Huldrych Zwingli: Difference between revisions

|name = Ulrich Zwingli

|image = Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg

|birth_date = {{Birth date|1484|1|1|df=y}}

|death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1531|10|11|1484|1|1}}

|death_place = [[Kappel am Albis|Kappel]], Canton of Zurich, Swiss Confederation

}}

In 1519, Zwingli became the {{lang|de|Leutpriester}} (people's priest) of the [[Grossmünster]] in [[Zurich]] where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church.<ref>Lindberg, Carter. ''The European Reformations''. 2nd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p. 164.</ref> In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the [[Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church|custom of fasting]] during [[Lent]]. In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted [[clerical marriage]], and attacked the use of images in places of worship. Among his most notable contributions to the [[Reformation]] was his [[expository preaching]], starting in 1519, through the [[Gospel of Matthew]], before eventually using [[Biblical exegesis]] to go through the entire New Testament, a radical departure from the [[Catholic mass]].<ref>Lindberg, Carter. ''The European Reformations''. 2nd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, pp. 165–166.</ref> In 1525, he introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]. He also clashed with the [[Anabaptists]], which resulted in their persecution. Historians have debated whether or not he turned Zurich into a theocracy.<ref>Robert Walton, ''Zwingli's Theocracy'' (Toronto University Press. 1967).</ref>

==Historical context==

The [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederation]] in Huldrych Zwingli's time consisted of thirteen states ([[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]]) as well as affiliated areas and common lordships. Unlike the modern state of [[Switzerland]], which operates under a federal government, each of the thirteen cantons was nearly independent, conducting its own domestic and foreign affairs. Each canton formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation. This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various cantons divided between different confessional camps. Military ambitions gained an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources, as seen for example in the [[Old Zurich War]] of 1440–1446.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=1–4}}</ref>

The wider political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile. For centuries the relationship with the Confederation's powerful neighbour, France, determined the foreign policies of the Swiss. Nominally, the Confederation formed a part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. However, through a succession of wars culminating in the [[Swabian War]] in 1499, the Confederation had become ''de facto'' independent. As the two continental powers and minor regional states such as the [[Duchy of Milan]], the [[Duchy of Savoy]], and the [[Papal States]] competed and fought against each other, there were far-reaching political, economic, and social consequences for the Confederation. During this time the [[Swiss mercenaries|mercenary pension system]] became a subject of disagreement. The religious factions of Zwingli's time debated vociferously the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=4–6}}</ref>

==Life==

===Early years (1484–1518)===

Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in [[Wildhaus]], in the [[Toggenburg]] valley of [[Switzerland]], to a family of farmers, the third child of eleven. His father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of the community (''[[Amtmann]]'' or chief local magistrate).<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p=6}}</ref> Zwingli's primary schooling was provided by his uncle, Bartholomew, a cleric in [[Weesen, Switzerland|Weesen]], where he probably met [[Katharina von Zimmern]].<ref name="katharina">{{cite web|url=http://frauen-und-reformation.de/?s=bio&id=93|title=Katharina von Zimmern|publisher=frauen-und-reformation.de|access-date=25 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331123825/http://www.frauen-und-reformation.de/?s=bio&id=93|archive-date=31 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> At ten years old, Zwingli was sent to [[Basel]] to obtain his secondary education where he learned [[Latin language|Latin]] under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli. After three years in Basel, he stayed a short time in [[Bern]] with the humanist Henry Wölfflin. The [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it is possible that he was received as a novice.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|p=24}}; {{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p=9}}. Potter mentions this possibility. Gäbler states that Zwingli did not refute later claims by opponents that he had been a monk in Bern.</ref>

Zwingli's theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons. He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations. Monks were accused of indolence and high living. In 1519, Zwingli specifically rejected the [[veneration]] of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts. He cast doubts on hellfire, asserted that unbaptised children were not damned, and questioned the power of [[excommunication]]. His attack on the claim that [[Tithe|tithing]] was a divine institution, however, had the greatest theological and social impact. This contradicted the immediate economic interests of the foundation. One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli's election, Konrad Hofmann, complained about his sermons in a letter. Some canons supported Hofmann, but the opposition never grew very large. Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the [[Sola scriptura|sole basis of his teachings was Scripture]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=49–52}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p=66}}</ref>

In August 1519, Zurich was struck by an outbreak of the [[Bubonic plague|plague]] during which at least one in four persons died. All of those who could afford it left the city, but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties. In September, he caught the disease and nearly died. He described his preparation for death in a poem, Zwingli's ''Pestlied'', consisting of three parts: the onset of the illness, the closeness to death, and the joy of recovery. The final verses of the first part read:<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp=69–70}}</ref>

===Zurich disputations (1523)===

The meeting attracted a large crowd of approximately six hundred participants. The bishop sent a delegation led by his [[vicar general]], [[Johann Faber|Johannes Fabri]]. Zwingli summarised his position in the ''Schlussreden'' (Concluding Statements or the Sixty-seven Articles).<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p=99}}</ref><ref>The Sixty-seven Articles are contained in [https://archive.org/details/selectedworksofh00zwin ''Selected Works of Huldreich Zwingli'', Philadelphia, 1901], pp. 111–117. At Internet Archive. Accessed 13 March 2015.</ref> Fabri, who had not envisaged an academic disputation in the manner Zwingli had prepared for,<ref>{{Harvnb|Cameron|1991|pp=108}}</ref> was forbidden to discuss high theology before laymen, and simply insisted on the necessity of the ecclesiastical authority. The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=67–71}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp=100–104}}</ref>

In September 1523, [[Leo Jud]], Zwingli's closest friend and colleague and pastor of [[St. Peter, Zurich|St Peterskirche]], publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons. This led to demonstrations and [[Iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] activities. The city council decided to work out the matter of images in a second disputation. The essence of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion. Supporters of the Mass claimed that the Eucharist was a true sacrifice, while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal. As in the first disputation, an invitation was sent out to the Zurich clergy and the bishop of Constance. This time, however, the lay people of Zurich, the dioceses of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Chur|Chur]] and Basel, the University of Basel, and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited. About nine hundred persons attended this meeting, but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives. The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=72, 76–77}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp=130–131}}</ref>

===Reformation progresses in Zurich (1524–1525)===

In December 1523, the council set a deadline of [[Pentecost]] in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the Mass and images. Zwingli gave a formal opinion in ''Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe'' (Proposal Concerning Images and the Mass). He did not urge an immediate, general abolition. The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zurich, but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote. The decision on the Mass was postponed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=81–82}}</ref>

Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524. [[Candlemas]] was not celebrated, processions of robed clergy ceased, worshippers did not go with palms or relics on [[Palm Sunday]] to the [[Lindenhof]], and [[triptych]]s remained covered and closed after [[Lent]].<ref name="Potter138">{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p=138}}</ref> Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers, but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates. When Hofmann left the city, opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down. The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the Mass and the veneration of images. Zwingli wrote an official response for the council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=82–83}}</ref>

For some time Zwingli had accused [[mendicant]] orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor. He suggested the monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund. This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and [[Fraumünster]] and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks. The council secularised the church properties (Fraumünster handed over to the city of Zurich by Zwingli's acquaintance [[Katharina von Zimmern]] in 1524) and established new welfare programs for the poor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiener |first=James Blake |title=Fraumunster |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Fraumunster/ |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>

===Conflict with the Anabaptists (1525–1527)===

On 2 February, the council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined, Manz and Blaurock among them. Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zurich council. Meanwhile, the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of [[Swabia]]n towns. On 6–8 November, the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in the Grossmünster. Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli, Jud, and other reformers. There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar, each side shouting abuse at the other.<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp=183–186}}</ref>

===Reformation in the Confederation (1526–1528)===

{{further|Swiss Reformation|Bern Disputation}}

In the case of Bern, [[Berchtold Haller]], the priest at [[Münster of Berne|St Vincent Münster]], and [[Niklaus Manuel]], the poet, painter, and politician, had campaigned for the reformed cause. But it was only after [[Bern Disputation|another disputation]] that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation. Three hundred and fifty persons participated,<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Sallmann |first=Martin |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004316355/B9789004316355-s005.xml |title=A Companion to the Swiss Reformation |date=1 January 2016 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-31635-5 |editor-last=Burnett |editor-first=Amy Nelson |language=en |chapter=The Reformation in Bern |editor-last2=Campi |editor-first2=Emidio}}</ref>{{Rp|page=144|pages=}} including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside the Confederation such as [[Martin Bucer]] and [[Wolfgang Capito]] from [[Strasbourg]], [[Ambrosius Blarer]] from [[Konstanz|Constance]], and [[Andreas Althamer]] from [[Nuremberg]]. Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives. The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks. Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in the Münster. On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation be established in Bern.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=113–119}}</ref>

===First Kappel War (1529)===

Even before the [[Bern Disputation]], Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities. Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation, a new alliance, ''das Christliche [[Burgrecht]]'' (the Christian Civic Union) was created.<ref>{{Harvnb|Locher|1981|p=109}}. Potter also translates ''Burgrecht'' as "Civic Union", while {{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|p=119}} translates it as "Fortress Law".</ref> The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern, Constance, and Zurich on 5–6 January 1528. Other cities, including Basel, [[Biel]], [[Mülhausen]], Schaffhausen, and St Gallen, eventually joined the alliance. The Five (Catholic) States felt encircled and isolated, so they searched for outside allies. After two months of negotiations, the Five States formed ''die Christliche Vereinigung'' (the Christian Alliance) with [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand of Austria]] on 22 April 1529.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=119–120}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp=352–355}}</ref>

===Marburg Colloquy (1529)===

{{Further|Marburg Colloquy}}

By spring 1527, Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli's views in the treatise ''Dass Diese Worte Christi "Das ist mein Leib etc." noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister'' (That These Words of Christ "This is My Body etc." Still Stand Firm Against the Fanatics). The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began. [[Martin Butzer|Martin Bucer]] tried to mediate while [[Philip of Hesse]], who wanted to form a political coalition of all Protestant forces, invited the two parties to [[Marburg]] to discuss their differences. This event became known as the [[Marburg Colloquy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=135–136}}</ref>

===Politics, confessions, the Kappel Wars and death (1529–1531)===

{{Further|Second War of Kappel}}

With the failure of the Marburg Colloquy and the split of the Confederation, Zwingli set his goal on an alliance with [[Philip of Hesse]]. He kept up a lively correspondence with Philip. Bern refused to participate, but after a long process, Zurich, Basel, and Strasbourg signed a mutual defence treaty with Philip in November 1530. Zwingli also personally negotiated with France's diplomatic representative, but the two sides were too far apart. France wanted to maintain good relations with the Five States. Approaches to Venice and Milan also failed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=141–143}}</ref>

It was too late for the ''Burgrecht'' cities to produce a confession of their own. Zwingli then produced his own private confession, ''Fidei ratio'' (Account of Faith) in which he explained his faith in twelve articles conforming to the articles of the [[Apostles' Creed]]. The tone was strongly anti-Catholic as well as anti-Lutheran. The Lutherans did not react officially, but criticised it privately. Zwingli's and Luther's old opponent, [[Johann Eck]], counter-attacked with a publication, ''Refutation of the Articles Zwingli Submitted to the Emperor''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp=143–146}}</ref>

Zwingli was a humanist and a scholar with many devoted friends and disciples. He communicated as easily with the ordinary people of his congregation as with rulers such as [[Philip of Hesse]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|pp= 417–418}}</ref> His reputation as a stern, stolid reformer is counterbalanced by the fact that he had an excellent sense of humour and used satiric fables, spoofing, and puns in his writings.<ref>{{Citation|last1= Schmidt-Clausing|first1= Fritz|last2= West|first2= Jim|title= The Humor of Huldrych Zwingli: The Lighter Side of the Protestant Reformation|location= Lewiston, New York|year= 2007|publisher= Edwin Mellen Press Ltd|isbn= 978-0-7734-5482-8}}.</ref> Zwingli remains as a complex figure of the early Reformation's history, with many drawing comparisons between him and other characters like Martin Luther.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Bruce |date=July 2019 |title=Ulrich Zwinglis Ethik: Stationen—Grundlagen—Konkretionen. Matthias Neugebauer. Zurich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 2017. 228 pp. €29.90. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/renaissance-quarterly/article/abs/ulrich-zwinglis-ethik-stationengrundlagenkonkretionen-matthias-neugebauer-zurich-theologischer-verlag-zurich-2017-228-pp-2990/4E64F3F9B46592C1233B4F8212186373 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=714–715 |doi=10.1017/rqx.2019.207 |issn=0034-4338|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He was more conscious of social obligations than was Luther, and he genuinely believed that the masses would accept a government guided by God's word.<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|1976|p= 418}}</ref> He tirelessly promoted assistance to the poor, who he believed should be cared for by a truly Christian community.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wandel|1990|p= 45}}</ref>

Scholars have found it difficult to assess Zwingli's impact on history, for several reasons. There is no consensus on the definition of "[[Zwinglianism]]"; by any definition, Zwinglianism evolved under his successor, Heinrich Bullinger; and research into Zwingli's influence on Bullinger and [[John Calvin]] remains rudimentary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp= 155–156}}</ref> Bullinger adopted most of Zwingli's points of doctrine. Like Zwingli, he summarised his theology several times, the best-known example being the [[Second Helvetic Confession]] of 1566. Meanwhile, Calvin had taken over the Reformation in [[Geneva]].<ref name="Geneva Before Calvin">{{cite journal|last= Foster|first= Herbert Darling|title= Geneva Before Calvin (1387–1536). The Antecedents of a Puritan State|journal= The American Historical Review|date= Jan 1903 |volume= 8 |issue= 2|pages= 217–240|jstor= 1832923|doi= 10.2307/1832923|hdl= 2027/coo.31924028547531|hdl-access= free}}</ref> Calvin differed with Zwingli on the eucharist and criticised him for regarding it as simply a metaphorical event. In 1549, Bullinger and Calvin succeeded in overcoming the differences in doctrine and produced the ''[[Consensus Tigurinus]]'' (Zurich Consensus). They declared that the eucharist was not just symbolic of the meal, but they also rejected the Lutheran position that the body and blood of Christ is in [[Sacramental union|union with the elements]].<ref name="Furcha 1985 179–195">{{Harvnb|Furcha|1985|pp= 179–195}}, J. C. McLelland, "Meta-Zwingli or Anti-Zwingli? Bullinger and Calvin in Eucharistic Concord"</ref><ref name="Gäbler 1986 158–159">{{Harvnb|Gäbler|1986|pp= 158–159}}</ref> It was John Calvin's doctrine of a [[Lord's Supper in Reformed theology|real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist]] that became the doctrine of the Reformed Churches, while Zwingli's view was rejected by the Reformed Churches (though it was adopted by other traditions, such as the [[Plymouth Brethren]]).<ref name="Gerrish2004">{{cite book |last1=Gerrish |first1=Brian |title=The Old Protestantism and the New |date=11 November 2004 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-08048-6 |pages=112–130 |language=en}}</ref> With this rapprochement, Calvin established his role in the [[Swiss Reformed Church]]es and eventually in the wider world.<ref name="Furcha 1985 179–195"/><ref name="Gäbler 1986 158–159"/>

{{Christian History|collapsed}}

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