Hezekiah: Difference between revisions

Hezekiah's changes to the official Yahweh worship,{{nvib|date=July 2025}} especially his centralization of worship in Jerusalem and his efforts to rid Judah of the worship of other cult gods and goddesses,{{nvib|date=July 2025}} are a major focus of biblical accounts.<ref name=":1" /> He is considered a very righteous king in both the [[Second Book of Kings]] and the [[Second Book of Chronicles]].<ref>{{bibleverse|2 Kings|18:3}}; {{bibleverse|2 Chronicles|29:2}}</ref>{{efn|In the [[Septuagint]], [[Vulgate]], and other ancient translations, 2 Kings is numbered 4 Kings.}} His efforts to consolidate worship around the God of Israel and his destruction of other cult objects, such as the [[Nehushtan|bronze serpent]] made by [[Moses]], are seen as his way of consolidating power and temple resources during a turbulent time. <ref name=":1" /> His reign was marked by prophetic activity, with prophets such as [[Isaiah]] and [[Micah (prophet)|Micah]] delivering their messages during his time.<ref name="HarrisGloss" /><ref name=":1" />

While Hezekiah's reign is well-documented, the [[Historicity of the Bible|historical accuracy]] of the events is debated by scholars.<ref name=":0" /> He is also one of the more prominent kings of Judah mentioned in the Bible and is one of the kings mentioned in the [[genealogy of Jesus]] in the [[Gospel of Matthew]].<ref>[[Matthew 1:10]]</ref> He lived another fifteen years after the war and brought material prosperity to his kingdom before he died, and his son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] succeeded him.<ref name=":1" /> The Bible praises Hezekiah's reliance on God during the Assyrian siege, claiming divine intervention in Jerusalem's survival; according to [[2 Kings 18:5]], "No king of Judah, among either his predecessors or his successors, could [...] be compared to him".<ref name="je">[[Jewish Encyclopaedia]], ''[https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7668-hezekiah Hezekiah]'', accessed 15 April 2012</ref>

Based on [[Edwin R. Thiele]]'s dating, Hezekiah was born in c. 741 BC and died in c. 687 BC at age 54. Thiele and [[William F. Albright]] calculated his regnal years, arriving at figures very close to each other, c. 715/16 and 686/87 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1355182 |last=Albright |first=W. F. |issue=100 |pages=16–22 |doi=10.2307/1355182 |year=1945|jstor=1355182 |s2cid=163845613 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=reign>See [[William F. Albright]] for the former; for the latter, Edwin Thiele, ''[[The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings]]'', (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). {{ISBN|978-0825438257}}, p. 217.</ref> However, Robb Andrew Young dates his reign to 725–696 BC{{sfn|Young|2012|p=22}} and [[Gershon Galil]] to 726–697/6.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gershon Galil |title=The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah |date=1996 |isbn=9789004106116 |page=104 |publisher=BRILL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkgEaWG0_j4C&q=726}}</ref> The Bible states that the fall of [[Samaria]] happened in Hezekiah's 6th year of reign,<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:10}}</ref> implying that he would have become king in ca. 727 BC. [[Nadav Na'aman]] argues that several late 8th century BCE seal impressions from the Kaufman collection, which mention some places later destroyed during Sennacherib's invasion and thus predate this event, corroborate this date as the inscriptions in the seal impressions include dates that go up to the 26th regnal year.<ref>{{cite book |title=Gabriel: Tell this Man the Meaning of His Vision (Daniel, 8:16): Studies in Archaeology, Epigraphy, Iconography and the Biblical World in Honor of Gabriel Barkay on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday (22 June 2024) |last=Na’aman |first=Nadav |publisher=Archaeological Center Publications |year=2024 |isbn=978-965-7162-25-5 |pages=216–230 |editor-last=Meron |editor-first=Pamela |chapter=Hezekiah’s Years of Reign in Light of the Epigraphic Evidence}}</ref>

According to the Bible, Hezekiah was the son of King Ahaz and [[Abijah (queen)|Abijah]] (also called Abi),<ref name=je /> daughter of the high priest Zechariah. Hezekiah married [[Hephzibah]],<ref>''Hebrew-English Bible'' {{bibleverse|2|Kings|21:1|HE}}</ref> died from natural causes in c. 687 BC aged 54, and was succeeded by his son, [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]].<ref>''Hebrew-English Bible'' {{bibleverse|2|Kings|20:21|HE}}</ref>

 

According to the Biblical narrative, Hezekiah assumed the throne of Judah at age 25 and reigned for 29 years.<ref>''Hebrew-English Bible'' {{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:2|HE}}, {{bibleverse|2|Chronicles|29:1|HE}}</ref> Some writers{{Who|date=November 2015}} have proposed that Hezekiah served as [[Coregency|coregent]] with his father Ahaz for about 14 years. Albright dates his sole reign as 715–687 BC, and by Thiele as 716–687 BC (the last ten years being a co-regency with his son Manasseh).<ref name=reign/>

According to 2 Chronicles 30 (but not the parallel account in 2 Kings), Hezekiah sent messengers to [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]] and [[Tribe of Manasseh|Manasseh]], inviting them to Jerusalem for a Passover celebration. The messengers were scorned, but a few men of the tribes of [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]], Manasseh, and [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]] "were humble enough to come" to the city.<ref>2 Chronicles 30:11: [[Jerusalem Bible]]</ref> According to the Biblical account, the Passover was celebrated with great solemnity and such rejoicing as had not been seen in Jerusalem since the days of [[Solomon]].<ref name=je /> The celebration took place during the second month, [[Iyar]], because not enough priests had consecrated themselves in the first month.

Knowing that Jerusalem would eventually be subject to a siege, Hezekiah had been preparing for some time by fortifying the capital's walls, building towers, and constructing a tunnel to bring fresh water to the city from a spring outside its walls.<ref name=Spar/> He made at least two major preparations that would help Jerusalem to resist conquest: the construction of the [[Siloam Tunnel]] and construction of the [[Broad Wall (Jerusalem)|Broad Wall]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Frumkin |first1= Amos |last2= Shimron |first2= Aryeh |title= Tunnel engineering in the Iron Age: Geoarchaeology of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem |journal= Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=33 |issue=2 |year= 2006 |pages= 227–237 |doi= 10.1016/j.jas.2005.07.018 |bibcode= 2006JArSc..33..227F |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440305001688|url-access= subscription }}</ref><ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-team-unveils-carbon-dating-techniques-that-may-shore-up-jerusalem-chronology/ New carbon-dating techniques enable 'absolute chronology' of First Temple-era Jerusalem], Gavriel Fiske for ''The Times of Israel'', 30 April 2024.</ref>

{{main|Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem}}

During the [[Assyrian siege of Jerusalem]], the Bible claims that great losses were inflicted upon the Assyrian army, which Sennacherib's inscriptions do not mention. As [[Jack Finegan]] comments: "In view of the general note of boasting which pervades the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings, ... it is hardly to be expected that Sennacherib would record such a defeat."<ref>See ''Light From the Ancient Past'', 1959, p. 213</ref> The version of the matter that Sennacherib presents, as found inscribed on what is known as the [[Sennacherib's Annals|Sennacherib Prism]] preserved in the [[University of Chicago Oriental Institute]], in part says: "As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke ... Hezekiah himself ... did send me, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city, together with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, ..."<ref>''Ancient Near Eastern Texts'', p. 288</ref>

 

According to Assyrian records, Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 BC, twenty years after the 701 BC invasion of Judah.<ref>J. D. Douglas, ed., ''New Bible Dictionary'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965) 1160.</ref> A Neo-Babylonian letter corroborates with the Biblical account, a sentiment from Sennacherib's sons to assassinate him, an event [[Assyriology|Assyriologists]] have reconstructed as historical. The son [[Arda-Mulissu]], who is mentioned in the letter as killing anyone who would reveal his conspiracy, murdered his father in c. 681 BC,<ref>''The New Oxford Annotated Bible.'' 4th ed. New York: Oxford Press, 2010.</ref> and was most likely the Adrammelech in [[2 Kings]], though Sharezer is not known elsewhere.<ref name=ArchBible>''Archaeological Study Bible''. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Print.</ref>

Later in his life, the Bible recounts that Hezekiah fell ill. According to the [[Talmud]], this illness arose from a disagreement between him and Isaiah over who should visit whom, as well as Hezekiah's initial reluctance to marry and have children. Ultimately, Hezekiah did marry Isaiah's daughter. Some [[Talmudist]]s also considered that it might have come about as a way for Hezekiah to purge his sins or due to his arrogance in assuming his righteousness.<ref name=je />

 

Extra-biblical sources specify Hezekiah by name, along with his reign and influence. "Historiographically, his reign is noteworthy for the convergence of a variety of biblical sources and diverse extrabiblical evidence often bearing on the same events. Significant data concerning Hezekiah appear in the [[Deuteronomist]]ic History, the Chronicler, Isaiah, Assyrian annals and reliefs, Israelite epigraphy, and, increasingly, stratigraphy".<ref name=Anchor>"Hezekiah". ''The Anchor Bible Dictionary''. 1992. Print.</ref> Archaeologist [[Amihai Mazar]] calls the tensions between Assyria and Judah "one of the best-documented events of the Iron Age". Hezekiah's story is one of the best to cross-reference with the rest of the Near Eastern world's historical documents.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

[[File:Cuneiform Inscription mentioning in details the tribute sent by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to Sennacherib. The British Museum.jpg|thumb|A [[cuneiform]] inscription mentioning in detail the tribute sent by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to Sennacherib. The [[British Museum]]]]

 

Archaeological findings like the [[Hezekiah seal]] led scholars to surmise that the ancient Judahite kingdom had a highly developed administrative system.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/what-the-hezekiah-seal-proves-jerusalem-status-1.5385544|title=Hezekiah Seal Proves Ancient Jerusalem Was a Major Judahite Capital|first=Julia|last=Fridman|date=14 March 2018|access-date=14 March 2018|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> In 2018, Mazar published a report discussing the discovery of a bulla which she says may have to have belonged to Isaiah. She believes the fragment to have been part of a seal whose complete text might have read "Belonging to Isaiah the prophet."<ref name=Signature>{{cite journal|last1=Mazar|first1=Eliat|title=Is This the Prophet Isaiah's Signature?|journal=Biblical Archaeology Review|date=1 February 2018|volume=44|issue=2|pages=64–69|url=https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/44/2/7|access-date=14 March 2018|quote=This seal impression of Isaiah, therefore, is unique, and questions still remain about what it actually says. However, the close relationship between Isaiah and King Hezekiah, as described in the Bible, and the fact the bulla was found next to one bearing the name of Hezekiah seem to leave open the possibility that, despite the difficulties presented by the bulla’s damaged area, this may have been a seal impression of Isaiah the prophet, adviser to King Hezekiah.}}</ref> Several other biblical archaeologists, including George Washington University's [[Christopher Rollston]], have pointed to the bulla being incomplete and the present inscription not enough to necessarily refer to the Biblical figure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rollstonepigraphy.com/?m=201802|title=2018 February|website=www.rollstonepigraphy.com|language=en-US|access-date=27 February 2018}}</ref>

According to the work of archaeologists and philologists, the reign of Hezekiah saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state. At this time, Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian–Egyptian frontier.<ref name=Nadav>Na'aman, Nadav. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1RgRPAkLqLUC&dq=Sennacherib&pg=PA141 ''Ancient Israel and Its Neighbors''], Eisenbrauns, 2005, {{ISBN|978-1575061085}}</ref> There were increases in literacy and in the production of literary works. The massive construction of the Broad Wall was made during his reign, the city was enlarged to accommodate a large influx, and Jerusalem's population increased to an estimated 25,000, "five times the population under Solomon."<ref name=Anchor/> Mazar explains, "Jerusalem was a virtual city-state where the majority of the state's population was concentrated," compared to the rest of Judah's cities.<ref name=FinkelMazar>Finkelstein, Israel and Mazar, Amihai. ''The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel''. Leiden: Brill, 2007</ref>

Archaeologist [[Israel Finkelstein]] says, "The key phenomenon—which cannot be explained solely against the background of economic prosperity—was the sudden growth of the population of Jerusalem in particular, and of Judah in general."<ref name=FinkelMazar/> He says the cause of this growth must be a large influx of Israelites fleeing from the Assyrian destruction of the [[Northern Kingdom|northern state]]. It is "[t]he only reasonable way to explain this unprecedented demographic development."<ref name=FinkelMazar/> This, according to Finkelstein, set the stage for motivations to compile and reconcile Hebrew history into a text at that time.<ref name=FinkelMazar/> Mazar questions this explanation since, she argues, it is "no more than an educated guess."<ref name=FinkelMazar/>

As the [[Lachish relief]] attests, Sennacherib began his siege of the city of Lachish in 701 BC.<ref name=BibleEnc>"Hezekiah." ''The Family Bible Encyclopedia''. 1972. Print.</ref> The Lachish Relief graphically depicts the battle and the city's defeat, including Assyrian archers marching up a ramp and Judahites pierced through on mounted stakes. "The reliefs on these slabs" discovered in the Assyrian palace at Nineveh "originally formed a single, continuous work, measuring 8 feet ... tall by 80 feet ... long, which wrapped around the room".<ref name=ArchBible/> Visitors "would have been impressed not only by the magnitude of the artwork itself but also by the magnificent strength of the Assyrian war machine."<ref name=ArchBible/>

The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC) wrote of the invasion and acknowledges many Assyrian deaths, which he claims were the result of a plague of mice. The Jewish historian [[Josephus]] followed the writings of Herodotus.<ref name=Anchor/> These historians record Sennacherib's failure to take Jerusalem as "uncontested".<ref name=Anchor/>

While extrabiblical sources corroborate King Hezekiah's existence, the historicity of some biblical accounts of his reign is debated among scholars, particularly regarding his religious reforms and the Assyrian invasion.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2017 |edition=2nd |pages=238–244}}</ref> While Hezekiah is traditionally credited with centralizing worship in Jerusalem and removing cultic sites, some argue these reforms were influenced by his successor, King [[Josiah]],<ref>Na’aman, Nadav. ‘The Debated Historicity of Hezekiah’s Reform in the Light of Historical and Archaeological Research’, ZAW 107: 179–95. 1995.</ref> or may have been more about consolidating royal power than religious overhaul.<ref>Swanson, Kristin A. 2002 ‘A Reassessment of Hezekiah’s Reform in Light of Jar Handles and Iconographic Evidence’, CBQ 64: 460–9</ref> Other scholars argue that archaeological discoveries at [[Tel Arad]], [[Tel Be'er Sheva|Beersheba]], [[Tel Motza]], [[Lachish]] and the [[City of David (archaeological site)|City of David]] may provide evidence for the existence of Hezekiah's reforms.{{sfn|Moulis|2019|pp=179—80}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Fiske |first=Gavriel |date=14 January 2025 |title=In first, researchers find where Jerusalemites prayed before Temple became only game in town |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-first-researchers-find-where-jerusalemites-prayed-before-temple-became-only-game-in-town/ |access-date=2025-02-20 |newspaper=The Times of Israel |quote=In the Biblical account, King Hezekiah initiated changes to centralize worship on the Temple Mount, leading to ritual sites around the Kingdom of Judah being abandoned. The find at the City of David was likely one of these abandoned centers, Shukron said.}}</ref> The biblical account of the Assyrian siege led by King [[Sennacherib]] is also contested, with some scholars suggesting exaggeration or blending of multiple events.<ref name=":0" /> Disagreements over the chronology of Hezekiah’s reign and the timing of his death further complicate the understanding of his historical legacy, with [[Assyria]]n inscriptions and biblical texts remaining key sources in these discussions.<ref name=":0" />

Likewise, the ''Archaeological Study Bible'' says, "The presence of these riches' that Hezekiah shows to the Babylonians "indicates that this event took place before Hezekiah's payment of tribute to Sennacherib in 701 BC".<ref name=ArchBible/> Again, "though the king's illness and the subsequent Babylonian mission are described at the end of the accounts of his reign, they must have occurred before the war with Assyria.<ref name=BibleEnc/>

There has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of the Israelite kings' reigns. Scholars have endeavored to synchronize the chronology of events in the [[Hebrew Bible]] with those derived from other external sources. In the case of Hezekiah, scholars have noted that the apparent inconsistencies are resolved by accepting the evidence that Hezekiah, like his predecessors for four generations in the kings of Judah, had a coregency with his father, and this coregency began in 729 BC.

As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when co-regencies are ''a priori'' ruled out, 2 Kings 18:10 dates the fall of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Samaria]] (the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:10|he}}</ref> Albright has dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BC, while Thiele calculates the date as 723 BCE.<ref>Edwin R. Thiele, ''[[The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings]]'' (3rd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983), pp. 134, 217.</ref> If Albright's or Thiele's dating is correct, Hezekiah's reign would begin in 729 or 727 BC. On the other hand, 2 Kings 18:13<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:13|HE}}</ref> states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign. Dating based on Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BC, and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BC.<ref>Leslie McFall, "A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles," ''Bibliotheca Sacra'' 148 (1991) p. 33. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20030807124024/http://www.btinternet.com/~lmf12/TransGuide.pdf Link])</ref>

Since Albright and [[Richard Elliott Friedman|Friedman]], several scholars have explained these dating problems based on a coregency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715 BC. Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that coregency was a practice both in Assyria and Egypt.<ref>William J. Murnane, ''Ancient Egyptian Coregencies'' (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1977).</ref><ref>J. D. Douglas, ed., ''New Bible Dictionary'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965) p. 1160.</ref> After noting that coregencies were only used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), [[Nadav Na'aman]] writes,

<blockquote>In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne. When taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of biblical chronology in the eighth century BC."<ref>Nadav Na'aman, "Historical and Chronological Notes on the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the Eighth Century BC" ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'' 36 (1986) p. 91.</ref></blockquote>

Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the coregency between Ahaz and Hezekiah is Kenneth Kitchen in his various writings,<ref>See Kitchen's chronology in ''New Bible Dictionary'' p. 220.</ref> Leslie McFall,<ref>Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" p. 42.</ref> and Jack Finegan.<ref>Jack Finegan, ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology'' (rev. ed.; Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1998) p. 246.</ref> McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BC—that is, the Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729—is taken as the start of the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency, and 716/715 BC as the date of the death of Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his contemporaries in the late eighth century BCE are in harmony. Further, McFall found that no [[Conjecture (textual criticism)|textual emendation]]s are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Hebrew Bible for this period.<ref>Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" pp. 4–45 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20030807124024/http://www.btinternet.com/~lmf12/TransGuide.pdf Link]).</ref>