Geography of Indonesia: Difference between revisions

{{EngvarB|date=September 2015}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}

|name= Indonesia

|map= Indonesia relief location map.jpg|map size=250

|continent= [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]|region=[[Southeast Asia]]

|coordinates= {{Coord|5.000|S|120.000|E}}

|area ranking= 14th|km area=1,904,569<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ CIA World Factbook]</ref>

|percent land= 23.62

| percent water           = 76.38

|km coastline=54720

|borders= [[Malaysia]]: {{convert|2019|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[Papua New Guinea]]: {{convert|824|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<br />[[East Timor]]: {{convert|253|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}|highest point=[[Puncak Jaya]] (Carstensz Pyramid)<br />{{convert|4884|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

|lowest point= Sea level<br />{{convert|0|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

|longest river= [[Kapuas River]]<br />{{convert|1143|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}

|largest lake= [[Lake Toba]]<br />{{convert|1130|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}

|climate= Mostly [[Tropical rainforest climate|tropical rainforest]] (''Af''), Southeastern part is predominantly [[Tropical savanna climate|tropical savanna]] (''Aw''), while some parts of [[Java]] and [[Sulawesi]] are [[Tropical monsoon climate|tropical monsoon]] (''Am'')

|terrain= Plain in most part of [[Kalimantan]], southern [[New Guinea]], eastern [[Sumatra]] and northern Java; Rugged, volcanic topography in Sulawesi, western Sumatra, southern Java, [[Lesser Sunda Islands]] and [[Maluku Islands]]; Rugged mountains in central, northwestern New Guinea and northern Kalimantan

|natural resources= Arable land, coal, petroleum, natural gas, timber, copper, lead, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron, mercury, nickel, silver

|natural hazards= Tsunamis; volcanoes; earthquake activity except in central part; tropical cyclones along the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] coasts; mud slides in Java; flooding

|environmental issues= Severe [[deforestation]], air pollution resulting in acid rain, river pollution

|exclusive economic zone= {{convert|6159032|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}

[[Indonesia]] is an [[Island country|archipelagic country]] located in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]], lying between the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It is located in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes connecting [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. Indonesia is the largest [[archipelago]] in the world.<ref name="world-atlas"/> Indonesia's various regional cultures have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with its physical environment.

Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending about {{convert|5120|km|0}} from east to west and {{convert|1760|km|0}} from north to south.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Frederick|first1=William H. |last2=Worden |first2=Robert L. |title=Indonesia: A Country Study |series=Area Handbook Series |volume=550 |date=1993 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC&pg=PA98 |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |language=en|isbn=9780844407906 }}</ref> It is considered to be the largest archipelagic country in the world. According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by [[Badan Informasi Geospasial|National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping]] (Bakosurtanal), Indonesia has 17,500 islands.<ref name="NG-Indonesia-Island">{{cite news| title = Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia| date = 8 February 2012 | work = National Geographic Indonesia |url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13281675/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | language=id}}</ref> While earlier survey conducted in 2002 by [[National Institute of Aeronautics and Space]] (LAPAN) stated Indonesia has 18,307 islands. According to the CIA World Factbook, there are 17,508 islands.<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ CIA World Factbook]</ref> The discrepancy between the surveys is likely caused by the earlier different survey method including [[tide|tidal]] islands, sandy [[cay]]s and rocky [[reef]]s that surface during low tide and submerge during high tide. There are 8,844 named islands according to estimates made by the [[Politics of Indonesia|government of Indonesia]], with 922 of those being permanent. It comprises five main islands: [[Sumatra]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Borneo]] (known as ''[[Kalimantan]]'' in Indonesia), [[Sulawesi]], and [[New Guinea]]; two major island groups ([[Nusa Tenggara]] and the [[Maluku Islands]]) and sixty smaller island groups. Four of the islands are shared with other countries: Borneo is shared with [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]; [[Sebatik]], located off the northeastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia; [[Timor]] is shared with [[East Timor]]; and [[New Guinea]] is shared with [[Papua New Guinea]].

Indonesia is a transcontinental country, where its territory consisted of islands geologically considered as part of either [[Asia]] or [[Australia (continent)|Australia]]. During the [[Pleistocene]], the [[Greater Sunda Islands]] were connected to the Asian mainland while New Guinea was connected to Australia.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWnxpAxp6TMC&q=Sundaland+Pleistocene&pg=PA70|title=Encyclopedia of Coastal Science|last=Schwartz|first=Maurice|date=2006-11-08|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402038808|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-k1CwAAQBAJ&q=Sundaland+Pleistocene&pg=PA237|title=Geology and Archaeology: Submerged Landscapes of the Continental Shelf|last1=Harff|first1=J.|last2=Bailey|first2=G.|last3=Lüth|first3=F.|date=2016-01-05|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=9781862396913|language=en}}</ref> [[Karimata Strait]], [[Java Sea]] and [[Arafura Sea]] were formed as the [[sea level rise|sea level rose]] at the end of the Pleistocene.

The main islands of Sumatra, Java, [[Madura]], and Kalimantan lie on the [[Sunda plate]] and geographers have conventionally grouped them, (along with Sulawesi), as the [[Greater Sunda Islands]]. At Indonesia's eastern extremity is western New Guinea, which lies on the [[Australian plate]]. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average {{convert|300|m|0}} or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]), and the [[Maluku Islands]] (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group with deep, surrounding seas down to {{convert|4500|m|0}} in depth. The term "Outer Islands" is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.

Sulawesi is an island lies on three separate plates, the [[Banda Sea plate]], [[Molucca Sea plate]], and Sunda plate. Seismic and volcanic activities are high on its northeastern part, evidenced by the formation of volcanoes in [[North Sulawesi]] and island arcs such as the [[Sangihe Islands|Sangihe]] and [[Talaud Islands]], southwest of the [[Philippine Trench]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eilFDwAAQBAJ&q=Mindanao+North+Sulawesi+Arc&pg=PT190|title=Mountains: The origins of the Earth's mountain systems|last=Park|first=Graham|date=2018-01-03|publisher=Dunedin Academic Press|isbn=9781780465791|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S68JAQAAIAAJ&q=North+Sulawesi+tectonics|title=The Geology and Tectonics of Eastern Indonesia: Proceedings of the Ccop-Ioc Seatar Working Group Meeting, Bandung, Indonesia, 9–14 July 1979|last=Wiryosujono|first=S.|date=1981|publisher=Pergamon Press|isbn=9780080287324|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyQUAQAAIAAJ&q=Sangihe+Talaud+Philippine+Trench|title=Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia|last1=Hall|first1=Robert|last2=Blundell|first2=Derek John|date=1996|publisher=Geological Society|isbn=9781897799529|language=en}}</ref>

Nusa Tenggara or Lesser Sunda Islands consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward southern Maluku. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the [[Alpide belt]] chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic [[Banda Islands]], which along with the [[Kai Islands]] and the [[Tanimbar Islands]] and other small islands in the [[Banda Sea]] are typical examples of the [[Wallacea]] mixture of Asian and Australasian plant and animal life.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=aa0102|name=Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests}}. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.</ref> The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.

Most of the larger islands are mountainous, with peaks ranging between {{convert|2000|and|3800|m|0}} meters above sea level in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GwRWAAAAYAAJ&q=Indonesia+landform+mountain+range|title=Focus on Indonesia|date=1976|publisher=Information Division, Embassy of Indonesia|language=en}}</ref> The country's tallest mountains are located in the [[Jayawijaya Mountains]] and the [[Sudirman Range]] in Papua. The highest peak, [[Puncak Jaya]] ({{convert|4884|m|0}}), is located in the Sudirman Mountains. A string of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra to Nusa Tenggara,<ref>{{cite book|title=Indonesia|last=Witton|first=Patrick|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2003|isbn=1-74059-154-2|location=Melbourne|page=38}}</ref> and then loops around through to the [[Banda Islands]] of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, approximately 150 are active.<ref name="gvp">{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=06&rpage=list|title=Volcanoes of Indonesia|work=[[Global Volcanism Program]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|access-date=25 March 2007}}</ref> Two of the most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia; in 1815 [[Mount Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]] erupted killing 92,000 and in 1883, [[Krakatau]], erupted killing 36,000. While volcanic ashes resulted from eruption has positive effects for the fertility of the surrounding soils, it also makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.

Borneo is the third largest island in the world and the native vegetation was mostly [[Borneo lowland rain forests]] although much of this has been cleared with wildlife retreating to the [[Borneo montane rain forests]] inland. The islands of [[North Maluku]] are the original Spice Islands, a distinct [[rainforest]] [[ecoregion]].<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=aa0106|name=Terrestrial Ecoregions - Halmahera rain forests (AA0106)}}. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.</ref> A number of islands off the coast of New Guinea have their own distinctive biogeographic features, including the limestone islands of [[Schouten Islands|Biak]], in the entrance to the large [[Cenderawasih Bay]] at the northwest end of the island.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=aa0105|name=Terrestrial Ecoregions - Central Range montane rain forests (AA0105)}}. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.</ref><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=aa0103|name=Terrestrial Ecoregions - Biak-Numfoor rain forests (AA0103)}}. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.</ref>

Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as [[Sumba]] and [[Timor]], are drier, however, these are exceptions. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging {{convert|28|°C|1}}, the inland and mountain areas averaging {{convert|26|°C|1}}, and the higher mountain regions, {{convert|23|°C|1}}. The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%.

Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.<ref>{{cite news |last=Higgins |first=Andrew |title=A climate threat, rising from the soil | newspaper=The Washington Post | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/18/AR2009111804162.html |access-date=11 December 2009 | date=19 November 2009}}</ref> [[Habitat destruction]] threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of [[mammals]] identified by the [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN) as [[threatened species|threatened]], and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.<ref>{{cite web |last=Massicot |first=Paul |title=Animal Info – Indonesia |publisher=Animal Info – Information on Endangered Mammals |url=http://www.animalinfo.org/country/indones.htm |access-date=14 August 2007}}</ref>

In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over 30% today, and this increases pressure on the urban environment. Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly in Java, and the increasing affluence of the growing middle class drives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles and associated emissions. Garbage and waste water services are being placed under increasing pressure. Reliance on septic systems or effluent disposal in open canals and [[List of rivers of Indonesia|river systems]] remains the norm, and is a major polluter of water resources. Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water and must boil water before use.