Germanic languages: Difference between revisions
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{{More citations needed |date=May 2025}} | {{More citations needed |date=May 2025}} | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} | ||
{{Infobox language family | |||
{{Infobox language family | |||
| name = Germanic | | name = Germanic | ||
| speakers = {{c.|515 million}} | | speakers = {{c.|515 million}} | ||
| region = | | region = Worldwide, principally [[Europe]] ([[Central Europe]], [[Northern Europe]], and [[Western Europe]]), [[Africa]] ([[East Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]]), the [[Americas]] ([[Anglo-America]], the [[Dutch Caribbean]], and [[Suriname]]), [[Asia]] ([[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]), and [[Oceania]] | ||
| familycolor = Indo-European | | familycolor = Indo-European | ||
| protoname = [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] | | protoname = [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] | ||
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| map = Germanic languages with dialects revised.png | | map = Germanic languages with dialects revised.png | ||
| mapcaption = European Germanic languages | | mapcaption = European Germanic languages | ||
| map_class = skin-invert-image | |||
| map2 = Germanic languages.svg | | map2 = Germanic languages.svg | ||
| mapalt2 = world map showing countries where a Germanic language is the primary or official language | | mapalt2 = world map showing countries where a Germanic language is the primary or official language | ||
| map_class2 = skin-invert-image | |||
| mapcaption2 = ''World map showing countries and territories where at least one Germanic language is the primary or official language''<br /> | | mapcaption2 = ''World map showing countries and territories where at least one Germanic language is the primary or official language''<br /> | ||
{{legend|#800000|Countries or territories where the [[first language]] of most of the population is a Germanic language}} | {{legend|#800000|Countries or territories where the [[first language]] of most of the population is a Germanic language|invert=y}} | ||
{{legend|#ff0000|Countries or territories where a Germanic language is an official language but not a [[first language|primary language]]}} | {{legend|#ff0000|Countries or territories where a Germanic language is an official language but not a [[first language|primary language]]|invert=y}} | ||
{{legend|#f6c0f1|Countries or territories where a Germanic language has no official status but is notable, i.e. used in some areas of life and/or spoken among a local minority}} | {{legend|#f6c0f1|Countries or territories where a Germanic language has no official status but is notable, i.e. used in some areas of life and/or spoken among a local minority|invert=y}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Indo-European topics}} | {{Indo-European topics}} | ||
The '''Germanic languages''' are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]] spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people{{refn|group=nb|Estimates of native speakers of the Germanic languages vary from 450 million{{sfnp|König|van der Auwera|1994}} through 500 million and up to more than 520 million. Much of the uncertainty is caused by the rapid spread of the [[English language]] and conflicting estimates of its native speakers. Here used is the most probable estimate (currently 515 million) as determined by ''Statistics'' section below.}} mainly in [[Europe]], [[Northern America]], [[Oceania]], and [[Southern Africa]]. The most widely spoken Germanic language, [[English language|English]], is also the world's most [[List of languages by total number of speakers|widely spoken language]] with an estimated 2 billion speakers. All Germanic languages are derived from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], spoken in [[Iron Age Scandinavia]], [[History of Germany#Iron Age|Iron Age Northern Germany]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Bell-Fialkoll |title=The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. "Barbarian" and Nomad |year=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-312-21207-0 |page=117}}</ref> and along the [[North Sea]] and Baltic coasts.<ref>{{cite | The '''Germanic languages''' are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]] spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people{{refn|group=nb|Estimates of native speakers of the Germanic languages vary from 450 million{{sfnp|König|van der Auwera|1994}} through 500 million and up to more than 520 million. Much of the uncertainty is caused by the rapid spread of the [[English language]] and conflicting estimates of its native speakers. Here used is the most probable estimate (currently 515 million) as determined by ''Statistics'' section below.}} mainly in [[Europe]], [[Northern America]], [[Oceania]], and [[Southern Africa]]. The most widely spoken Germanic language, [[English language|English]], is also the world's most [[List of languages by total number of speakers|widely spoken language]] with an estimated 2 billion speakers. All Germanic languages are derived from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], spoken in [[Iron Age Scandinavia]], [[History of Germany#Iron Age|Iron Age Northern Germany]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Bell-Fialkoll |title=The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe: Sedentary Civilization v. "Barbarian" and Nomad |year=2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-312-21207-0 |page=117}}</ref> and along the [[North Sea]] and Baltic coasts.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages/The-emergence-of-Germanic-languages | title=Germanic languages - Proto-Germanic, Indo-European, Germanic Dialects | Britannica | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | access-date=29 December 2023 | archive-date=29 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229223738/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages/The-emergence-of-Germanic-languages | url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
The [[West Germanic languages]] include the three most widely spoken Germanic languages: [[English language|English]] with around 360–400 million native speakers;<ref name="NE100">{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |title=Världens 100 största språk 2010 |work=[[Nationalencyklopedin]] |trans-title=The world's 100 largest languages in 2010 |year=2010 |access-date=12 February 2014 |language=sv |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006155303/http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|There are various conflicting estimates of L1/native users of English, from 360 million up to 430 million and more. English is a current ''[[lingua franca]]'', which is spreading rapidly, often replacing other languages throughout the world, thus making it difficult to provide one definitive number. It is a rare case of a language with many more secondary speakers than natives.}} [[German language|German]], with over 100 million native speakers;<ref>SIL Ethnologue (2006). 95 million speakers of [[Standard German]]; 105 million including Middle and Upper [[German dialects]]; 120 million including [[Low German]] and [[Yiddish]].</ref> and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], with 24 million native speakers. Other West Germanic languages include [[Afrikaans]], an offshoot of Dutch originating from the [[Afrikaners]] of [[South Africa]], with over 7.1 million native speakers;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/afr |title=Afrikaans |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203164557/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/afr |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Low German]], considered a separate collection of [[Standard language|unstandardized]] dialects, with roughly 4.35–7.15 million native speakers and probably 6.7–10 million people who can understand it <ref name="Taaltelling Nedersaksisch">{{cite report |title=Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland |trans-title=Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands |first=Henk |last=Bloemhoff |year=2005 |language=nl |department=Nedersaksisch Instituut |publisher=Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen |location=Groningen |url=https://www.stellingia.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Taaltelling-Nedersaksisch-1.pdf |url-status= | The [[West Germanic languages]] include the three most widely spoken Germanic languages: [[English language|English]] with around 360–400 million native speakers;<ref name="NE100">{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |title=Världens 100 största språk 2010 |work=[[Nationalencyklopedin]] |trans-title=The world's 100 largest languages in 2010 |year=2010 |access-date=12 February 2014 |language=sv |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006155303/http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|There are various conflicting estimates of L1/native users of English, from 360 million up to 430 million and more. English is a current ''[[lingua franca]]'', which is spreading rapidly, often replacing other languages throughout the world, thus making it difficult to provide one definitive number. It is a rare case of a language with many more secondary speakers than natives.}} [[German language|German]], with over 100 million native speakers;<ref>SIL Ethnologue (2006). 95 million speakers of [[Standard German]]; 105 million including Middle and Upper [[German dialects]]; 120 million including [[Low German]] and [[Yiddish]].</ref> and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], with 24 million native speakers. Other West Germanic languages include [[Afrikaans]], an offshoot of Dutch originating from the [[Afrikaners]] of [[South Africa]], with over 7.1 million native speakers;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/afr |title=Afrikaans |work=Ethnologue (Free All) |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203164557/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/afr |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Low German]], considered a separate collection of [[Standard language|unstandardized]] dialects, with roughly 4.35–7.15 million native speakers and probably 6.7–10 million people who can understand it<ref name="Taaltelling Nedersaksisch">{{cite report |title=Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland |trans-title=Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands |first=Henk |last=Bloemhoff |year=2005 |language=nl |department=Nedersaksisch Instituut |publisher=Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen |location=Groningen |url=https://www.stellingia.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Taaltelling-Nedersaksisch-1.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=30 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241125200300/https://www.stellingia.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Taaltelling-Nedersaksisch-1.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2024 |isbn=90-6466-1324 |ol=OL31709135M |lccn=2006364430 |oclc=230137295 }}</ref>{{rp|p=88}}<ref name="ins-bremen.de">[https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116170501/https://www.ins-bremen.de/fileadmin/ins-bremen/user_upload/umfrage2016/broschuere-umfrage.pdf |date=16 January 2021 }}, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)</ref><ref name="ndsethnologue">[https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nds Saxon, Low] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102170443/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nds |date=2 January 2018 }} ''Ethnologue''.</ref> (at least 2.2 million in [[Germany]] (2016)<ref name="ins-bremen.de"/> and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (2003));<ref>The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives by Guus Extra, Durk Gorter; Multilingual Matters, 2001 – 454; page 10.</ref><ref name="Taaltelling Nedersaksisch"/>{{rp|p=88}} [[Yiddish]], once used by approximately 13 million [[Jews]] in pre-[[World War II]] Europe,<ref name=yivo-yiddish /> now with approximately 1.5 million native speakers; [[Scots language|Scots]], with 1.5 million native speakers; [[Limburgish language|Limburgish varieties]] with roughly 1.3 million speakers along the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]–[[Belgium|Belgian]]–German border;{{cn|date=March 2026|reason=If there are really this many, then it should definitely be added to the statistics table below, in between Frisian and Scots}} and the [[Frisian languages]] with over 500,000 native speakers in the Netherlands and Germany. | ||
The largest [[North Germanic languages]] are [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Danish language|Danish]], and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], which are in part mutually intelligible and have a combined total of about 20 million native speakers in the [[Nordic countries]] and an additional five million second language speakers; since the Middle Ages, however, these languages have been strongly influenced by [[Middle Low German]], a West Germanic language, and Low German words account for about 30–60% of their vocabularies according to various estimates. Other extant North Germanic languages are [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Elfdalian]], which are more conservative languages with no significant Low German influence, more complex grammar and limited mutual intelligibility with other North Germanic languages today.<ref name="Holmberg">Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In ''The Comparative Syntax Handbook,'' eds [[Guglielmo Cinque]] and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. [http://www.dur.ac.uk/anders.holmberg/resources/The%20Scandinavian%20Languages.pdf Excerpt at Durham University] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203191740/http://www.dur.ac.uk/anders.holmberg/resources/The%20Scandinavian%20Languages.pdf |date=3 December 2007 }}.</ref> | The largest [[North Germanic languages]] are [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Danish language|Danish]], and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], which are in part mutually intelligible and have a combined total of about 20 million native speakers in the [[Nordic countries]] and an additional five million second language speakers; since the Middle Ages, however, these languages have been strongly influenced by [[Middle Low German]], a West Germanic language, and Low German words account for about 30–60% of their vocabularies according to various estimates. Other extant North Germanic languages are [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Elfdalian]], which are more conservative languages with no significant Low German influence, more complex grammar and limited mutual intelligibility with other North Germanic languages today.<ref name="Holmberg">Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In ''The Comparative Syntax Handbook,'' eds [[Guglielmo Cinque]] and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. [http://www.dur.ac.uk/anders.holmberg/resources/The%20Scandinavian%20Languages.pdf Excerpt at Durham University] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203191740/http://www.dur.ac.uk/anders.holmberg/resources/The%20Scandinavian%20Languages.pdf |date=3 December 2007 }}.</ref> | ||
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The [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic branch]] included [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[Burgundians#Language|Burgundian]] and [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]]. The last to die off was [[Crimean Gothic]], spoken until the late 18th century in some isolated areas of [[Crimea]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/gotol/100 |title=1 Cor. 13:1–12 |website=lrc.la.utexas.edu |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323174037/https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/gotol/100 |url-status=live }}</ref> | The [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic branch]] included [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[Burgundians#Language|Burgundian]] and [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]]. The last to die off was [[Crimean Gothic]], spoken until the late 18th century in some isolated areas of [[Crimea]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/gotol/100 |title=1 Cor. 13:1–12 |website=lrc.la.utexas.edu |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323174037/https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/gotol/100 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
The [[SIL International|SIL]] ''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists 48 different living Germanic languages, 41 of which belong to the Western branch and six to the Northern branch; it places [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German]] in neither of the categories, but it is often considered a German dialect by linguists.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/germanic |title=Germanic |work=Ethnologue |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718070735/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/germanic |url-status=live }}</ref> | The [[SIL International|SIL]] ''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists 48 different living Germanic languages, 41 of which belong to the Western branch and six to the Northern branch; it places [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German]] in neither of the categories, but it is often considered a German dialect by linguists.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/germanic |title=Germanic |work=Ethnologue |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718070735/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/germanic |url-status=live }}</ref> The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic, also known as Common Germanic, which was spoken in about the middle of the 1st millennium BC in [[Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe|Iron Age Scandinavia]] and [[History of Germany#Iron Age|Iron Age Northern Germany]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-peoples |title=Germanic peoples |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref> Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, notably has a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the [[consonant]] change known as "[[Grimm's law]]." Early varieties of Germanic entered history when the [[Germanic tribes]] moved south from [[Scandinavia]] and [[northern Germany]] in the 2nd century BC to settle in the area of today's western Germany and along the Baltic coasts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/the-early-germanic-peoples-a-historical-overview-from-ancient-sources |title=The Early Germanic Peoples: A Historical Overview from Ancient Sources |website=The Archaeologist |date=18 May 2024 |access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref> | ||
The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic, also known as Common Germanic, which was spoken in about the middle of the 1st millennium BC in [[Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe|Iron Age Scandinavia]] and [[History of Germany#Iron Age|Iron Age Northern Germany]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-peoples |title=Germanic peoples |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref> Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, notably has a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the [[consonant]] change known as "[[Grimm's law]]." Early varieties of Germanic entered history when the [[Germanic tribes]] moved south from [[Scandinavia]] and [[ | |||
==Modern status== | ==Modern status== | ||
{{Germanic languages map}} | |||
{{ | |||
===West Germanic languages=== | ===West Germanic languages=== | ||
English is an [[official language]] of [[Belize]], Canada, Nigeria, [[Falkland Islands]], [[Saint Helena]], [[Malta]] | English is an [[official language]] of [[Belize]], Canada, Nigeria, [[Falkland Islands]], [[Saint Helena]], [[Malta]], Ireland, South Africa, Philippines, Jamaica, [[Dominica]], [[Guyana]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[American Samoa]], [[Palau]], [[St. Lucia]], [[Grenada]], [[Barbados]], [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]], Puerto Rico, [[Guam]], Hong Kong, Singapore, Pakistan, India, [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Namibia]], [[Vanuatu]], the [[Solomon Islands]] and former British colonies in Asia, Africa and Oceania. Furthermore, it is the ''[[de facto]]'' language of the United Kingdom, the United States, New Zealand and Australia, as well as a recognized language in [[Nicaragua]]<ref>The [[Miskito Coast]] used to be a part of [[British Empire]]</ref> and Malaysia. | ||
German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]] and Switzerland; it also has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia and Denmark. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by [[German diaspora|immigrant communities]] in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico and Australia. A German dialect, [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]], is still used among various populations in the American state of [[Pennsylvania]] in daily life. A group of Alemannic German dialects commonly referred to as [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olcalsace.org/de/definition-der-regionalsprache|title=Office pour la langue et les cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle|website=olcalsace.org|access-date=19 January 2023|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119191620/https://www.olcalsace.org/de/definition-der-regionalsprache|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hal.science/hal-02069471/document|access-date=14 July 2021|last=Pierre Vogler|title=Le dialecte alsacien : vers l'oubli|website=hal.science|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119191619/https://hal.science/hal-02069471/document|url-status=live}}</ref> is spoken in [[Alsace]], part of modern France. | German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]] and Switzerland; it also has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia and Denmark. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by [[German diaspora|immigrant communities]] in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico and Australia. A German dialect, [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]], is still used among various populations in the American state of [[Pennsylvania]] in daily life. A group of Alemannic German dialects commonly referred to as [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olcalsace.org/de/definition-der-regionalsprache|title=Office pour la langue et les cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle|website=olcalsace.org|access-date=19 January 2023|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119191620/https://www.olcalsace.org/de/definition-der-regionalsprache|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hal.science/hal-02069471/document|access-date=14 July 2021|last=Pierre Vogler|title=Le dialecte alsacien : vers l'oubli|website=hal.science|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119191619/https://hal.science/hal-02069471/document|url-status=live}}</ref> is spoken in [[Alsace]], part of modern France. | ||
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[[Low German]] is a collection of very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Some dialects like [[East Pomeranian]] have been imported to South America.<ref name="farese">{{Cite web |url=http://www.farese.edu.br/pages/artigos/pdf/ismael/A%20co-oficializa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20da%20L%20Pomer.pdf |title=A co-oficialização da língua pomerana |access-date=11 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221183002/http://www.farese.edu.br/pages/artigos/pdf/ismael/A%20co-oficializa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20da%20L%20Pomer.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | [[Low German]] is a collection of very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Some dialects like [[East Pomeranian]] have been imported to South America.<ref name="farese">{{Cite web |url=http://www.farese.edu.br/pages/artigos/pdf/ismael/A%20co-oficializa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20da%20L%20Pomer.pdf |title=A co-oficialização da língua pomerana |access-date=11 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221183002/http://www.farese.edu.br/pages/artigos/pdf/ismael/A%20co-oficializa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20da%20L%20Pomer.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
Scots is spoken in [[Scottish Lowlands| | [[Scots language|Scots]] is one of the 3 official languages of Scotland and is spoken by over 1.5 million people, mostly in the [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]] of Scotland but also in the [[Northern Isles]] ([[Orcadian dialect|Orcadian]], [[Shetland dialect|Shetlandic]]) and parts of [[Ulster]] (where the local dialect is known as [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CV=1&NA=&PO=999&CN=999&VL=1&CM=9&CL=ENG |title=List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 |publisher=Conventions.coe.int |access-date=9 September 2012 |archive-date=9 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709023931/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CV=1&NA=&PO=999&CN=999&VL=1&CM=9&CL=ENG |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
[[Frisian languages|Frisian]] is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the [[North Sea]] in the Netherlands and Germany. | [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the [[North Sea]] in the Netherlands and Germany. | ||
Luxembourgish is a [[Moselle Franconian dialects|Moselle Franconian]] dialect that is spoken mainly in the [[Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], where it is | Luxembourgish is a [[Moselle Franconian dialects|Moselle Franconian]] dialect that is spoken mainly in the [[Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], where it is an official language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/languages/introduction-letzebuergesch.html|title=An intro to 'Lëtzebuergesch'|access-date=18 April 2023|language=en|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412141332/https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/society-and-culture/languages/introduction-letzebuergesch.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Similar varieties of Moselle Franconian are spoken in small parts of Belgium, France, and Germany. | ||
Yiddish, once a native language of some 11 to 13 million people, remains in use by some 1.5 million speakers in Jewish communities around the world, mainly in North America, Europe, Israel, and other regions with [[Jewish population by country|Jewish populations]].<ref name=yivo-yiddish>{{cite web |last=Dovid Katz |title=YIDDISH |url=http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf |work=[[YIVO]] |access-date=20 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162722/http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> | Yiddish, once a native language of some 11 to 13 million people, remains in use by some 1.5 million speakers in Jewish communities around the world, mainly in North America, Europe, Israel, and other regions with [[Jewish population by country|Jewish populations]].<ref name=yivo-yiddish>{{cite web |last=Dovid Katz |title=YIDDISH |url=http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf |work=[[YIVO]] |access-date=20 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162722/http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> | ||
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In addition to being the official language in Sweden, [[Swedish language|Swedish]] is also spoken natively by the [[Finland Swedes|Swedish-speaking minority]] in Finland, which is a large part of the population [[List of municipalities of Finland in which Finnish is not the sole official language|along the coast of western and southern]] Finland. Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and the only official language in [[Åland]]. Swedish is also spoken by some people in Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Koyfman |first=Steph |date=29 April 2018 |title=How Many People Speak Swedish, And Where Is It Spoken? |url=https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-swedish-and-where-is-it-spoken |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Babbel Magazine |language=en |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225215934/https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-swedish-and-where-is-it-spoken |url-status=live }}</ref> | In addition to being the official language in Sweden, [[Swedish language|Swedish]] is also spoken natively by the [[Finland Swedes|Swedish-speaking minority]] in Finland, which is a large part of the population [[List of municipalities of Finland in which Finnish is not the sole official language|along the coast of western and southern]] Finland. Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and the only official language in [[Åland]]. Swedish is also spoken by some people in Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Koyfman |first=Steph |date=29 April 2018 |title=How Many People Speak Swedish, And Where Is It Spoken? |url=https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-swedish-and-where-is-it-spoken |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Babbel Magazine |language=en |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225215934/https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-swedish-and-where-is-it-spoken |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
[[Danish language|Danish]] is an official language of Denmark and in its overseas territory of the [[Faroe Islands]], and it is a ''lingua franca'' and language of education in its other overseas territory of [[Greenland]], where it was one of the official languages until 2009. Danish, a locally recognized minority language, is also natively spoken by the Danish minority in the German state of [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. Danish was | [[Danish language|Danish]] is an official language of Denmark and in its overseas territory of the [[Faroe Islands]], and it is a ''lingua franca'' and language of education in its other overseas territory of [[Greenland]], where it was one of the official languages until 2009. Danish, a locally recognized minority language, is also natively spoken by the Danish minority in the German state of [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. Danish was an official language of Iceland when it was a territory ruled by [[Denmark–Norway]]; though its official status was terminated in 1944, it is still widely used and is a mandatory subject in school, taught as a second foreign language after English.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iceland And The Rest Of The World |url=http://www.grapevine.is/Features/ReadArticle/Iceland-And-The-Rest-Of-The-World-Analysis |publisher=The Reykjavík Grapevine |access-date=15 April 2014 |page=1 |format=PDF |quote=Icelandic towns were essentially turning Danish; the merchant class was Danish and well off Icelanders started speaking their language.}}</ref> | ||
[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] is the official language of Norway (both [[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]]). Norwegian is also the official language in the overseas territories of Norway such as [[Svalbard]], [[Jan Mayen]], [[Bouvet island]], [[Queen Maud Land]], and [[Peter I island]]. | [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] is the official language of Norway (both [[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]]). Norwegian is also the official language in the overseas territories of Norway such as [[Svalbard]], [[Jan Mayen]], [[Bouvet island]], [[Queen Maud Land]], and [[Peter I island]]. | ||
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}} | }} | ||
[[File:Nordic Bronze Age.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Area of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, ca 1200 BC]] | [[File:Nordic Bronze Age.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Area of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, ca 1200 BC|class=skin-invert-image]] | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:1em" | {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:1em" | ||
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==History== | ==History== | ||
{{Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD)}} | {{Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD)}} | ||
[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|250px|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century: | [[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|250px|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century: | ||
{{legend|#ff0000|'''[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]'''}} | {{legend|#ff0000|invert=y|'''[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]'''}} | ||
{{legend|#FF8040|'''[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]'''}} | {{legend|#FF8040|invert=y|'''[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]'''}} | ||
{{legend|#ff00ff|'''[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]'''}} | {{legend|#ff00ff|invert=y|'''[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]'''}} | ||
{{legend|#ffff00|'''[[w:Old English|Old English]]''' ([[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]])}} | {{legend|#ffff00|invert=y|'''[[w:Old English|Old English]]''' ([[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]])}} | ||
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]]).}} | {{legend|#00ff00|invert=y|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]]).}} | ||
{{legend|#0000ff|'''[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]]''' ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]] | {{legend|#0000ff|invert=y|'''[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]]''' ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]] | ||
All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], united by subjection to the sound shifts of [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germanic languages {{!}} Definition, Language Tree, & List {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229072734/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages |url-status=live }}</ref> These probably took place during the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] of Northern Europe {{Circa|500 BC}}. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after {{Circa|500 BC}},{{sfnp|Ringe|2006|p=67}} and [[Proto-Norse]] from the 2nd century AD and later is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from [[Proto-Indo-European]] suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the [[Nordic Bronze Age]]. | All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], united by subjection to the sound shifts of [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germanic languages {{!}} Definition, Language Tree, & List {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229072734/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Germanic-languages |url-status=live }}</ref> These probably took place during the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] of Northern Europe {{Circa|500 BC}}. Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after {{Circa|500 BC}},{{sfnp|Ringe|2006|p=67}} and [[Proto-Norse]] from the 2nd century AD and later is still quite close to reconstructed Proto-Germanic, but other common innovations separating Germanic from [[Proto-Indo-European]] suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the [[Nordic Bronze Age]]. | ||
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Other significant characteristics are: | Other significant characteristics are: | ||
# The reduction of the various [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] combinations of the Indo-European verbal system into only two: the [[present tense]] and the [[past tense]] (also called the [[preterite]]). | # The reduction of the various [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] combinations of the Indo-European verbal system into only two: the [[present tense]] and the [[past tense]] (also called the [[preterite]]). | ||
# The development of a new class of [[Germanic weak verb|weak verbs]] that use a dental [[suffix]] ({{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}) instead of [[Apophony|vowel alternation]] ([[Indo-European ablaut]]) to indicate past tense. The vast majority of verbs in all Germanic languages are weak; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the [[Germanic strong verb|strong verbs]]. The distinction has been lost in Afrikaans. | # The development of a new class of [[Germanic weak verb|weak verbs]] that use a dental [[suffix]] ({{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}) instead of [[Apophony|vowel alternation]] ([[Indo-European ablaut]]) to indicate past tense. The vast majority of verbs in all Germanic languages are weak; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the [[Germanic strong verb|strong verbs]]. The distinction has been lost in Afrikaans, except in fossilised forms such as the strong past participle "gedaan". | ||
# A distinction in [[definiteness]] of a [[noun phrase]] that is marked by different sets of inflectional endings for [[adjectives]], the so-called strong and weak inflections. A similar development happened in the [[Balto-Slavic languages]]. This distinction has been lost in modern English but was present in [[Old English]] and remains in all other Germanic languages to various degrees. | # A distinction in [[definiteness]] of a [[noun phrase]] that is marked by different sets of inflectional endings for [[adjectives]], the so-called strong and weak inflections. A similar development happened in the [[Balto-Slavic languages]]. This distinction has been lost in modern English but was present in [[Old English]] and remains in all other Germanic languages to various degrees. | ||
# Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families but with variants that appear in almost all Germanic languages. See [[Germanic substrate hypothesis]]. | # Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families but with variants that appear in almost all Germanic languages. See [[Germanic substrate hypothesis]]. | ||
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Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. Within the Germanic language family are [[East Germanic]], [[West Germanic]], and [[North Germanic]]. However, East Germanic languages became extinct several centuries ago.{{When|date=July 2022}} | Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. Within the Germanic language family are [[East Germanic]], [[West Germanic]], and [[North Germanic]]. However, East Germanic languages became extinct several centuries ago.{{When|date=July 2022}} | ||
[[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Germanic languages and main dialect groups]] | [[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Germanic languages and main dialect groups|class=skin-invert-image]] | ||
All living Germanic languages belong either to the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] or to the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] branch. | All living Germanic languages belong either to the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] or to the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] branch. | ||
The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into [[Anglo-Frisian]] on one hand and [[Continental West Germanic]] on the other. Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its [[English language|variants]], while Continental West Germanic includes German ([[Standard German|standard register]] and [[German dialects|dialects]]), as well as Dutch ([[Standard Dutch|standard register]] and [[Dutch dialects|dialects]]). East Germanic includes most notably the extinct Gothic and Crimean Gothic languages. | The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into [[Anglo-Frisian]] on one hand and [[Continental West Germanic]] on the other. Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its [[English language|variants]], while Continental West Germanic includes German ([[Standard German|standard register]] and [[German dialects|dialects]]), as well as Dutch ([[Standard Dutch|standard register]] and [[Dutch dialects|dialects]]). East Germanic includes most notably the extinct Gothic and Crimean Gothic languages. | ||
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****** [[Hutterite German]] | ****** [[Hutterite German]] | ||
**** [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] | **** [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] | ||
**** [[ | **** [[East Franconian]] (a transitional dialect between Upper and Central German) | ||
**** [[Central German]] | **** [[Central German]] | ||
***** [[East Central German]] | ***** [[East Central German]] | ||
| Line 545: | Line 528: | ||
**** [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Dutch dialects|its dialects]] | **** [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Dutch dialects|its dialects]] | ||
**** [[Afrikaans]] (a separate [[standard language]]) | **** [[Afrikaans]] (a separate [[standard language]]) | ||
**** [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] (an [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|official minority | **** [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] (an [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|official minority language]]) | ||
*** [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] | *** [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] | ||
**** [[Anglic languages|Anglic]] (or English) | **** [[Anglic languages|Anglic]] (or English) | ||
| Line 560: | Line 543: | ||
**** [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] | **** [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] | ||
**** [[Faroese language|Faroese]] | **** [[Faroese language|Faroese]] | ||
*** East Scandinavian | *** East Scandinavian | ||
**** [[Danish language|Danish]] | **** [[Danish language|Danish]] | ||
**** [[Swedish language|Swedish]] | **** [[Swedish language|Swedish]] | ||
***** [[Dalecarlian dialects]] | ***** [[Dalecarlian dialects]] | ||
****** [[Elfdalian language|Elfdalian]] | |||
*** [[Modern Gutnish|Gutnish]] | *** [[Modern Gutnish|Gutnish]] | ||
** [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] | ** [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] | ||
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== Writing == | == Writing == | ||
=== BC === | === BC === | ||
[[File:Germanic – Romance language border map (early Middle Ages – early twentieth century).svg|thumb|upright=1.59|right|Germanic – Romance language border:<ref>{{cite book|last=van Durme|first=Luc|chapter=Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe|editor-last1=Treffers-Daller|editor-first1=Jeanine|editor-last2=Willemyns|editor-first2=Roland|title=Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border|year=2002|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=9781853596278|url=http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~rwillemy/229_LanguageContact2002.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916212242/http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~rwillemy/229_LanguageContact2002.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2020|url-status=live|page=13}}</ref> <br/> • Early Middle Ages {{color box|Green}} <br/> • Early Twentieth Century {{color box|Red}}]] | [[File:Germanic – Romance language border map (early Middle Ages – early twentieth century).svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1.59|right|Germanic – Romance language border:<ref>{{cite book|last=van Durme|first=Luc|chapter=Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe|editor-last1=Treffers-Daller|editor-first1=Jeanine|editor-last2=Willemyns|editor-first2=Roland|title=Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border|year=2002|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=9781853596278|url=http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~rwillemy/229_LanguageContact2002.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916212242/http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~rwillemy/229_LanguageContact2002.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2020|url-status=live|page=13}}</ref> <br/> • Early Middle Ages {{color box|Green}} <br/> • Early Twentieth Century {{color box|Red}}]] | ||
The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the 1st century by [[Tacitus]] (especially from his work ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]''), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the 2nd century BC on the [[Negau helmet]], written in [[Old Italic script]].{{sfnp|Todd|1992}} | The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the 1st century by [[Tacitus]] (especially from his work ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]''), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the 2nd century BC on the [[Negau helmet]], written in [[Old Italic script]].{{sfnp|Todd|1992}} | ||
=== AD === | === AD === | ||
From roughly the 1st to the 2nd century AD, or possibly even before AD (as per the dating of the [[ | From roughly the 1st to the 2nd century AD, or possibly even before AD (as per the dating of the [[Hole Runestone]]: 50 BC to 275 AD),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Solheim |first1=Steinar |last2=Zilmer |first2=Kristel |last3=Zawalska |first3=Judyta |last4=Vasshus |first4=Krister Sande Kristoffersen |last5=Sand-Eriksen |first5=Anette |last6=Kimball |first6=Justin J.L. |last7=Havstein |first7=John Asbjørn Munch |title=Inscribed sandstone fragments of Hole, Norway: radiocarbon dates provide insight into rune-stone traditions |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/inscribed-sandstone-fragments-of-hole-norway-radiocarbon-dates-provide-insight-into-runestone-traditions/52AF86395C4454EF01F436465EC5DE22 |journal=Antiquity |date=2025 |volume=99 |issue=404 |pages=422–439 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2024.225 |access-date=2025-04-26|doi-access=free }}</ref> certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the [[Elder Futhark]], an early form of the [[runic alphabet]]. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names and difficult to interpret. | ||
The [[Gothic runic inscriptions|Gothic language was initially written with Elder runes]], but starting from the 4th century, such was superseded by the [[Gothic alphabet]], developed by Bishop [[Ulfilas]] for his translation of the [[Bible]] in the 4th century.<ref>[[Fausto Cercignani|Cercignani, Fausto]], ''The Elaboration of the Gothic Alphabet and Orthography'', in "Indogermanische Forschungen", 93, 1988, pp. 168–185.</ref> | The [[Gothic runic inscriptions|Gothic language was initially written with Elder runes]], but starting from the 4th century, such was superseded by the [[Gothic alphabet]], developed by Bishop [[Ulfilas]] for his translation of the [[Bible]] in the 4th century.<ref>[[Fausto Cercignani|Cercignani, Fausto]], ''The Elaboration of the Gothic Alphabet and Orthography'', in "Indogermanische Forschungen", 93, 1988, pp. 168–185.</ref> | ||
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== Vocabulary comparison == | == Vocabulary comparison == | ||
The table compares cognates in several different Germanic languages. In some cases, the meanings may not be identical in each language. | The table compares cognates in several different Germanic languages. In some cases, the meanings may not be identical in each language. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style=" | {| class="wikitable notatypo" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|- <!--Do not add a language to this table without first discussing it on the talk page. The languages shown here have been carefully selected to show a maximum number of differences.--> | |- <!--Do not add a language to this table without first discussing it on the talk page. The languages shown here have been carefully selected to show a maximum number of differences.--> | ||
! colspan="5"| [[West Germanic]] | ! colspan="5" |[[West Germanic]] | ||
! colspan="4" | [[North Germanic]] | ! colspan="4" | [[North Germanic]] | ||
! rowspan="2"| [[East Germanic|East<br /> Germanic]] | ! rowspan="2"| [[East Germanic|East<br /> Germanic]] | ||
! rowspan="3"|[[Proto-Germanic language|Reconstructed<br /> Proto-Germanic]]<ref>Forms follow Orel 2003. þ represents IPA [θ], χ IPA [x], ȝ IPA [γ], đ IPA [ð], and ƀ IPA [β].</ref> | ! rowspan="3"|[[Proto-Germanic language|Reconstructed<br /> Proto-Germanic]]<ref>Forms follow Orel 2003. þ represents IPA [θ], χ IPA [x], ȝ IPA [γ], đ IPA [ð], and ƀ IPA [β].</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2"| [[Anglo-Frisian]] | ! colspan="2" | [[Anglo-Frisian]] | ||
! colspan="3"| Continental | ! colspan="3"| Continental | ||
! colspan="2"|West | ! colspan="2"|West | ||
| Line 662: | Line 645: | ||
| way || wei || weg || Weg || Weg || vegur || veg || väg || vej || wigs || weȝaz | | way || wei || weg || Weg || Weg || vegur || veg || väg || vej || wigs || weȝaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
| white || wyt || wit || witt || weiß || hvítur || kvit || vit || hvid | | | white || wyt || wit || witt || weiß || hvítur || kvit || vit || hvid || ƕeits || *χwītaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
| word || wurd || woord || Wurd || Wort || orð || ord || ord || ord || waurd || *wurđan | | word || wurd || woord || Wurd || Wort || orð || ord || ord || ord || waurd || *wurđan | ||
| Line 963: | Line 946: | ||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
[[Category:Germanic languages| ]] | [[Category:Germanic languages| ]] | ||
[[Category:Indo-European languages]] | [[Category:Indo-European languages]] | ||