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[[File:Cat guarding geese c1120 BC Egypt.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Anthropomorphism|Anthropomorphic]] cat guarding geese, Egypt, {{Circa|1120 [[BCE]]}}]] | [[File:Cat guarding geese c1120 BC Egypt.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Anthropomorphism|Anthropomorphic]] cat guarding geese, Egypt, {{Circa|1120 [[BCE]]}}]] | ||
'''Fable''' is a literary genre defined as a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphised, and that illustrates or leads to a particular moral lesson, which may at the end be added explicitly as a concise maxim<!-- ''most'' of this page is too specific to serve as the only target --> or [[saying]]<!-- this is too much of a compendium to serve as the only target -->. | '''Fable''' is a literary genre defined as a succinct fictional story, in [[prose]] or [[verse (poetry)|verse]], that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphised]], and that illustrates or leads to a particular [[moral]] lesson (a "moral"), which may at the end be added explicitly as a concise [[maxim (philosophy)|maxim]]<!-- ''most'' of this page is too specific to serve as the only target --> or [[saying]]<!-- this is too much of a compendium to serve as the only target -->. | ||
A fable differs from a parable in that the latter ''excludes'' animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other powers of humankind. Conversely, an animal tale specifically includes talking animals as characters.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=Wild Wise Weird|date=2024|publisher=AISDL|isbn=979-8353946595}}</ref> | A fable differs from a [[parable]] in that the latter ''excludes'' animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other powers of humankind. Conversely, an animal tale specifically includes talking animals as characters.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=Wild Wise Weird|date=2024|publisher=AISDL|isbn=979-8353946595}}</ref> | ||
Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the [[King James Version]] of the [[New Testament]], "{{lang|grc|μῦθος}}" ("''[[mythos]]''") was rendered by the translators as "fable"<ref>For example, in ''[[First Epistle to Timothy|First Timothy]]'', "neither give heed to fables...", and "refuse profane and old wives' fables..." (1 Tim 1:4 and 4:4, respectively).</ref> in the [[First Epistle to Timothy]], the [[Second Epistle to Timothy]], the [[Epistle to Titus]] and the [[First Epistle of Peter]].<ref> | Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the [[King James Version]] of the [[New Testament]], "{{lang|grc|μῦθος}}" ("''[[mythos]]''") was rendered by the translators as "fable"<ref>For example, in ''[[First Epistle to Timothy|First Timothy]]'', "neither give heed to fables...", and "refuse profane and old wives' fables..." (1 Tim 1:4 and 4:4, respectively).</ref> in the [[First Epistle to Timothy]], the [[Second Epistle to Timothy]], the [[Epistle to Titus]] and the [[First Epistle of Peter]].<ref> | ||
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In the later Middle Ages, Aesop's fables were newly gathered and edited with a prefatory biography of Aesop. This biography, usually simply titled ''Life of Aesop'' (''Vita Aesopi''), is more invented than factual, and itself a sort of moralistic fable; known in several versions, this ''Aesop Romance'', as scholars term it today, enjoyed nearly as much fame as the fables themselves by the end of the fifteenth century. The most common version of this tale-like biography is attributed to the Byzantine scholar [[Maximus Planudes]] (1260–1310), who also gathered and edited fables for posterity. In the Renaissance, Aesopic fables were hugely popular. They were published in luxurious illuminated manuscripts, such as the so-called "Medici Aesop" made around 1480 in Florence based on the corpus established by Planudes, probably for the [[Piero the Unfortunate|son]] of [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] (now kept in the New York Public Library). Early on, Aesopic fables were also disseminated in print, usually with Planudes's ''Life of Aesop'' as a preface. The German humanist [[Heinrich Steinhöwel]] published a bilingual (Latin and German) edition of the fables in Ulm in 1476. This publication gave rise to many re-editions of the sole German prose translation (known as the ''Esopus'' or ''Esopus teutsch''). It became one the great bestsellers of the last decades of the fifteenth century. Several authors adapted or versified fables from this corpus, such as the German poet and playwright Burkard Waldis, whose versified ''Esopus'' of 1548 was influential. Even the artist and polymath [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) composed some fables in his native Florentine dialect.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} | In the later Middle Ages, Aesop's fables were newly gathered and edited with a prefatory biography of Aesop. This biography, usually simply titled ''Life of Aesop'' (''Vita Aesopi''), is more invented than factual, and itself a sort of moralistic fable; known in several versions, this ''Aesop Romance'', as scholars term it today, enjoyed nearly as much fame as the fables themselves by the end of the fifteenth century. The most common version of this tale-like biography is attributed to the Byzantine scholar [[Maximus Planudes]] (1260–1310), who also gathered and edited fables for posterity. In the Renaissance, Aesopic fables were hugely popular. They were published in luxurious illuminated manuscripts, such as the so-called "Medici Aesop" made around 1480 in Florence based on the corpus established by Planudes, probably for the [[Piero the Unfortunate|son]] of [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] (now kept in the New York Public Library). Early on, Aesopic fables were also disseminated in print, usually with Planudes's ''Life of Aesop'' as a preface. The German humanist [[Heinrich Steinhöwel]] published a bilingual (Latin and German) edition of the fables in Ulm in 1476. This publication gave rise to many re-editions of the sole German prose translation (known as the ''Esopus'' or ''Esopus teutsch''). It became one the great bestsellers of the last decades of the fifteenth century. Several authors adapted or versified fables from this corpus, such as the German poet and playwright Burkard Waldis, whose versified ''Esopus'' of 1548 was influential. Even the artist and polymath [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) composed some fables in his native Florentine dialect.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} | ||
During the 17th century, the French fabulist [[Jean de La Fontaine]] (1621–1695) saw the soul of the fable in the moral—a rule of behavior. Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirise the court, the church, the rising [[bourgeoisie]], indeed the entire human scene of his time.<ref>Translations of his 12 books of fables are available online at [http://oaks.nvg.org/fontaine.html oaks.nvg.org]</ref> La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by England's [[John Gay]] (1685–1732);<ref>His two collections of 1727 and 1738 are available in one volume on Google Books at [https://archive.org/details/fablesjohngayil00owengoog <!-- quote=john gay "fables". --> books.google.co.uk]</ref> Poland's [[Ignacy Krasicki]] (1735–1801);<ref>His ''Bajki i przypowieści'' (Fables and Parables, 1779) are available online at [http://literat.ug.edu.pl/ikbajk/index.htm ug.edu.pl]</ref> Italy's Lorenzo Pignotti (1739–1812)<ref>{{ | During the 17th century, the French fabulist [[Jean de La Fontaine]] (1621–1695) saw the soul of the fable in the moral—a rule of behavior. Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirise the court, the church, the rising [[bourgeoisie]], indeed the entire human scene of his time.<ref>Translations of his 12 books of fables are available online at [http://oaks.nvg.org/fontaine.html oaks.nvg.org]</ref> La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by England's [[John Gay]] (1685–1732);<ref>His two collections of 1727 and 1738 are available in one volume on Google Books at [https://archive.org/details/fablesjohngayil00owengoog <!-- quote=john gay "fables". --> books.google.co.uk]</ref> Poland's [[Ignacy Krasicki]] (1735–1801);<ref>His ''Bajki i przypowieści'' (Fables and Parables, 1779) are available online at [http://literat.ug.edu.pl/ikbajk/index.htm ug.edu.pl]</ref> Italy's Lorenzo Pignotti (1739–1812);<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marrone |first=Gaetana |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Italian_Literary_Studies/csVcAgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Lorenzo+Pignotti+Fontaine+model&pg=PA463&printsec=frontcover |title=Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies |last2=Puppa |first2=Paolo |date=2006-12-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45529-3 |language=en}}</ref> Serbia's [[Dositej Obradović]] (1745–1801);<ref>9 books of fables are available online in Spanish at [http://amediavoz.com/samaniego.htm amediavoz.com]</ref> Spain's [[Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa]] (1750–1791);<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newmark |first=Maxim |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dictionary_of_Spanish_Literature/KSujEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Tom%C3%A1s+de+Iriarte+y+Oropesa+Fontaine&pg=PT205&printsec=frontcover |title=Dictionary of Spanish Literature |date=2023-02-07 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1-5040-8265-5 |language=en}}</ref> France's [[Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian]] (1755–1794);<ref>His five books of fables are available online in French at [http://www.shanaweb.net/florian/la-vie-de-florian.htm shanaweb.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612144726/http://shanaweb.net/florian/la-vie-de-florian.htm |date=2010-06-12 }}</ref> and Russia's [[Ivan Krylov]] (1769–1844).<ref>5 books of fables are available online in English at [http://www.friends-partners.org/friends/literature/19century/krylov2.html friends-partners.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221221002/http://www.friends-partners.org/friends/literature/19century/krylov2.html |date=2011-02-21 }}</ref> | ||
== Contemporary works == | == Contemporary works == | ||
In contemporary periods, while the fable has been trivialized in children's books, it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature. | In contemporary periods, while the fable has been trivialized in children's books, it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature. | ||
During the 1880s, Irish-American journalist and folklorist [[Joel Chandler Harris]] wrote African-American fables in the Southern context of slavery under the name of Uncle Remus. His stories (including the animal characters Brer Rabbit, Brer Fox, and Brer Bear) are modern examples of story-telling that have been praised by scholars like Louis D. Rubin Jr.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jr |first=R. Bruce Bickley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3NnKVGfJTAC&dq=joel%20chandler%20harris&pg=PA66 |title=Joel Chandler Harris: A Biography and Critical Study |date=2008-04-01 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-3185-0 |pages=66–69 |language=en}}</ref> Harris’ work has also received criticism, however; according to Rubin, Harris seemed to perpetuate segregationist ideology, as well as glamorize the background and role of slaves in his stories.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rubin |first1=Louis D. |last2=Jr. |title=Joel Chandler Harris Criticism: Uncle Remus and the Ubiquitous Rabbit - Louis D. Rubin, Jr. - eNotes.com |url=https://www.enotes.com/topics/joel-chandler-harris/criticism/criticism/louis-d-rubin-jr-essay-date-1974 |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=eNotes |language=en}}</ref> | During the 1880s, Irish-American journalist and folklorist [[Joel Chandler Harris]] wrote African-American fables in the Southern context of slavery under the name of [[Uncle Remus]]. His stories (including the animal characters [[Brer Rabbit]], [[Brer Fox]], and [[Brer Bear]]) are modern examples of story-telling that have been praised by scholars like [[Louis D. Rubin Jr.]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jr |first=R. Bruce Bickley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3NnKVGfJTAC&dq=joel%20chandler%20harris&pg=PA66 |title=Joel Chandler Harris: A Biography and Critical Study |date=2008-04-01 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-3185-0 |pages=66–69 |language=en}}</ref> Harris’ work has also received criticism, however; according to Rubin, Harris seemed to perpetuate [[segregationist]] ideology, as well as glamorize the background and role of slaves in his stories.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rubin |first1=Louis D. |last2=Jr. |title=Joel Chandler Harris Criticism: Uncle Remus and the Ubiquitous Rabbit - Louis D. Rubin, Jr. - eNotes.com |url=https://www.enotes.com/topics/joel-chandler-harris/criticism/criticism/louis-d-rubin-jr-essay-date-1974 |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=eNotes |language=en}}</ref> | ||
[[Felix Salten]]'s ''[[Bambi, A Life in the Woods|Bambi]]'' (1923) is a ''[[Bildungsroman]]''—a story of a [[protagonist]]'s coming-of-age—cast in the form of a fable. [[James Thurber]] used the ancient fable style in his books ''[[Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated|Fables for Our Time]]'' (1940) and ''Further Fables for Our Time'' (1956), and in his stories "[[The Princess and the Tin Box]]" in ''The Beast in Me and Other Animals'' (1948) and "The Last Clock: A Fable for the Time, Such As It Is, of Man" in ''Lanterns and Lances'' (1961). [[Władysław Reymont]]'s ''The Revolt'' (1922), a metaphor for the [[Bolshevik]] [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Revolution of 1917]], described a revolt by animals that take over their farm in order to introduce "equality". [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Animal Farm]]'' (1945) similarly satirized [[Stalinist Communism]] in particular, and [[totalitarianism]] in general, in the guise of animal fable. | [[Felix Salten]]'s ''[[Bambi, A Life in the Woods|Bambi]]'' (1923) is a ''[[Bildungsroman]]''—a story of a [[protagonist]]'s coming-of-age—cast in the form of a fable. [[James Thurber]] used the ancient fable style in his books ''[[Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated|Fables for Our Time]]'' (1940) and ''Further Fables for Our Time'' (1956), and in his stories "[[The Princess and the Tin Box]]" in ''The Beast in Me and Other Animals'' (1948) and "The Last Clock: A Fable for the Time, Such As It Is, of Man" in ''Lanterns and Lances'' (1961). [[Władysław Reymont]]'s ''The Revolt'' (1922), a metaphor for the [[Bolshevik]] [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Revolution of 1917]], described a revolt by animals that take over their farm in order to introduce "equality". [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Animal Farm]]'' (1945) similarly satirized [[Stalinist Communism]] in particular, and [[totalitarianism]] in general, in the guise of animal fable. | ||
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In the 21st century, the Neapolitan writer and painter Sabatino Scia is the author of over a hundred fables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SABATINO SCIA - Sito Ufficiale |url=https://sabatinoscia.com/ |access-date=2025-04-30 |website=SABATINO SCIA |language=it-IT}}</ref> The characters are not only animals, but also things, beings, and elements from nature'''—'''all playing the role of revealer of human society. In addition to these writings, Scia also uses painting as a medium for his fables: his collection “Не забувати ніколи. Never forget," for example, is a commentary on [[Holodomor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Le favole di protesta occidentale di Sabatino Scia |url=https://sabatinoscia.com/favole/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=SABATINO SCIA |language=it-IT}}</ref> In Latin America, the brothers Juan and Victor Ataucuri Garcia have also contributed to the resurgence of the fable. But they do so with a novel idea: use the fable as a means of dissemination of traditional literature of that place. In the book "Fábulas Peruanas," published in 2003, they have collected myths, legends, and beliefs of Andean and Amazonian Peru, to write as fables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICDL - International Children's Digital Library |url=http://en.childrenslibrary.org/library/books/a/atafabu_00510018/index.html |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=en.childrenslibrary.org}}</ref> | In the 21st century, the Neapolitan writer and painter Sabatino Scia is the author of over a hundred fables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SABATINO SCIA - Sito Ufficiale |url=https://sabatinoscia.com/ |access-date=2025-04-30 |website=SABATINO SCIA |language=it-IT}}</ref> The characters are not only animals, but also things, beings, and elements from nature'''—'''all playing the role of revealer of human society. In addition to these writings, Scia also uses painting as a medium for his fables: his collection “Не забувати ніколи. Never forget," for example, is a commentary on [[Holodomor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Le favole di protesta occidentale di Sabatino Scia |url=https://sabatinoscia.com/favole/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=SABATINO SCIA |language=it-IT}}</ref> In Latin America, the brothers Juan and Victor Ataucuri Garcia have also contributed to the resurgence of the fable. But they do so with a novel idea: use the fable as a means of dissemination of traditional literature of that place. In the book "Fábulas Peruanas," published in 2003, they have collected myths, legends, and beliefs of Andean and Amazonian Peru, to write as fables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICDL - International Children's Digital Library |url=http://en.childrenslibrary.org/library/books/a/atafabu_00510018/index.html |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=en.childrenslibrary.org}}</ref> | ||
African-American and award-winning author [[Octavia E. Butler]], though having published work since 1971, has made a resurgence in popular media nearly twenty years after her death in 2006. With what The MacArthur Foundation describes as “transcendent fables,” her stories address social issues such as climate change and racial inequality in a way | African-American and award-winning author [[Octavia E. Butler]], though having published work since 1971, has made a resurgence in popular media nearly twenty years after her death in 2006. With what The MacArthur Foundation describes as “transcendent fables,” her stories address social issues such as climate change and racial inequality in a way that's still relevant to many of her readers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=George |first=Lynell |date=2022-11-17 |title=The Visions of Octavia Butler |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/11/17/arts/octavia-butler-vision-kindred.html# |access-date=2025-04-30 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> | ||
==Classic== | ==Classic== | ||
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{{Category see also|Fabulists}} | {{Category see also|Fabulists}} | ||
== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|30em}} | {{Reflist|30em}} | ||
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*[http://www.studylight.org/desk/?l=en&query=fable§ion=0&translation=kjv&oq=&sr=1 King James Bible]; ''New Testament (authorised)''. | *[http://www.studylight.org/desk/?l=en&query=fable§ion=0&translation=kjv&oq=&sr=1 King James Bible]; ''New Testament (authorised)''. | ||
*DLR [David Lee Rubin]. "Fable in Verse", ''The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics''. | *DLR [David Lee Rubin]. "Fable in Verse", ''The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics''. | ||
*Read fables by [ | *Read fables by [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aesop/fables/v-s-vernon-jones Aesop] and [http://fairytalez.com/author/la-fontaine/ La Fontaine] | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
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* {{cite web |title=The Challenge of Modern Fables: Ben Loory's Erudite Surrealism |author=Tobias Carroll |date=29 Sep 2017 |website=Tor.com |url=https://www.tor.com/2017/09/29/the-challenge-of-modern-fables-ben-loorys-erudite-surrealism/}} | * {{cite web |title=The Challenge of Modern Fables: Ben Loory's Erudite Surrealism |author=Tobias Carroll |date=29 Sep 2017 |website=Tor.com |url=https://www.tor.com/2017/09/29/the-challenge-of-modern-fables-ben-loorys-erudite-surrealism/}} | ||
* {{cite web |title=Modern Fables |author=Robert Spencer Knotts |website=The Humanity Project |url=http://www.thehumanityproject.com/fables}} | * {{cite web |title=Modern Fables |author=Robert Spencer Knotts |website=The Humanity Project |url=http://www.thehumanityproject.com/fables}} | ||
* {{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Minh-Hoang|date=2024|title=How can satirical fables offer us a vision for sustainability? |url=https://ojs.unito.it/index.php/visions/article/view/11267|journal=Visions for Sustainability|volume=23|issue=11267 |pages= | * {{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Minh-Hoang|date=2024|title=How can satirical fables offer us a vision for sustainability? |url=https://ojs.unito.it/index.php/visions/article/view/11267|journal=Visions for Sustainability|volume=23|issue=11267 |pages=323–328|doi=10.13135/2384-8677/11267}} | ||
{{Folklore genres}} | {{Folklore genres}} | ||
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[[Category:Narrative techniques]] | [[Category:Narrative techniques]] | ||
[[Category:Persuasion techniques]] | [[Category:Persuasion techniques]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Types of short story]] | ||
[[Category:Traditional stories]] | [[Category:Traditional stories]] | ||
[[Category:Greek inventions]] | |||
[[Category:Fiction about animals]] | |||