doi:10.3732/ajb.94.12.1992. ISSN 0002-9122. PMID 21636394.

[30] "Seabeach amaranth (Amaranthus pumilus)". Environmental Conservation Online System. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2 February 2026.

[31] Brenner, D. M.; Baltensperger, D. D.; Kulakow, P. A.; Lehmann, J. W.; Myers, R. L.; Slabbert, M. M.; Sleugh, B. B. (2010-07-23), "Genetic Resources and Breeding of Amaranthus", Plant Breeding Reviews, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 227–285, doi:10.1002/9780470650172.ch7, ISBN 978-0-470-65017-2, archived from the original on 2025-05-11

[Costea-2006-32] Costea, M.; Brenner, D. M.; Tardif, F. J.; Tan, Y. F.; Sun, M. (6 October 2006). "Delimitation of Amaranthus cruentus L. and Amaranthus caudatus L. using micromorphology and AFLP analysis: an application in germplasm identification". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 53 (8): 1625–1633. doi:10.1007/s10722-005-0036-3. ISSN 0925-9864.

[Stetter-2016-33] Stetter, Markus G.; Zeitler, Leo; Steinhaus, Adrian; Kroener, Karoline; Biljecki, Michelle; Schmid, Karl J. (2016-06-07). "Crossing Methods and Cultivation Conditions for Rapid Production of Segregating Populations in Three Grain Amaranth Species". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 816. Bibcode:2016FrPS....7..816S. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00816. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 4894896. PMID 27375666.

[34] Mapes, Cristina, Eduardo Espitia, and Scott Sessions. "Amaranth." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195108159

[35] Coe, S.D. (1994). America's First Cuisines. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292711594.

[De_Macvean-1997-36] De Macvean & Pöll (1997). Chapter 8: Ethnobotany. Tropical Tree Seed Manual, USDA Forest Service, edt. J.A Vozzo.

[:1-37] 37.0 ^37.1 ^37.2 Delate, Kathleen (2013). "Amaranth: Alternative Agriculture". Iowa State University. Archived from the original on 2019-10-02. Retrieved 2026-02-02.

[38] "Legacy: The Official Newsletter of Amaranth Institute" (PDF). Amaranth Institute. 1992. pp. 6–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-12. Retrieved 2011-09-19.

[39] Hotz C, Gibson RS (2007). "Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets". J Nutr. 137 (4): 1097–100. doi:10.1093/jn/137.4.1097. PMID 17374686.

[40] United States Department of the Army (2009). The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC 277203364.

[41] Nowell, Cecelia (20 August 2022). "Diet for a hotter climate: five plants that could help feed the world". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 September 2023. From leaf to seed, the entirety of the amaranth plant is edible.

[42] Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.

[43] Radek, M.; Savage, G. P. (2008). "Oxalates in some Indian green leafy vegetables". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 59 (3): 246–260. doi:10.1080/09637480701791176. ISSN 0963-7486. PMID 18335334.

[USDA-2018-44] "Amaranth grain, cooked, per 100 g". USDA FoodData Central. 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2025.

[45] "Amaranth leaves, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt, per 100 g". USDA FoodData Central. 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2025.

[Lamacchia-2014-46] Lamacchia C, Camarca A, Picascia S, Di Luccia A, Gianfrani C (Jan 29, 2014). "Cereal-based gluten-free food: how to reconcile nutritional and technological properties of wheat proteins with safety for celiac disease patients". Nutrients (Review). 6 (2): 575–90. doi:10.3390/nu6020575. PMC 3942718. PMID 24481131.

[Penagini-2013-47] Penagini F, Dilillo D, Meneghin F, Mameli C, Fabiano V, Zuccotti GV (Nov 18, 2013). "Gluten-free diet in children: an approach to a nutritionally adequate and balanced diet". Nutrients (Review). 5 (11): 4553–65. doi:10.3390/nu5114553. PMC 3847748. PMID 24253052.

[48] Gallagher, E.; T. R. Gormley; E. K. Arendt (2004). "Recent advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based products". Trends in Food Science & Technology (Review). 15 (3–4): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.012.

[:2-49] 49.0 ^49.1 "Amaranth - May Grain of the Month". The Whole Grains Council. Retrieved 2026-02-02.

[50] D. H. Putnam; E. S. Oplinger; J. D. Doll; E. M. Schulte (November 1989). "Amaranth". University of Wisconsin - Corn Agronomy.

[51] Wong, James (9 February 2020). "Amaranth tastes as good as it looks". The Guardian.

[52] DeMers, John (1998-08-01). Food of Jamaica: Authentic Recipes from the Jewel of the Caribbean. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1643-6.

[53] Sansavior, Eva; Scholar, Richard (2015). Caribbean Globalizations, 1492 to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-78138-151-9.

[54] Costea (2003). Notes on Economic Plants. Economic Botany 57(4): 646-649

[55] National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Amaranth". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. 2. National Academies Press. Bibcode:2006nap..book11763N. doi:10.17226/11763. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. OCLC 34344933. Retrieved 2008-07-15.

[56] Goode, P. M. (1989). Edible plants of Uganda. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 25–6. ISBN 9789251027134.

[57] Enama, M. (1994). "Culture: The missing nexus in ecological economics perspective". Ecological Economics. 10 (2): 93–95. Bibcode:1994EcoEc..10...93E. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)00010-7.

[He-2002-58] He, Han-Ping; Cai, Yizhong; Sun, Mei; Corke, Harold (2002). "Extraction and Purification of Squalene from Amaranthus Grain". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50 (2): 368–372. Bibcode:2002JAFC...50..368H. doi:10.1021/jf010918p. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 11782209.

[59] "Squalene Market Size to Exceed USD 240 Million by 2022". Global Market Insights Inc. 27 April 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.

[60] "The following color additives are not authorized for use in food products in the United States: (1) Amaranth (C.I. 16185, EEC No. E123, formerly certifiable as FD&C red No. 2);" FDA/CFSAN Food Compliance Program: Domestic Food Safety Program Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine

[61] "Singh Anurudh K (2017) Early History of Crop Introductions into India: II. Amaranthus (L.) spp. Asian Agri-History 21(4): 319-324". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2020-08-27.

[62] Sorenson, John L.; Johannessen, Carl L. (April 2004). "Scientific Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 133. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.

[63] Saraswat, K.S.; Sharma, N.K.; Saini, D.C. (1994). Plant Economy at Ancient Narhan (ca. 1300 B.C.-300/400 A.D.) in Excavations at Narhan (1984-1989), Appendix IV. Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India: Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University. pp. 225–337.

[64] "Feria de la Alegría y el Olivo 2011". Página web oficial del Gobierno del Distrito Federal. Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2026.

[Nabais_Freitas-2022-65] 65.0 ^65.1 Nabais Freitas, Guilherme (2022-02-25). "Anti-Spenserian Amaranth In Milton's Lycidas". Notes and Queries. 69 (1): 28–31. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjac007. ISSN 0029-3970.

[66] "Histoire Amarante". amaranto.cl (in Spanish).

[67] Allen, D. C. (1957). "Milton's Amarant". Modern Language Notes. 72 (4): 256–258. doi:10.2307/3043098. ISSN 0149-6611. JSTOR 3043098. The amaranthus was known to antiquity as an unfading flower, and it was used as a garland in the veneration of the wraith of Achilles

[68] Milton, John (2000). Paradise Lost. Penguin Books. OCLC 647024119.

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