List of monarchs of Iran

"Persian King" redirects here. For the racehorse, see Persian King (horse).

File:Head of a king MET 65.126.jpg

Bust of Shapur II (Template:Reign) of the Sasanian Empire, the longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history

The monarchs of Iran ruled for over two and a half millennia, beginning as early as the 8th century BC and enduring until the 20th century AD. The earliest Iranian monarch is generally considered to have been either Deioces of the Median dynasty (c. 727–550 BC) or Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty (550–330 BC). The last Iranian monarch was Mohammad Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979), who was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution. Since then, Iran has been governed by theocratic supreme leaders.

In classical antiquity, Iran reached the peak of its power and prestige under the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Egypt and parts of Southeast Europe in the west to the Indus Valley and parts of Central Asia in the east. By 323 BC, the Achaemenid Empire's territories had been conquered by the Macedonian Empire during the Wars of Alexander the Great, bringing Iran into the Hellenistic sphere. In the Wars of the Diadochi, the Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC) assumed control of Iran. Native Iranian rule was revived with the expansion of Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) in the Seleucid–Parthian Wars. The Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire (224–651), which oversaw a golden age in the history of Iranian civilization and existed until the Arab conquest of Iran.

Medieval Iran alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate (638–661), which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and then by the Abbasid Caliphate (749–861). Under the Abbasids, many Iranian figures took part in shaping the Islamic Golden Age, while also leveraging the decline of Arab power to establish independent dynasties and kingdoms – those including the Saffarids (867–1002), Samanids (875–999), Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) and Buyids (934–1062) – thus allowing their native languages to flourish and reviving Sasanian royal iconography and ideology in what became known as the Iranian Intermezzo. In the 11th century, Iran was conquered by the Seljuk Empire (1038–1194), which was Turkic in origin, but culturally Persianate. Further conquests by entities coming from Central Asia occurred over the course of the next five centuries, most notably including the Turkic Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221), the Mongol Empire (1220–1259), the post-Mongol Ilkhanate (1256–1335), and the Turco-Mongol Timurid Empire (1370–1458). Most of the Timurid territory in Iran was later conquered by the Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469), followed by the Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508), both are Turkic tribal confederations.

The year 1501 is considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, as the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) rose to power and oversaw the conversion of Iran to Shia Islam, marking the region's largest religious shift since the Arab conquests. The collapse of the Safavids led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule of Iran contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the Afghan-origin Hotak dynasty (1722–1729). Nader Shah replaced these with the Afsharid Empire (1736–1796), but after his assassination in 1747, the Afsharids competed with the Zand dynasty (1751–1794) under Karim Khan Zand and his successors for supremacy. Iran was eventually reunified by the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), which was succeeded by the Pahlavi dynasty of Reza Shah. The Pahlavi dynasty was the last to reign before the Iranian monarchy was abolished in 1979.

Ancient Iran (c. 727 BC–AD 651)

Medes (c. 727–550 BC)

See also: Median kingdom and Medes

File:Median (greatest extent).svg

The Median Empire according to Herodotus

The Median dynasty is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state. Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians. Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources (particularly Herodotus) and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire. There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself. The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus.

No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām ("King of Kings"), later used by the Achaemenids. Ecbatana was the Median capital.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
Template:Centre	Deioces	c. 727–675 BC (c. 52 years)	First king of the Medes according to Herodotus. Perhaps elected by popular assembly.
Template:Centre	Phraortes	c. 674–653 BC (c. 21 years)	Son of Deioces
Interregnum c. 652 – 625 BC. The Medes were invaded by Scythians, perhaps under a ruler named Madyes, who established some form of hegemony. The Scythian rulers were defeated by Cyaxares after about three decades, restoring the Medes to their previous power.
File:Qyzqapan tomb relief 2.jpg	Cyaxares	c. 624–585 BC (c. 39 years)	Son of Phraortes
Template:Centre	Astyages	c. 584–550 BC (c. 34 years)	Son of Cyaxares

Later pretenders (521 BC)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:Behistun Relief Phraortes.jpg	Phraortes II	521 BC (less than a year)	Rebel in Media against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares.
File:Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg	Tritantaechmes	521 BC (less than a year)	Rebel in Sagartia against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares.

Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)

See also: Achaemenid dynasty, Achaemenid Empire, and List of Achaemenid emperors

File:Achaemenid (greatest extent).svg

The Achaemenid Empire under Darius the Great

The Achaemenid dynasty originated as local rulers of Anshan under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "Achaemenes". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is Cyrus I, king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC. The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I's son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I's son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire, the largest ever Iranian state.

The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, xšāyaθiya dahyūnām (lit. 'King of Kings, King of the Lands'). The royal title varied in other parts of the empire. The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon, Bactra, and Persepolis.

Early local rulers in Anshan (c. 620–550 BC)

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Cyrus I on horseback, seal.png	Cyrus I	c. 620–590 BC (c. 30 years)	Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler
Template:Centre	Cambyses I	c. 590–559 BC (c. 31 years)	Son of Cyrus I
File:Olympic Park Cyrus-3.jpg	Cyrus II	c. 559–550 BC (c. 9 years)	Son of Cambyses I

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Olympic Park Cyrus-3.jpg	Cyrus II the Great	c. 550 – November (?) 530 BC (c. 20 years)	Defeated Astyages and captured Ecbatana c. 550 BC. Married Amytis, daughter of Astyages, according to ancient Greek historians.
File:Gambyses II.jpg	Cambyses II	August 530 – July 522 BC (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Cyrus II
File:Gaumata portrait on the Behistun inscription.jpg	Bardiya	1 July – 29 September 522 BC (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Cyrus II (possibly an impostor). Revolted against Cambyses on 11 March 522 BC and proclaimed himself ruler on 1 July.
File:Portrait of Darius the Great at Behistun.jpg	Darius I the Great	29 September 522 – October 486 BC (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Claimed descent from Teispes (supposed father of Cyrus I). Seized the throne from Bardiya.
File:National Meusem Darafsh 37.JPG	Xerxes I the Great	October 486 – August 465 BC (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Darius I and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus II)
File:Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam.jpg	Artaxerxes I Longimanus	August 465 – c. December 424 BC (41 years and c. 4 months)	Son of Xerxes I
File:Coin of Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg	Xerxes II	c. December 424 – c. January 423 BC (45 days)	Son of Artaxerxes I
File:Daric coin of the Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg	Sogdianus	c. January – February 423 BC (c. 1 month)	Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. Seized the throne from Xerxes II.
File:Darius ii.png	Darius II (Ochus)	February 423 – March 404 BC (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. Seized the throne from Sogdianus.
File:Artaxerxes II relief portrait detail.jpg	Artaxerxes II (Arsakes)	March 404 – spring (?) 358 BC (46 years)	Son of Darius II
File:Rock relief of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis.jpg	Artaxerxes III (Ochus)	Spring (?) 358 – September (?) 338 BC (20 years)	Son of Artaxerxes II
File:Artaxerxes IV Arses.jpg	Artaxerxes IV (Arses)	September (?) 338 – June 336 BC (2 years)	Son of Artaxerxes III
File:Darius III mosaic.jpg	Darius III (Artashata)	June 336 – July 330 BC (6 years)	Grandson of Artaxerxes II

Later pretenders (330–329 BC)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:Alexander Executes Janusiyar and Mahiyar, the Slayers of Darius", Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdausi MET (cropped).jpg	Artaxerxes V (Bessus)	July 330 – spring 329 BC (less than a year)	Satrap of Bactria, part of the Achaemenid dynasty. Murdered Darius III and proclaimed himself as his successor, ruling several eastern satrapies in opposition to Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic rule (331–129 BC)

See also: Hellenistic period

Alexander's empire (331–305 BC)

See also: Argead dynasty

File:Macedonia (ancient kingdom, greatest extent).svg

Alexander the Great's empire

The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by Alexander the Great, king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia, in 331–329 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.

Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'. His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead basileus (lit. 'king'). To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia" (sometimes "King of Asia"). The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is basileus. Alexander ruled his empire from Babylon and planned to establish Babylon and Alexandria in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals. From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Alexander the Great mosaic (cropped).jpg	Alexander the Great	1 October 331 – 10/11 June 323 BC (7 years, 8 months and 10/11 days)	Conquered the Achaemenid Empire
File:Philip Arrhidaeus Pharaoh.jpg	Philip Arrhidaeus	June 323 – late 317 BC (6 years)	Brother of Alexander the Great
File:Alexander Aegus Pharaoh.jpg	Alexander Aegus	August 323 – 309 BC (305 BC) (14 years, recognized for 18 years)	Son of Alexander the Great

Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC)

See also: Seleucid dynasty and Seleucid Empire

File:Seleucid Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I Nicator

The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the Seleucids, descendants of the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian noblewoman Apama. Seleucus seized most of the east, including Babylonia, in the Wars of the Diadochi and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards. After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king.

The main royal title used by the Seleucids was basileus, as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms (such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom). Only two Seleucid rulers (Antiochus III, 223–187 BC, and Antiochus VII, 139–129 BC) used the greater megas basileus ('Great King'), the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources. The Seleucids at first ruled from Seleucia in Mesopotamia, though Antioch was soon made the main capital.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Seleucos Nicator Louvre Ma3597 n3.jpg	Seleucus I Nicator	305 – September 280 BC (25 years)	Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards and proclaimed king in 305 BC.
File:Antiochos I Soter tetradrachm obverse.jpg	Antiochus I Soter	September 280 – 261 BC (19 years)	Son of Seleucus I
File:Antiochos II Theos portrait.jpg	Antiochus II Theos	261–246 BC (15 years)	Son of Antiochus I
File:Coin of Seleucus II Callinicus (cropped), Antioch mint.jpg	Seleucus II Callinicus	246–226 BC (20 years)	Son of Antiochus II
File:Seleukos III Keraunos, Tetradrachm, 226-223 BC, HGC 3-414c (obverse).jpg	Seleucus III Ceraunus	226–223 BC (3 years)	Sons of Seleucus II
File:Male head wearing a head-band resembling king of Syria Antiochus III (223–187 BC), late 1st century BC–early 1st century AD, Louvre Museum (7462828632).jpg	Antiochus III the Great	223–187 BC (36 years)
File:Seleukos IV tetradrachm obverse.jpg	Seleucus IV Philopator	187–175 BC (12 years)	Sons of Antiochus III
File:Antiochus IV Epiphanes - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg	Antiochus IV Epiphanes	175 – late 164 BC (11 years)
File:Antiochos V Eupator tetradrachm obverse.jpg	Antiochus V Eupator	Late 164 – 162 BC (2 years)	Son of Antiochus IV
File:Demetrios I Soter, Tetradrachm, 162-150 BC, SC 1611.3 Obverse.jpg	Demetrius I Soter	162–150 BC (12 years)	Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV.
File:Coin of Alexander I Balas, Antioch mint.jpg	Alexander Balas	152–145 BC (7 years)	Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the Roman Empire.
File:Antiochus VI - face.jpg	Antiochus VI Dionysus	145–142 BC (3 years)	Son of Alexander Balas
File:Coin of Demetrius II Nicator (cropped), Ptolemais in Phoenicia mint.jpg	Demetrius II Nicator	147–139 BC (8 years)	Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death.
File:Antiochos VII.jpg	Antiochus VII Sidetes	139–129 BC (10 years)	Son of Demetrius I

Parthian Empire (c. 250/247 BC–224 AD)

See also: Parthian Empire and List of monarchs of Parthia

File:Parthian Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Parthian Empire under Mithridates II

The Arsacids of Parthia, initially Seleucid vassals, originated as leaders of the eastern Iranian Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes. The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran. Parthian control of Iran was secured through the c. 142 BC conquest of Babylonia. Although fighting continued for years, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire, which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC.

The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state. Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of Vologases I (AD 51–78). Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder (Arsaces) as a title. Their coins also have the legend krny (probably short for autokrator, i.e. autocrat or sole ruler). From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used basileus megas (lit. 'Great King'). Mithridates II (123–91 BC) adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings' (rendered in Greek as basileus basileon). After him, this title was used only by Mithridates IV (57–54 BC) and Orodes II (57–37 BC) before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of Phraates IV (26–2 BC) onwards. The title was used in its Persian form (šāhān šāh) after Greek ceased being used. The first Parthian capital was at Nisa in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to Qumis and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Ray.

This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the list of monarchs of Parthia.

Early local rulers in Parthia (c. 250/247–142 BC)

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Coin of Arsaces I (1), Nisa mint (cropped).jpg	Arsaces I	c. 250/247–217 BC (30–33 years)	Conquered Parthia from the Seleucid satrap Andragoras
File:Arsaces II coin crop.png	Arsaces II	c. 217–191 BC (26 years)	Son of Arsaces I
File:Priapatius coin.png	Priapatius	c. 191–176 BC (15 years)	Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I
File:Phraates I coin.png	Phraates I	c. 176–171 BC (5 years)	Son of Priapatius
File:Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg	Mithridates I	c. 171–142 BC (29 years)

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg	Mithridates I the Great	c. 142–132 BC (c. 10 years)	Established Parthia as an empire. Conquered the Iranian plateau in the 160s BC, followed by conquests of Babylonia (142 BC), Media (141 BC), and Persis (139 BC).
File:Coin of Phraates II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg	Phraates II	c. 132–127 BC (5 years)	Son of Mithridates I
File:Coin of Artabanus I of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Seleucia mint.jpg	Artabanus I	c. 127–124/123 BC (3–4 years)	Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I)
File:Coin of Mithradates II of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Ecbatana mint.jpg	Mithridates II the Great	c. 123–91 BC (c. 32 years)	Son of Artabanus I
File:Coin of Gotarzes I (2, cropped), Ectbatana mint.jpg	Gotarzes I	91–87(?) BC (c. 4 years)	Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I and Artabanus I)
File:Tetradrachm of the Parthian monarch Orodes I, Seleucia mint.jpg	Orodes I	87–79(?) BC (c. 8 years)	Son of Gotarzes I or Mithridates II (?)
File:Sinatruces transparent.png	Sinatruces	c. 78–70 BC (c. 8 years)	Son of Mithridates I, previously a rival claimant c. 91–88 BC
File:Drachm of Phraates III, Ecbatana mint.jpg	Phraates III	70–57 BC (13 years)	Son of Sinatruces
File:Coin of Mithridates IV (cropped).jpg	Mithridates III	57–54 BC (3 years)	Son of Phraates III. Co-ruler with his brother Orodes II until killed in 54 BC.
File:Coin of Orodes II, Mithradatkert (Nisa) mint.jpg	Orodes II	57–37 BC (20 years)	Son of Phraates III
File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg	Phraates IV	37–32(?) BC (1st reign) (5 years?)	Son of Orodes II
File:Tiridates II coin.png	Tiridates	32–31(?) BC (1st reign) (1 year?)	Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage
File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg	Phraates IV	31–28(?) BC (2nd reign) (3 years?)	Retook the throne
File:Tiridates II coin.png	Tiridates	28–26(?) BC (2nd reign) (2 years?)
File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg	Phraates IV	26(?)–2 BC (3rd reign) (24 years?)
File:Coin of Phraatakes (Phraates V), Seleucia mint (cropped).jpg	Phraates V	2 BC – AD 4(?) (6 years?)	Son of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Musa
File:The portrait of Musa of Parthia on the reverse of a drachm, Ecbatana mint.jpg	Musa		Widow of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Phraates V. First of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
File:Orodes III coin.png	Orodes III	4(?)–6/7 (2/3 years?)	Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage
File:Tetradrachm of Vonones I, Seleucia mint.jpg	Vonones I	6/7–11/12 (4–6 years)	Son of Phraates IV, nominated as king by the Roman Empire
File:Tetradrachm of Artabanus II, Seleucia mint.jpg	Artabanus II	11/12–38 (26/27 years)	Cousin of Vonones
File:Tetradrachm of Gotarzes II, minted in 49.jpg	Gotarzes II	38–51 (13 years)	Son of Artabanus (?)
File:Coin of Vardanes I (cropped, 2), Seleucia mint.jpg	Vardanes	39–45/46 (6/7 years)	Son of Artabanus (?). Rival and later co-ruler of the empire with Gotarzes.
File:Coin of Vonones II, minted at Hamadan.jpg	Vonones II	51 (briefly)	Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage
File:Tetradrachm of Vologases I, minted at Seleucia.jpg	Vologases I	51–78 (27 years)	Son of Vardanes
File:Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg	Pacorus	78–79 (1st reign) (1 year)	Son of Vologases I
File:Coin of Artabanus III of Parthia (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg	Artabanus III	79–81 (2 years)	Son or brother of Vologases I
File:Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg	Pacorus	81–115 (2nd reign) (34 years)	Retook the throne
File:Coin of Vologases III (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg	Vologases II	115–116 (1 year)	Son of Pacorus
File:Parthamaspates coin.png	Parthamaspates	116–117 (1 year)	Grandson of Pacorus, installed as king by the Roman Empire
File:Coin of Osroes I (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg	Osroes	117–128 (11 years)	Son of Pacorus and father of Parthamaspates
File:Coin of Mithridates V of Parthia, Ecbatana mint.jpg	Mithridates IV	128–148 (20 years)	Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage
File:Tetradrachm of Vologases IV, minted at Seleucia in 153.jpg	Vologases III	148–191 (43 years)	Son of Mithridates IV
File:Coin of Vologases V (cutted out), Hamadan mint.jpg	Vologases IV	191–207 (16 years)	Son of Vologases III
File:Coin of Vologases VI of Parthia (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg	Vologases V	207–213 (6 years)	Son of Vologases IV. Possibly still in control of some parts of the empire by 228.
File:Drachm of Artabanus IV (2), Hamadan mint.jpg	Artabanus IV	213–224 (11 years)	Son of Vologases IV. Fought with Vologases V over control of the empire.

Sasanian Empire (224 AD–651 AD)

See also: Sasanian dynasty, Sasanian Empire, and List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire

File:Sasanian Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Sasanian Empire under Khosrow II

The Sasanian dynasty originated as kings of Persis, a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast Ardashir I led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory. The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the Zoroastrian religion.

Sasanian kings continued to use the title šāhān šāh (lit. 'King of Kings'). The title was extended by Ardashir to šāhān šāh ērān (lit. 'King of Kings of Iran') and extended again by his son Shapur I (240–270) to šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān (lit. 'King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran'). Sasanian queens ruled with the title bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān (lit. 'Queen of Queens of Iran and non-Iran'). Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Coin of Ardashir I (phase 3), Hamadan mint.jpg	Ardashir I the Unifier	224 – May 240 (16 years)	Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire
File:ShapurICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Shapur I	May 240 – May 270 (30 years)	Son of Ardashir I
File:HormizdICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Hormizd I	May 270 – June 271 (1 year and 1 month)	Sons of Shapur I
File:Coin of Bahram I (cropped).jpg	Bahram I	June 271 – 274 (3 years)
File:Silver coin of Bahram II (cropped).jpg	Bahram II	274–293 (19 years)	Son of Bahram I
File:Bahram III.jpg	Bahram III	293 (4 months)	Son or cousin of Bahram II
File:NarsehCoin2.jpg	Narseh	293–302 (9 years)	Son of Shapur I
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Hormizd II (1, cropped).jpg	Hormizd II	303–309/310 (6/7 years)	Son of Narseh
Template:Centre	Adur Narseh (Narseh II)	309/310 (briefly)	Son of Hormizd II
File:The portrait of Shapur II on the obverse of a silver drachm, struck circa 309–320 (crop).png	Shapur II the Great	310–379 (69 years)	Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth. The longest-reigning Iranian monarch.
File:ArdashirIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Ardashir II the Beneficent	379–383 (4 years)	Son of Hormizd II
File:Coin of Shapur III, Merv mint.jpg	Shapur III	383–388 (5 years)	Sons of Shapur II
File:Coin of Bahram IV (cropped), Herat mint.jpg	Bahram IV	388–399 (11 years)
File:YazdegerdICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Yazdegerd I the Sinner	399–420 (21 years)	Son of Shapur III
File:Drachm of Shapur IV.jpg	Shapur IV	420 (briefly)	Son of Yazdegerd I
Template:Centre	Khosrow (I)	420 (briefly)	Son of Bahram IV
File:Drachma of Bahram V - cropped.jpg	Bahram V the Onager	420–438 (18 years)	Son of Yazdegerd I
File:YazdegerdIICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Yazdegerd II	438–457 (19 years)	Son of Bahram V
File:King Hormizd II or Hormizd III Hunting Lions, 400-600.jpg	Hormizd III	457 (briefly)	Sons of Yazdegerd II
File:PerozICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Peroz I	457–484 (27 years)
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Balash from Susa.jpg	Balash	484–488 (4 years)
File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg	Kavad I	488–497 (1st reign) (9 years)	Sons of Peroz
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Jamasp from Susa.jpg	Jamasp	497–499 (2 years)
File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg	Kavad I	499–531 (2nd reign) (32 years)	Restored to the throne with Hepthalite support
File:Plate of the Sasanian king Khosrow I Anushirvan.jpg	Khosrow I Anushirvan (lit. 'the Immortal Soul')	531–579 (48 years)	Son of Kavad I
File:Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg	Hormizd IV	579–590 (11 years)	Son of Khosrow I
File:BahramChobinCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Bahram VI Chobin	590–591 (1 year)	General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran)
File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg	Khosrow II Parviz (lit. 'the Victorious')	June 590 – 28 February 628 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Hormizd IV
File:Coin of Vistahm, minted at Ray in 595 or 596.jpg	Vistahm	591–597 (6 years, usurper in the east)	General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan) and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king.
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavadh II (cropped), minted at Ray in 628.jpg	Kavad II	28 February 628 – 628 (less than a year)	Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father
File:ArdashirIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Ardashir III	628–630 (2 years)	Cousin or son of Kavad II
File:ShahrbarazCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Shahrbaraz	630 (less than a year)	General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran)
File:XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Khosrow III	630 (less than a year)	Nephew of Khosrow II
File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Boran	630 (less than a year)	Daughter of Khosrow II. Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
Template:Centre	Shapur V	630 (less than a year)	Son of Shahrbaraz
File:Obverse coin of Azarmidokht.jpg	Azarmidokht	630–631 (1 year)	Daughter of Khosrow II. Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
File:FarrokhHormizdVCoin.jpg	Farrukh Hormizd V	631–632 (1 year)	General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan). Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal.
File:HormizdVICoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Hormizd VI	630–632 (2 years, usurper in Nisibis)	Grandson of Khosow II. Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at Nisibis.
File:KhosrauIVCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Khosrow IV	632 (less than a year)	Great-nephew of Hormizd IV
Template:Centre	Peroz II	632–632/633 (1 year?)	Brother of Khosrow IV
File:FarrukhzadKhosrauVCoin - Cropped.jpg	Farrukhzad Khosrow V	632/633–c. 633 (1 year?)	Brother of Hormizd V
File:YazdegerdIIICoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg	Yazdegerd III	c. 633–651 (c. 18 years)	Grandson of Khosrow II

Later pretenders (651–731)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:Headless Statue of Foreign Envoy, Qianling Mausoleum.jpg	Peroz III	651–678/679 (27/28 years)	Son of Yazdegerd III, lived in exile in China (Tang dynasty) and led Iranian resistance against the Arabs. Recognized by the Tang dynasty as "king of Persia". Ruled a Tang-supported Iranian kingdom in Sistan or Tokharistan 661–674.
Template:Centre	Narsieh (Narseh III)	678/679–after 708/709 (over 20 years)	Son and successor of Peroz III. Crowned by the Chinese general Pei Xingjian and placed in charge of Tokharistan. Narsieh defended the region for twenty years until defeated by the Arabs in 708/709, whereafter he returned to China.
Template:Centre	Bó Qiāng Huó	fl. 723	Son of Narsieh. Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 723.
Template:Centre	Mù Shānuò	fl. 726–731	Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 726 and 731. Names of Sasanian claimants disappear from Chinese sources after 731.

Minor kingdoms and dynasties

• The Fratarakas (3rd–mid-2nd century BC), rulers/governors in Persis under the Seleucid Empire
• Vahshuvar as Frataraka/Satrap of Parthia minted gold coins which is evidence of being independent
• Andragoras as Satrap of Parthia minted gold coins which is evidence of being independent
• Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms (2nd century BC–5th century AD), various local vassal dynasties of the Parthian Empire
  • The kings of Persis (2nd century BC–3rd century AD), vassal kings in Persis under the Parthian Empire

Medieval Iran (651–1501)

See also: Islamic dynasties of Iran

The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501. In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the Middle Ages.

The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee.

Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861)

See also: Iran during the Caliphate and List of caliphs

Rashidun Caliphate (638–661)

See also: Rashidun Caliphate

File:Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg

The Rashidun Caliphate under Uthman

The Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian Asoristan in 633. In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia. The empire itself was conquered in 640–651. By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained Bactria. Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Rashid caliphs. Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.

The style of the caliphs was amīr al-mu'minīn (lit. 'commander of the faithful'). An additional title, khalīfat Allāh (lit. 'deputy of God'), was also introduced beginning with Uthman (644–656). The caliphate was initially ruled from Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to Kufa in Iraq.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Umar al-Farooq Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png	Umar	637/638 – 3 November 644 (6/7 years)	Second Rashid caliph. Oversaw the initial Muslim conquest of Persia.
File:Uthman Dhul-nurayn Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png	Uthman	3 November 644 – 17 June 656 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by Ali.
File:Ali Murtaza Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png	Ali	18 June 656 – 28 January 661 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by Mu'awiya.
File:Chester Beatty T 414 fol 125v Hasan ibn Ali.jpg	Hasan	28 January – August 661 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad. Challenged by Mu'awiya.

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

See also: Umayyad Caliphate

File:Umayyad Caliphate 720 AD (orthographic projection).svg

The Umayyad Caliphate under Umar II

The Umayyad Caliphate was established by Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs, leading to the civil war known as the First Fitna (656–661). Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.

Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Arab-Sasanian coin of Muawiyah I, struck at the Fasa mint in Darabjird (Fars).jpg	Mu'awiya I	July/August 661 – April/May 680 (18 years and 9 months)	Seized power in the First Fitna
File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Yazid I ibn Mu'awiya. AH 60-64 AD 680-683.jpg	Yazid I	April/May 680 – 11 November 683 (3 years and 6 or 7 months)	Son of Mu'awiya I
File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Mu'awiya II ibn Yazid. AH 64 AD 683-684.jpg	Mu'awiya II	11 November 683 – 22 June 684 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Yazid I
File:Drachm from Yazid I to Marwan I; Talha governor.jpg	Marwan I	22 June 684 – 7 May 685 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Cousin of Mu'awiya I
File:Arab-Sasanian coin (issue of Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra) struck during the reign of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.jpg	Abd al-Malik	7 May 685 – 8 October 705 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Marwan I
File:Dinar of al-Walid I.jpg	al-Walid I	8 October 705 – 25 February 715 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Abd al-Malik
File:Gold dinar of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715-716.jpg	Sulayman	25 February 715 – 22 September 717 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Gold dinar of Umar II.jpg	Umar II	22 September 717 – 5 February 720 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Grandson of Marwan I
File:Yazid II. Dinar.jpg	Yazid II	5 February 720 – 28 January 724 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Abd al-Malik
File:Dihrem of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik.jpg	Hisham	28 January 724 – 6 February 743 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Umayyad fresco of Prince (future caliph) Walid bin Yazid.jpg	al-Walid II	6 February 743 – 16 April 744 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Yazid II
File:Dihrem of Yazid III ibn al-Walid, AH 126.jpg	Yazid III	16 April – 20 September 744 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of al-Walid I
File:Dihrem of Ibrahim ibn al-Walid.jpg	Ibrahim	20 September – 25 November 744 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Dirham of Marwan II ibn Muhammad, AH 127-132.jpg	Marwan II	25 November 744 – 750 (c. 6 years)	Grandson of Marwan I

Abbasid Caliphate (749–861)

See also: Abbasid Caliphate

File:Abbasid Caliphate (greatest extent).svg

The Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mutawakkil

Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.

Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly founded Baghdad in 762.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Dirhem of al-Saffah, AH 132-136.jpg	al-Saffah	6 November 749 – 9 June 754 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Seized power in the Abbasid revolution
File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Mansur - 140 AH (758 AD).JPG	al-Mansur	9 June 754 – 7 October 775 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Brother of al-Saffrah
File:Arab-Sasanian coin of the Tabaristan type issued under Caliph al-Mahdi.jpg	al-Mahdi	7 October 775 – 4 August 785 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of al-Mansur
File:Dirhem of Al-Hadi, AH 170.jpg	al-Hadi	4 August 785 – 15 September 786 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of al-Mahdi
File:Ar-Rashid AV dinar 171AH Harun amir yevlem.jpg	Harun al-Rashid	15 September 786 – 24 March 809 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg	al-Amin	24 March 809 – 27 September 813 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Harun al-Rashid
File:Coin of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun.jpg	al-Ma'mun	27 September 813 – 7 August 833 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg	al-Mu'tasim	7 August 833 – 5 January 842 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Dinar of al-Wathiq, AH 227-232.jpg	al-Wathiq	5 January 842 – 10 August 847 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of al-Mu'tasim
File:Al-Mutawakkil.png	al-Mutawakkil	10 August 847 – 11 December 861 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of al-Mu'tasim. Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power.

Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090)

See also: Iranian Intermezzo

The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties, the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties. This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012) and Mahendrarajah (2019) list the major dynasties of the period as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Ziyarids, Buyids, and Samanids. Daryaee also includes the Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.

Tahirids (821–873)

See also: Tahirid dynasty

File:Tahirid dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Tahirids at their greatest extent

The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not de jure independent; Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad. The Tahirids were Arabized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero Rostam.

As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title amir. The Tahirids initially ruled from Merv. The capital was transferred to Nishapur under Abdallah.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:TahiribnHusaynCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Tahir I	821–822 (1 year)	Granted governorship of Khorasan by Caliph al-Ma'mun for his service in the Fourth Fitna
File:Talha ibn Tahir.jpg	Talha	822–828 (6 years)	Sons of Tahir I
Template:Centre	Abdallah	828–845 (17 years)
Template:Centre	Tahir II	845–862 (17 years)	Son of Abdallah
Template:Centre	Muhammad	862–873 (11 years)	Son of Tahir II

Saffarids (867–1002)

See also: Saffarid dynasty

File:Saffarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Saffarids at their greatest extent

The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in Sistan. Although the dynastic founder Ya'qub (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent, the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians and their power was attained solely through military might. The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and Amr I (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.

Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title amir. Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Ya'qub al-Layth's Silver Dirham.jpg	Ya'qub	867–879 (12 years)	Local ruffian who established control over Sistan, Khorasan, and beyond
File:Amr ibn al-Layth.jpg	Amr I	879–901 (22 years)	Brother of Ya'qub
Template:Centre	Tahir	901–909 (8 years)	Grandson of Amr I
Template:Centre	al-Layth	909–910 (1 year)	Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I
Template:Centre	Muhammad	910–911 (1 year)	Brother of al-Layth
Template:Centre	al-Mu'addal	911 (less than a year)	Brother of al-Layth
Template:Centre	Amr II	912–913 (1 year)	Great-grandson of Amr I
Interregnum 913–923: occupation by the Samanids.
File:AhmadIbnMuhammadSaffaridCoin.jpg	Ahmad	923–963 (40 years)	Married to a granddaughter of Amr I
File:KhalafibnAhmadCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Khalaf	963–1002 (39 years)	Son of Ahmad

Samanids (875–999)

See also: Samanid Empire

File:Samanid Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Samanids at their greatest extent

The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth. In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of Transoxiana and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler (Ismail). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids. The Samanids claimed descent from Bahram VI Chobin (589–590).

Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title amir. Mansur I (961/962–976/977) assumed the style šāhānšāh (lit. 'King of Kings') as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids. Mansur I's son, Nuh II (976/977–997), also used šāhānšāh. The Samanid capital was at Samarkand (875–892) and then at Bukhara.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
Template:Centre	Nasr I	875 – August/September 892 (17 years)	Appointed governor of Transoxiana by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875
File:Coinage of Isma'il I ibn Ahmad (AH 279-295 AD 892-907) Usrushana mint. Dated AH 280 (AD 893-4).jpg	Ismail	August/September 892 – 24 November 907 (15 years and 2–3 months)	Brother of Nasr I
File:Ruler Aḥmad Sāmānī from the genealogy (silsilanāma), Cream of Histories (Zübdet-üt Tevarih, 1598).jpg	Ahmad the Martyred Amir	November/December 907 – 24 January 914 (6 years and 2–3 months)	Son of Ismail
File:NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Nasr II the Fortunate	January 914 – March/April 943 (29 years and 2–3 months)	Son of Ahmad
File:Coin of the Samanid ruler Nuh I, minted at Nishapur in 948 or 949.jpg	Nuh I	April/May 943 – 954/955 (11–12 years)	Son of Nasr II
File:Gold coin of the Samanid ruler Abd al-Malik I, minted at Nishapur in 955 or 956.jpg	Abd al-Malik I	954/955–961/962 (8 years)	Son of Nuh I
File:Mansur I.jpg	Mansur I the Righteous Amir	961/962–976/977 (15 years)	Son of Nuh I
File:NuhIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Nuh II	976/977 – 22 July 997 (10–11 years)	Son of Mansur I
File:Ghaznavid coin citing the Samanid ruler Mansur II as overlord.jpg	Mansur II	July/August 997 – 1 February 999 (1 year and 6–7 months)	Sons of Nuh II
Template:Centre	Abd al-Malik II	February 999 – 999 (less than a year)

Later pretenders (999–1005)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
Template:Centre	Ismail II Muntasir (lit. 'the Victorious')	999–1005 (6 years)	Son of Nuh II. Fought against the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which conquered Bukhara, for several years in an effort to restore the Samanids.

Ziyarids (927–1090/1091)

See also: Ziyarid dynasty

File:Ziyarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Ziyarids at their greatest extent

The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935. Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Muslim relatives.

Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title šāhānšāh (lit. 'King of Kings') since later Buyid writers attribute the title to him. Later Ziyarid rulers used the title amir. The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including Ray, Amol, and Gorgan.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:MardavijCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Mardavij	927/928–934/935 (7 years)	Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran
Template:Centre	Vushmgir	934/935–966/967 (32 years)	Brother of Mardavij
File:Bisutun of Ziyarid.jpg	Bisutun	966/967–977/978 (11 years)	Sons of Vushmgir
File:Coin of Qabus, minted in Jurjan (Gorgan).jpg	Qabus	977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998) (35 years)
File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Bahram Gur enthroned (cropped).jpg	Manuchihr	1012/1013–1029/1030 (17 years)	Son of Qabus
Template:Centre	Anushirvan	1029/1030–1049/1050 (20 years)	Son of Manuchihr
Template:Centre	Keikavus	1049/1050–?	Cousin of Anushirvan
Template:Centre	Gilanshah	?–1090/1091	Son of Keikavus

Buyids (934–1062)

See also: Buyid dynasty

File:Buyid Dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Buyids at their greatest extent

The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under Mardavij (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm. The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself. The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V (420–438), almost certainly a forgery.

Individual Buyid rulers were styled as amir. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title amīr al-omarāʾ (lit. 'great emir'). The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under Rukn al-Dawla and his son 'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title šāhānšāh (lit. 'King of Kings'). This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.

This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012). For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Imad al-Dawla coin.jpg	Imad al-Dawla (Ali)	933/934–949/950 (16 years, Fars)	Son of a Daylamite chief. Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state.
File:Mu'izz al-Dawla coin.jpg	Mu'izz al-Dawla (Ahmad)	935/936–949/950 (14 years, Kerman then Iraq)	Brothers (and coregents) of Imad al-Dawla
File:Rukn al-Dawla (cropped).jpg	Rukn al-Dawla (Hasan)	946/947 – 16 September 976 (29–30 years, Ray)
File:Adud al-Dawla.jpg	'Adud al-Dawla (Panāh Khusraw)	949/950 – 26 March 983 (33–34 years)	Son of Rukn al-Dawla
File:Sharaf al-Dawla.jpg	Sharaf al-Dawla (Shirdil)	March/April 983 – September/October 989 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of 'Adud al-Dawla
File:Samsam al-Dawla.jpg	Samsam al-Dawla (Abu Kalijar Marzuban)	989–998 (9 years)
File:Baha' al-DawlaBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Baha al-Dawla (Abu Nasr Firuz)	998–1012 (14 years)
File:Sultan al-Dawla coin.jpg	Sultan al-Dawla (Abu Shuja)	1012–1024 (12 years)	Son of Baha al-Dawla
File:AbuKalijarBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg	Abu Kalijar Marzuban	1024–1048 (24 years)	Son of Sultan al-Dawla
Template:Centre	Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun	1048–1062 (14 years)	Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban

Ghaznavids (977–1040)

See also: Ghaznavids

File:Ghaznavids (greatest extent).svg

The Ghaznavids at their greatest extent

The Ghaznavids were of Turkic slave origin. In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander Sabuktigin seized power in Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm. Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (c. 633–651).

Sabuktigin ruled with the title al-ḥājeb al-ajall (lit. 'most noble commander'). From 999 onwards, the Ghaznavids ruled with the title sulṭān. Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Coin of the Ghaznavid amir Sabuktigin, citing the Samanid amir Nuh II as his overlord. Date unknown, minted at Ghazna.jpg	Sabuktigin	977/978–997/998 (20 years)	Seized power in Ghazni
Template:Centre	Ismail	997/998–998 (less than a year)	Sons of Sabuktigin
File:Mahmud of Ghazni bilingual dirham.jpg	Mahmud	998 – 30 April 1030 (32 years)
File:MohammadGhaznavidCoin.jpg	Muhammad	1030 (briefly)	Sons of Mahmud
File:Mas'udIGhaznavidCoin.jpg	Masʽud	1030 – 23 May 1040 (10 years)

The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the Seljuks after the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040). For later Ghaznavid rulers, see Ghaznavids § List of rulers.

Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508)

Seljuk Empire (1038–1194)

See also: Seljuk Empire, Seljuk dynasty, and List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire

File:Seljuk Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Seljuk Empire under Malik-Shah I

The Seljuk Empire was established by the Turkoman chieftain Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s. In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East, ending the Iranian Intermezzo. Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the Shahnameh.

From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title šāhānšāh (lit. 'King of Kings') in its Persian form, perhaps adopting it from the Buyids. Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title sulṭān and royal styles such as the Arabic malik and Persian šāh were bestowed on vassals. Šāhānšāh continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "šāhānšāh king of Islam". Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to Ray and a few years later it was moved again to Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingly unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including Baghdad, Hamadan, and Merv.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Tugrul bey.jpg	Tughril I	June/July 1038 – 4 September 1063 (25 years and 2–3 months)	Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran
File:Alp Arslan on throne Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru (cropped).png	Alp Arslan	4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Nephew of Tughril I
File:Malik-Shah I (portrait).jpg	Malik-Shah I	15 December 1072 – 14 October 1092 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Alp Arslan
File:Gold dinar of the Seljuk sultan Mahmud I, minted at Isfahan in 1093 or 1094.jpg	Mahmud I	14 October 1092 – 1093 (c. 1 year)	Sons of Malik-Shah I
File:BarkiyaruqPainting (cropped).jpg	Berkyaruq	October/November 1092 – 22 December 1104 (12 years and 1–2 months)
Template:Centre	Malik-Shah II	22 December 1104 – February/March 1105 (2–3 months)	Son of Berkyaruq
File:Muhammad I Tapar (cropped).png	Muhammad I Tapar	February/March 1105 – 5 August 1118 (13 years and 5–6 months)	Son of Malik-Shah I
File:Coin struck under Mughith al-Din Mahmud II, citing governor Inanch Yabghu.jpg	Mahmud II	5 August 1118 – 11 September 1131 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Muhammad I Tapar. Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq.
File:Ahmad Sanjar (cropped).jpg	Ahmad Sanjar	1118 – 8 May 1157 (39 years)	Son of Malik-Shah I. Previously Seljuk ruler in Khorasan.
Template:Centre	Dawud	December 1132/January 1133 (briefly)	Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq
Template:Centre	Tughril II	December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134 (1 year and 10 months)	Sons of Muhammad I Tapar; sultans in Iraq
Template:Centre	Mas'ud	October/November 1134 – 10 October 1152 (18 years)
File:Folio from Hafiz Abru's Majma'al-Tawarikh depicting the Great Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah III (r. 1152-1153) Malik Shah III portrait.jpg	Malik-Shah III	October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153 (2–3 months)	Sons of Mahmud II; sultans in Iraq
Template:Centre	Muhammad II	December 1152/January 1153 – December 1159/January 1160 (7 years)
Template:Centre	Suleiman-Shah	22 March – September/October 1160 (6–7 months)	Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq
Template:Centre	Arslan-Shah	September/October 1160 – January/February 1176 (15 years and 4 months)	Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq
File:Tughril III.jpg	Tughril III	January/February 1176 – 1194 (18 years)	Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq

Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221)

See also: Khwarazmian Empire, Anushtegin dynasty, and Khwarazmshah

File:Khwarazmian dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Khwarazmian Empire under Muhammad II

The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent. One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans. In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.

The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm. Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
	Muhammad I	1096/1097 – 1127/1128 (31 years)	Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm
File:Coin of the Khwarazmshah Atsiz, citing his suzerain Ahmad Sanjar.jpg	Atsiz	1127/1128 – 30 July 1156 (28–29 years)	Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal.
File:Il-Arslan (portrait).jpg	Il-Arslan	22 August 1156 – March 1172 (15 years and 7 months)	Son of Atsiz
Template:Centre	Sultan Shah	1172 – 11 December 1172 (less than a year)	Son of Il-Arslan. Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193.
File:Takash, Sultan of Khwarazm, Congratulated by Rashid al-Din-i Vatvat, Yale University Art Gallery, accession number 1983-94-10 (Takash portrait) Contrast.jpg	Tekish	11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Il-Arslan. Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194.
File:Muhammad II portrait in a 1430 manuscript of the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.jpg	Muhammad II	3 August 1200 – 1220/1221 (20–21 years)	Son of Tekish

Later pretenders (1220/1221–1231)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:Khwarizm Shahs. Jalal al-Din Mangubarni. AH 617-628 AD 1220-1231. AR Double Dirhem (20mm, 5.90 g, 1h). Qal 'a Nay mint.jpg	Mangburni	1220/1221 – August 1231 (10–11 years)	Son of Muhammad II. Fled to India for three years (1221–1224) after the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire and was then involved in various wars in western Iran.

Mongol Empire (1220–1259)

See also: Mongol Empire, Borjigin, and List of Mongol rulers

File:Mongol Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Mongol Empire's nominal size under Kublai Khan (1279)

The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the Mongol clans. The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe. In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220 and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed. Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258.

The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title khagan (lit. 'Great Khan' or 'emperor'). In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at Karakorum in Mongolia.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg	Genghis Khan	1220 – 25 August 1227 (7 years)	Founder of the Mongol Empire. Conquered the region around Bukhara in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran.
File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg	Ögedei Khan	13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Genghis
File:Guyuk khan from Persian miniature.jpg	Güyük Khan	24 August 1246 – April 1248 (1 year and 8 months)	Son of Ögedei
File:Audience de Möngke.jpeg	Möngke Khan	2 May 1252 – 11 August 1259 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Grandson of Genghis

Ilkhanate (1256–1388)

See also: Ilkhanate, Borjigin, and Division of the Mongol Empire

File:Ilkhanate (greatest extent).svg

The Ilkhanate under Ghazan Khan

After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented. In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to Hulegu Khan, who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan. Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a fatwa issued by the Shia scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli. Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule. Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.

The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ilkhan (lit. 'subordinate khan') to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia. From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title pādishāh-i Īrān (lit. 'emperor of Iran'), sometimes extended to pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām (lit. 'emperor of Iran and Islam'). The version pādishāh-i Islām (lit. 'emperor of Islam') is also recorded. The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with Maragheh (1256–1265), Tabriz (1265–1306), and Soltaniyeh (1306–1335). After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, Luqman, ruled from Astarabad under Timurid suzerainty.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Hulagu Khan.jpg	Hulegu Khan	1256 – 8 February 1265 (9 years)	Grandson of Genghis Khan. Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan.
File:Abaqa Khan.jpg	Abaqa Khan	8 February 1265 – 1 April 1282 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Hulegu
File:Tegüder portrait.jpg	Ahmad Tekuder	1 April 1282 – 10 August 1284 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:ArghunEnthroned (cropped).png	Arghun Khan	11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Abaqa
File:سکه گیخاتو.jpg	Gaykhatu	10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:Gold Mithqal of Baydu, Madinat Tabriz, 694 H (1295).jpg	Baydu	26 March – summer? 1295 (a few months)	Grandson of Hulegu
File:GhazanConversionToIslam (cropped).JPG	Ghazan Khan	Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304 (9 years)	Sons of Arghun
File:Majma' al-Tavarikh 001 (cropped) (cropped).jpg	Öljaitü	11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:In the Court of Abu Saʿid, folio from a manuscript of Nigaristan, Iran, probably Shiraz, dated 1573-74 (Abu Saʿid detail).jpg	Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan	16 December 1316 – 30 November 1335 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Öljaitü
File:Ilkhan Musa Khan Dirham.jpg	Musa Khan	1335/1336–1336 (less than a year)	Grandson of Baydu
File:سکه آرپاخان.jpg	Arpa Khan	1335–1336 (1 year)	Descendant of Tolui, the father of Hulegu
File:Ilkhanids, Muhammad Khan (1337-1338) Dinar, Al-Jazira mint, Dated AH 737 (1336-1337).jpg	Muhammad Khan	1336–1338 (2 years)	Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu
File:Gold Dinar of Taghaytimur, Kashan, 739 H, 1338-1339.jpg	Togha Temür	1337–1353 (6 years)	Descendant of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan
File:Silver dirham of Jahan Temür.jpg	Jahan Temür	1338/1339–1340/1341 (2 years)	Grandson of Gaykhatu
Template:Centre	Sati Beg	1338/1339–1339/1340 (1 year)	Daughter of Öljaitü. Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history.
Template:Centre	Suleiman Khan	1339/1340 – 1343/1344 (4 years)	Great-great-grandson of Hulegu
File:Silver Dirham of Anushirwan, Tiflis, 1344-1353.jpg	Anushirwan Khan	1344–1356 (12 years)	Unknown lineage
Template:Centre	Ghazan II	1356–1357 (1 year)	Son of Togha Temür
Template:Centre	Luqman	1356–1388 (32 years)	Son of Togha Temür. Puppet ruler under various warlords, including Amir Vali and later Timur.

Timurid Empire (1370–1458)

See also: Timurid Empire and Timurid dynasty

File:Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg

The Timurid Empire under Timur

The Timurid Empire was established by Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the Chagatai Khanate. In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.

During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title pādishāh-i Islām (lit. 'emperor of Islam'). Timur also used the style guregen (lit. 'son-in-law') to stress his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan. Pādishāh continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of sulṭān. Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Timur reconstruction03.png	Timur	9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s.
Template:Centre	Pir Muhammad	February 1405 – 1407 (2 years)	Grandson of Timur and his designated heir. Ruler in Fars.
File:Khalil Sultan enthroned. Timurid genealogy 1405-1409 (Topkapi Sarayi Müzesi, H2152) f.32a.jpg	Khalil Sultan	February 1405 – 1409/1410 (4–5 years)	Grandson of Timur. Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia.
File:Contemporary portrait of Shah Rukh, painted in his lifetime in 1435-36, by commission of his son Ibrahim Sultan.jpg	Shah Rukh	February 1405 – 1446/1447 (41–42 years)	Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in Khorasan; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards.
File:Ulugh Beg, Timurid painting 1425-50.jpg	Ulugh Beg	1446/1447 – October/November 1449 (2–3 years)	Son of Shah Rukh
Template:Centre	Abdal-Latif Mirza	October/November 1449 – May 1450 (6–7 months)	Son of Ulugh Beg
File:Frontispiece ruler, Shiraz 1437.jpg	Abdullah Mirza	May 1450 – 1451/1452 (1–2 years)	Grandson of Shah Rukh
File:Jam’i Jam (The Cup of Jamshid) 22.jpg	Abu Sa'id Mirza	1451/1452–1458 (6–7 years)	Great-grandson of Timur

The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the Qara Qoyunlu in 1452–1458. For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir).

Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469)

See also: Qara Qoyunlu and List of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu

File:Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg

The Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah

The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s. Under the leader Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman in 1458.

The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as pādishāh-i Īrān (lit. 'emperor of Iran') and kesra-yi Īrān (lit. 'Caesar of Iran'). Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.

This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Qara Qoyunlu. Jahan Shah. AH 837-872 (AD 1434-1467) Wastan mint.jpg	Jahan Shah	1452–1467 (15 years)	Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458
File:Hasan Ali bin Cahan shah.jpg	Hasan Ali	1467–1469 (2 years)	Son of Jahan Shah

Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508)

See also: Aq Qoyunlu and List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu

File:Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg

The Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan

Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkoman confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group. In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.

Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as pādishāh-i Īrān (lit. 'emperor of Iran') and kesra-yi Īrān (lit. 'Caesar of Iran'), among other titles. Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital. The capital was transferred to Tabriz under Uzun Hasan.

This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Uzun Hasan on horse, 1460s–1470s, Aq Qoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasa hunting (detail).jpg	Uzun Hasan	1465/1469–1478 (9–13 years)	Conquered Iran in the 1460s
File:Sultan Khalil of the Aq Qoyunlu 1478 (cropped).jpg	Sultan-Khalil	1478 (less than a year)	Sons of Uzun Hasan
File:Soltan Yaʿqub Aq Qoyunlu and his weeping courtiers. Source- The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS Ouseley Add. 24, fol. 177r (cropped).jpg	Yaqub	1478–1490 (12 years)
File:Gold coin of the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Baysunghur, Tabriz mint.jpg	Baysunghur	1490–1492 (2 years)	Son of Yaqub
File:Coin of Sultan Rustam (Aq Qoyunlu).png	Rustam Beg	1492–1496 (4 years)	Grandsons of Uzun Hasan
File:Coin of Sultan Ahmad (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg	Ahmad Beg	1496–1497 (1 year)
File:Coin of Sultan Alvand (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg	Alvand Beg	1497–1502 (5 years, in Diyar Bakr and then Azerbaijan)
Template:Centre	Muhammad Beg	1499–1500 (1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia)
File:Turkmène retouché.jpg	Sultan Murad	1500–1508 (8 years, in Fars and Kerman)	Son of Yaqub
Template:Centre	Zayn al-Abidin	1504–1508 (4 years, in Diyar Bakr)	Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan

Minor kingdoms and dynasties

• Various local Iranian dynasties in Tabaristan:
  • Qarinvand dynasty (550s–11th century)
  • Dabuyid dynasty (642–760)
  • Bavand dynasty (651–1349)
  • Baduspanid dynasty (665–1598)
  • Afrasiyab dynasty (1349–1504)
• Ghurid dynasty (786–1215), which controlled parts of eastern Iran
• Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo:
  • Sajid dynasty (889–929) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
  • Rawadid dynasty (900–1070/1116) in Azerbaijan
  • The Simjurids (913–1002) in Khorasan and Gorgan as viceroys of Samanid Empire and Buyid dynasty
  • Sallarid dynasty (919–1062) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
  • The Ilyasids (932–968) in Kerman
  • The Shaddadids (951–1199) in Armenia
  • The Hasanwayhids (959–1015) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
  • The Marwanids (983/990–1084) in Mesopotamia
  • The Annazids (990/991–late 12th century) in western Iran/eastern Iraq
  • The Kakuyids (1008–1141) in central Iran
  • Amir Gilaki dynasty (11th and 12th centuries) in Tabas and Tun; known rulers were Amir Abul Hasan Gilaki Ibn Muhammad, who ruled c. 1052 (444 AH) and Amir Ismail Gilaki, who ruled until 1104 (497 AH)
  • Nizari Ismaili state (1090–1256) in Alamut and Rudbar
    • Muhtashams of Quhistan (1091–1256) in Quhistan region, as viceroys for Nizari Ismaili state
  • Muayyid dynasty (1161–1187) in Khorasan (three rulers: Mu'ayyid al-Din Ai-Aba, Toghan-Shah, and Sanjar-Shah)
• Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate:
  • Kart dynasty (1244–1381) in much of Khorasan
  • The Muzaffarids (1314–1393) in central and southern Iran
  • The Injuids (1335–1357) in southern Iran
  • Jalayirid Sultanate (1335–1432) in Iraq and western Iran
  • Jauni-Qurbani dynasty (1335–1381) in Tus region, Khorasan in north-eastern Iran
  • The Sarbadars (1337–1381) in parts of Khorasan
  • The Chobanids (1338–1357) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan

Modern Iran (1501–1979)

Safavid Iran (1501–1722)

See also: Safavid Iran and Safavid dynasty

File:Safavid dynasty (greatest extent).svg

Safavid Iran under Abbas the Great

Of native Iranian (possibly Kurdish) origins, the Safavid dynasty originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic Safavid order. In 1499, the Safavid sheikh Ismail defeated the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of Alvand Beg. In 1502, Ismail crowned himself šâhanšâh at Tabriz. The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian nation state. Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. Shia Islam was for the first time established as the state religion.

The Safavids ruled as šâhanšâh-e Irân (lit. 'King of Kings of Iran'). The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to Qazvin in 1548, and then to Isfahan in the 1590s.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Shah Ismail I Safavid, Behzad.jpg	Ismail I	11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Conquered and reunified Iran
File:Shah Tahmasp I (1514-1576) in a landscape (painted circa 1575).jpg	Tahmasp I	22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Ismail I
File:Berlin Manuscripta orientalia Folianten 2022 fol 256r.jpg	Ismail II	22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Sons of Tahmasp I
File:Illustration of the Safavid shah Mohammad Khodabandeh.jpg	Mohammad Khodabanda	11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587 (Template:Age in years, months and days)
File:12 Abu'l Hasan Jahangir Welcoming Shah 'Abbas, ca. 1618, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC (portrait).jpg	Abbas I the Great	2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mohammad Khodabanda
File:Shah Safi I of Persia on Horseback Carrying a Mace. North India, 18-19th century.jpg	Safi I	21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Grandson of Abbas I
File:Abbas II of Persia, Palace of Chehel Sotoun. Painted circa 1647.jpg	Abbas II	12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Safi I
File:Suleiman I of Persia, by Ali Culi Jabbadar (1670).jpg	Safi II (1667–1668) Suleiman I (1668–1694)	3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Abbas II
File:Sultan Husayn of Persia.jpg	Soltan Hoseyn I	28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Suleiman I

Intermediate period (1722–1796)

Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan. The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah (1736–1747) and Karim Khan (1751–1779), respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors.

Hotaks (1722–1729)

See also: Hotak dynasty

File:Hotak dynasty (greatest extent).svg

The Hotak dynasty under Mahmud Hotak

In 1701, unrest among the Ghilji Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, George XI of Kartli, but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under Mirwais Hotak, who established independence in Kandahar. He was later succeeded by Mahmud Hotak, who in 1720, began raiding the Kerman area and in March 1722, a larger hastily assembled and more powerful Safavid army was defeated at the Battle of Gulnabad. Following a six-month siege of Isfahan, Soltan Hoseyn I formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new shah of Iran. The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg	Mahmud Hotak	22 October 1722 – April/May 1725 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I
File:Ashraf Shah Hotaki 1725-1729.jpg	Ashraf Hotak	April/May 1725 – 1729 (4 years)	Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud

Safavid dynasts (1722–1773)

When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son Tahmasp II at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself shah. Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran. Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general Nader Khan. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old Abbas III. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new shah of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty. Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Nadir at the court of Shah Tahmasp II.jpg	Tahmasp II	31 October 1722 – August 1732 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Soltan Hoseyn I
File:Abbas III.jpg	Abbas III	7 September 1732 – 8 March 1736 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Tahmasp II
No recognized Safavid ruler 1736–1750
File:Suleiman II of Iran.jpg	Suleiman II	13 January – March 1750 (2 months)	Grandson of Suleiman I. Proclaimed shah at Mashhad after the deposition of Shahrokh Shah (Afsharid) and ruled until Shahrokh was restored.
File:Coin minted in the name of Ismail III in Mazandaran.jpg	Ismail III	Summer 1750 – 1773 (23 years)	Grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I. Proclaimed shah at Isfahan by Karim Khan Zand in 1750, as a puppet ruler.
Template:Centre	Soltan Hoseyn II	1752/1753	Son of an Azeri man and an Armenian woman, but claimed to be a son of Tahmasp II. Proclaimed shah at Baghdad by Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari, as a puppet ruler.

Afsharids (1736–1796)

See also: Afsharid Iran and Afsharid dynasty

File:Afsharid dynasty (greatest extent).svg

Afsharid Iran under Nader Shah

The Afsharid dynasty was established by Nader Shah, a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III. Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival Zand dynasty as well as the Afghan Durrani Empire. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of Khorasan. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions. The Afsharids ruled with the style of šâhanšâh and their capital was at Mashhad.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Contemporary portrait of Nader Shah. Artist unknown, created in ca. 1740 in Iran (cropped).jpg	Nader	8 March 1736 – 20 June 1747 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	General; deposed Abbas III
File:Portrait of Adel Shah.jpg	Adel	6 July 1747 – 24 September 1748 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Nephew of Nader; proclaimed ruler after Nader's assassination
File:Nader Shah Afshar and his court, India or Iran, 18th century (cropped 2) (cropped).jpg	Shahrokh	1 October 1748 – 13 January 1750 (1st reign) (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Grandson of Nader and matrilineal grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I (Safavid). Proclaimed ruler by tribal leaders at Mashhad in opposition to Adel.
File:Coin of Ebrahim Shah Afshar, struck at the Tiflis mint (obverse).jpg	Ebrahim	8 December 1748 – December 1749 (~1 year)	Brother of Adel; proclaimed ruler (in opposition to Shahrokh) after deposing and blinding Adel
Shahrokh was removed from the throne in January–March 1750 in favor of the Safavid ruler Suleiman II
File:Nader Shah Afshar and his court, India or Iran, 18th century (cropped 2) (cropped).jpg	Shahrokh	March 1750 – 1796 (2nd reign) (46 years)	Restored to the throne

Zands (1751–1794)

See also: Zand Iran and Zand dynasty

File:Zand dynasty.svg

Zand Iran under Lotf Ali Khan

In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the Zand dynasty grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s. Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be shahs. Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet Ismail III (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people. Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of khân, as well as the style of wakil (regent) or wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ (lit. 'regent of the people'). His successors ruled simply as khân, though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers. The Zand dynasty ruled from Shiraz.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Karim Khan-e Zand.png	Karim	1751 – 1 March 1779 (28 years)	Seized power over much of Iran
Template:Centre	Mohammad-Ali	2 March – 19 June 1779 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Karim. Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath.
Template:Centre	Abol-Fath	2 March – 22 August 1779 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Karim. Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali.
File:Image of sadiq khan zand.png	Sadeq	22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Brother of Karim
File:Ali Murad Khan Zand.png	Ali-Morad	14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family
File:Ja`far Khan.png	Jafar	17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Sadeq
File:Sayed Murad Zand.png	Sayed Morad	23 January – 7 May 1789 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Cousin of Ali-Morad. Mutinied against Jafar (leading to Jafar's death) and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali.
File:Lotf Ali Khan Zand.jpg	Lotf Ali	7 May 1789 – November 1794 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Jafar

Qajar Iran (1789–1925)

See also: Qajar Iran and Qajar dynasty

File:Qajar dynasty (greatest extent).svg

Qajar Iran under Agha Mohammad Shah

The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids. The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands. Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was officially crowned in 1796. Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.

Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title khân and later šâh, never assuming the more grandiose šâhanšâh. Agha Mohammad's successor, Fath-Ali Shah, assumed both šâhanšâh and the Mongol khagan, titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers. Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers. The Qajar dynasty ruled from Tehran, inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:A portrait of Agha Muhammad Khan, Persia, Qajar, dated 1795.jpg	Agha Mohammad	1789 – 17 June 1797 (8 years)	Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796
File:Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar (reg. 1798-1834), Persia, second half of the 19th Century.jpg	Fath-Ali	17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Nephew of Agha Mohammad
File:Mohammad Shah.jpg	Mohammad	23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Grandson of Fath-Ali
File:Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, close up, with slight smile by Nadar.png	Naser al-Din	5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mohammad
File:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar portrait.jpg	Mozaffar ad-Din	1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Naser al-Din
File:Mohammad Ali Shah.jpg	Mohammad Ali	3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mozaffar ad-Din
File:AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg	Ahmad	16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mohammad Ali

Later pretenders (1925–1943)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg	Ahmad	15 December 1925 – 27 February 1930 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Ruler of Iran 1909–1925. Died in exile in France.
File:Mohammad Hassan Mirza portrait 2.jpg	Mohammad Hassan	27 February 1930 – 7 January 1943 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mohammad Ali and designated successor of Ahmad (his brother).
File:Hamid Mirza.jpg	Hamid	No formal claim put forth	Son of Mohammad Hassan. Viewed himself as the rightful heir after his father's death but did not officially claim the throne. Was monitored by the US Department of State in 1943 over whether he would declare himself Shah of Iran.
File:Fereydoun Mirza.jpg	Fereydoun		Son of Ahmad. While he lived in Switzerland in 1943, the US Department of State intercepted and suppressed messages from relatives urging Fereydoun to declare himself the rightful Shah of Iran.
There continues to be recognized heads of the Qajar family in exile to the present day, though the family has renounced all claims to rule through lineage and does not endorse political activity under its coat of arms.

Pahlavi Iran (1925–1979)

See also: Pahlavi Iran and Pahlavi dynasty

File:Iran (orthographic projection).svg

Map of Pahlavi Iran

During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911). In 1923, the brigade commander Reza Khan quickly rose through the ranks to become prime minister. In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch. As his family name, Reza took Pahlavi, after the Pahlavi language of the pre-Islamic Sasanian Empire.

The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as šâhanšâh-e Irân (lit. 'King of Kings of Iran'). Tehran remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession
File:Reza shah uniform.jpg	Reza	15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Former prime minister
File:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (cropped).png	Mohammad Reza	16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Reza

Later pretenders (1979–present)

Portrait	Name	Tenure	Succession
File:Shahanshah Aryamehr 2.jpg	Mohammad Reza	11 February 1979 – 27 July 1980 (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Ruler of Iran 1941–1979. Died in exile in Egypt.
File:Crown Prince of IRAN Reza PAHLAVI (3x4 cropped).jpg	Reza ("Reza II")	31 October 1980 – present (Template:Age in years, months and days)	Son of Mohammad Reza. Proclaimed himself "Reza II", rightful ruler of Iran, in October 1980. Has voiced support for democracy but has not renounced his claim to the throne.

See also

• History of Iran – a general overview of Iranian history
• Monarchism in Iran – advocacy for restoring the Iranian monarchy
• List of heads of state of Iran – a comprehensive list of Iranian heads of state since 1501
• List of royal consorts of Iran – the consorts of the rulers of Iran
• Coronation of the Iranian monarch – the coronations of the rulers of Iran
  • List of Iranian coronations – a comprehensive list of coronations of the rulers of Iran since 1501
• Pishdadian dynasty and Kayanian dynasty – two legendary Iranian dynasties from the Avesta and the Shahnameh
• List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran – poorly attested regional rulers before the Achaemenid Empire

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