Animation: Difference between revisions

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{{Redirect|Animate|other uses|Animate (disambiguation)|and|Animation (disambiguation)}}

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'''Animation''' is a [[filmmaking]] technique whereby [[image|~~still images~~]] are manipulated to create [[Motion picture|moving images]]. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on [[cel|transparent celluloid sheet]]s to be [[photograph]]ed and exhibited on [[film]]. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the [[Entertainment#Industry|entertainment industry]]. Many animations are either traditional animations or [[computer animation]]s made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Stop motion animation]], in particular [[claymation]], ~~has continued to exist~~ alongside these other forms.

'''Animation''' is a [[filmmaking]] technique whereby [[image|pictures]] are created or manipulated and then played in sequence to create the illusion of [[Motion picture|moving images]]. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on [[cel|transparent celluloid sheet]]s to be [[photograph]]ed and exhibited on [[film]]. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the [[Entertainment#Industry|entertainment industry]]. Many animations are either traditional animations or [[computer animation]]s made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Stop motion animation]], in particular [[claymation]], is also prominent alongside these other forms, albeit to a lesser degree.

Animation is contrasted with [[live action]], although the two do not exist in isolation. Many ~~moviemakers~~ have produced [[Live-action animation|films that are a hybrid of the two]]. As CGI increasingly [[Photorealism|approximates photographic imagery]], filmmakers can easily [[Compositing|composite]] 3D ~~animations~~ into their film rather than using [[practical effect]]s ~~for showy [[visual effects]] (VFX)~~.

Animation is contrasted with [[live action]], although the two do not exist in isolation. Many filmmakers have produced [[Live-action animation|films that are a hybrid of the two]]. As CGI increasingly [[Photorealism|approximates photographic imagery]], filmmakers can relatively easily [[Compositing|composite]] 3D animated [[visual effects]] (VFX) into their film, rather than using [[practical effect]]s.

== General overview ==

==General overview==

[[Computer animation]] can be very detailed [[Computer animation#Animation methods|3D animation]], while [[2D computer animation]] (which may have the look of [[traditional animation]]) can be used for stylistic reasons, low [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]], or faster [[real-time rendering]]s. Other common animation methods apply a [[stop motion]] technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]]s, or [[Claymation|clay figures]].

[[~~Computer animation~~]] ~~can be very detailed~~ [[~~Computer animation#Animation methods~~|~~3D animation~~]], ~~while 2D computer animation (which may have~~ the ~~look~~ of ~~traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons~~, ~~low bandwidth, or faster~~ [[~~real-time rendering~~]]s. ~~Other common animation methods apply a~~ [[~~stop motion~~]] ~~technique to two-~~ and ~~three-dimensional objects like~~ [[~~cutout animation|paper cutouts~~]], [[~~puppet~~]]s, or [[~~Claymation|clay figures~~]].

{{anchor|Cartoon}}An '''animated cartoon''', or simply a '''cartoon''', is an animated film, usually a [[short film]], that features an exaggerated [[style (visual arts)| style]]. This style is often inspired by [[comic strips]], [[gag cartoons]], and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include [[anthropomorphic]] animals, [[superheroes]], or the adventures of human [[protagonists]]. The action often revolves around exaggerated [[cartoon violence|physical humor]], particularly in [[predator]] and prey dynamics (e.g. [[cats]] and [[mice]], [[coyotes]] and [[birds]]), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and [[explosions]] occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.

{{anchor|Cartoon}}An '''animated cartoon''', or simply a '''cartoon''', is an animated film, usually short, that features an exaggerated visual style. This style is often inspired by comic strips, gag cartoons, and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include anthropomorphic animals, superheroes, or the adventures of human protagonists. The action often revolves around exaggerated [[cartoon violence|physical humor]], particularly in predator/prey dynamics (e.g. cats and mices, coyotes and birds), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.

During the late 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to '''''toon''''', referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity first in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'', which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by various animated cartoon characters. In 1990, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of cartoon characters. Then, in 1993, ''[[Animaniacs]]'' followed, featuring the three [[Rubber hose animation|rubber-hose]]-styled Warner siblings, Yakko Warner, Wakko Warner, and Dot Warner, who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the [[Warner Bros. Water Tower|Warner Bros. water tower]] in the 1990s.

During the 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to '''''toon''''', referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity first in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'', which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by various animated cartoon characters. In 1990, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of cartoon characters. Then, in 1993, ''[[Animaniacs]]'' followed, featuring the [[Rubber hose animation|rubber-hose]]-styled Warner siblings, Yakko Warner, Wakko Warner, and Dot Warner, who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the [[Warner Bros. Water Tower|Warner Bros. water tower]] in the 1990s.

The illusion of animation—as in motion pictures in general—has traditionally been attributed to the [[persistence of vision]] and later to the [[phi phenomenon]] and [[beta movement]], but the exact neurological causes are still uncertain. The illusion of motion caused by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other, with unnoticeable interruptions, is a [[stroboscopic effect]]. While [[animator]]s traditionally used to draw each part of the movements and changes of figures on transparent cels that could be moved over a separate background, computer animation is usually based on programming paths between [[key frame]]s to maneuver digitally created figures throughout a digitally created environment.

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==Etymology==

The word ''animation'' comes to the Latin word ''animātiō'', meaning 'bestowing of life'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=~~http~~://www.~~dictionary~~.com/~~browse/animation~~ | title=The definition of animation on dictionary.com}}</ref> The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.

The word ''animation'' comes from the Latin word ''animātiō'', meaning 'bestowing of life'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.hills-batam.com/spa.html | title=The definition of animation on dictionary.com}}</ref> The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.

==History==

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Long before modern animation began, audiences around the world were captivated by the magic of moving characters. For centuries, master artists and craftsmen have brought puppets, [[automaton]]s, [[shadow puppets]], and fantastical [[lantern]]s to life, inspiring the imagination through physically manipulated wonders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Modern Animation Originated from Live and Stage Performances - studio9 |url=https://studio9.ie/journal/how-modern-animation-originated-from-live-and-stage-performances |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=studio9.ie}}</ref>

In ~~1833~~, the [[~~stroboscope|stroboscopic~~]] ~~disc (better known as the~~ [[~~phenakistiscope~~]]~~) introduced~~ the principle of modern animation, ~~which~~ would ~~also~~ be applied ~~in the~~ [[zoetrope]] (~~introduced in 1866~~), the [[flip book]] (1868), the [[praxinoscope]] (1877) and [[film]].

In 1832, the [[phenakistoscope]], invented by Belgian [[Joseph Plateau]], would introduce the principle of modern animation, the principle of persistence of vision. The principle would be later applied by [[William George Horner|William George Horner's]] [[zoetrope]] (1876), the [[flip book]] (1868), the [[praxinoscope]](1877), and [[film]]. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Access Sites {{!}} Britannica Education |url=https://education.eb.com/en-US?target=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.eb.com%2Flevels%2Fcollegiate%2Farticle%2Fanimation%2F7644 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=education.eb.com}}</ref>

The device was operated by spinning the cardboard disc and viewing the reflection of the image in a mirror through a series of moving slits, which created the illusion that the image was moving.<ref>{{cite web |title=Phenakistoscopes (1833) | url=https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/phenakistoscopes-1833/ | publisher=The Public Domain Review | access-date=2026-03-20}}</ref>Similarly, the [[zoetrope]] was operated by spinning a rotating drum lined up with a strip of pictures inside.<ref name=":0" />

In 1876, animation would be adapted for the theatrical audience, as entrepreneurs such as Emile Reynaud began investing in the art form. It wasn't until the invention of [[35 mm movie film|sprocket-drive film stock]], would animation begin to gain traction in cinema.<ref name=":0" />

===Silent era===

When [[cinematography]] eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) by [[J. Stuart Blackton]] popularized [[stop motion]] and reportedly inspired [[Émile Cohl]] to create ''[[Fantasmagorie (film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by [[Ladislas Starevich]] with his puppet animations since 1910 and by [[Winsor McCay]] with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) and ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=22 July 2023 |title=Winsor McCay: American Animator|encyclopedia = Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winsor-McCay ~~|access-date=~~ |language=en}}</ref>

When [[cinematography]] eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) by [[J. Stuart Blackton]] popularized [[stop motion]] and reportedly inspired [[Émile Cohl]] to create ''[[Fantasmagorie (film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by [[Ladislas Starevich]] with his puppet animations since 1910 and by [[Winsor McCay]] with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) and ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=22 July 2023 |title=Winsor McCay: American Animator|encyclopedia = Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winsor-McCay |language=en}}</ref>

~~During the 1910s, the production of animated "[[cartoons]]" became an industry in the US.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p~~=28}} Successful producer [[John Randolph Bray]] and animator [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=~~24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p~~=34}} [[Felix the Cat]], who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Michael|last1=Cart|title=The Cat With the Killer Personality|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the~~-killer-personality.html|language=en-US|url-status=live|date=31 March 1991|access-date~~=~~30 December 2022|archivedate~~=~~11 April 2014|archiveurl~~=~~https://web.archive.org/web/20140411005148/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html}}</ref>~~

=== Animation production across the Globe ===

[[Image:FelixTheCat-1919-FelineFollies silent.ogv|thumb|''Feline Follies'' with [[Felix the Cat]], silent, 1919]]

===American golden age===

==== American golden age ====

In 1928, ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', featuring [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Minnie Mouse]], popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put [[Walt Disney]]'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Disney Animation's]] actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.<ref name="Furniss_Page_107">{{cite book |last1=Furniss |first1=Maureen |title=Art in Motion, Revised Edition |chapter=Classical-era Disney Studio |author1-link=Maureen Furniss |date=2007 |pages=107–132 |publisher=John Libbey Publishing |location=New Barnet |isbn=9780861966639 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005zgm.9 |jstor=j.ctt2005zgm.9 |edition=2014 print-on-demand ed., based on 2007 revised |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2005zgm.9|oclc=1224213919}}</ref>

The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the [[golden age of American animation]] that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrier |first=Michael |title=Hollywood Cartoons American Animation in Its Golden Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=~~9780199839223~~ |location=}}</ref> Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including [[Walt Disney Productions]]' [[Goofy]] (1932) and [[Donald Duck]] (1934), [[Fleischer Studios]]/[[Paramount Cartoon Studios]]' [[Out of the Inkwell]]' [[Koko the Clown]] (1918), [[Bimbo (Fleischer Studios)|Bimbo]] and [[Betty Boop]] (1930), [[Popeye#Theatrical animated cartoons|Popeye]] (1933) and [[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] (1945), [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios]]' [[Looney Tunes]]' [[Porky Pig]] (1935), [[Daffy Duck]] (1937), [[Elmer Fudd]] (1937–1940), [[Bugs Bunny]] (1938–1940), [[Tweety]] (1942), [[Sylvester the Cat]] (1945), [[Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner]] (1949), [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio|MGM cartoon studio]]'s [[Tom and Jerry]] (1940) and [[Droopy]], [[Walter Lantz Productions|Universal Cartoon Studios]]' [[Woody Woodpecker]] (1940), [[Terrytoons]]/[[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Mighty Mouse]] (1942), and [[United Artists]]' [[Pink Panther (character)|Pink Panther]] (1963).

During the 1910s, the production of animated "[[cartoons]]" became an industry in the US.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=28}} Successful producer [[John Randolph Bray]] and animator [[Earl Hurd]] patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=34}} [[Felix the Cat]], who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Michael|last1=Cart|title=The Cat With the Killer Personality|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html|language=en-US|url-status=live|date=31 March 1991|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=11 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411005148/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html}}</ref> The characteristics of [[Felix the Cat|Felix the cat's]] physical appearance would come to be the standard model for cartoon character in the following years.<ref name=":0" />

In 1928, ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', featuring [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Minnie Mouse]], popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put [[Walt Disney]]'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Disney Animation's]] actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Furniss |first1=Maureen |title=Art in Motion, Revised Edition |chapter=Classical-era Disney Studio |author1-link=Maureen Furniss |date=2007 |pages=107–132 |publisher=John Libbey Publishing |location=New Barnet |isbn=978-0-86196-663-9 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005zgm.9 |jstor=j.ctt2005zgm.9 |edition=2014 print-on-demand ed., based on 2007 revised |oclc=1224213919}}</ref>

The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the [[golden age of American animation]] that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrier |first=Michael |title=Hollywood Cartoons American Animation in Its Golden Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-983922-3 |location=}}</ref> Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including [[Walt Disney Productions]]' [[Goofy]] (1932) and [[Donald Duck]] (1934), [[Fleischer Studios]]/[[Paramount Cartoon Studios]]' [[Out of the Inkwell]]' [[Koko the Clown]] (1918), [[Bimbo (Fleischer Studios)|Bimbo]] and [[Betty Boop]] (1930), [[Popeye#Theatrical animated cartoons|Popeye]] (1933) and [[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] (1945), [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios]]' [[Looney Tunes]]' [[Porky Pig]] (1935), [[Daffy Duck]] (1937), [[Elmer Fudd]] (1937–1940), [[Bugs Bunny]] (1938–1940), [[Tweety]] (1942), [[Sylvester the Cat]] (1945), [[Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner]] (1949), [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio|MGM cartoon studio]]'s [[Tom and Jerry]] (1940) and [[Droopy]], [[Walter Lantz Productions|Universal Cartoon Studios]]' [[Woody Woodpecker]] (1940), [[Terrytoons]]/[[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Mighty Mouse]] (1942), and [[United Artists]]' [[Pink Panther (character)|Pink Panther]] (1963).

==== European History of Animation Production ====

[[File:Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (screenshot).jpg|thumb|''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' (1926) by [[Lotte Reiniger]]]]

Polish art student [[Ladislas Starevich|Ladislas Starevitch]] would employ stop-motion animation creating films such as ''[[The Cameraman's Revenge]] (1912)'' and ''[[The Tale of the Fox]] (1930).''<ref name=":0" />

[[Pinscreen animation]] would be developed by [[Alexandre Alexeieff|Alexandre Alexeïeff]] in France being used to create films such as ''A Night on Bald Mountain (1933).''<ref name=":0" />

After working on it for three years, [[Lotte Reiniger]] released the German feature-length [[silhouette animation]] ''[[Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed]]'' in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Maria |date=15 December 2020 |title=The Lasting Legacy of Lotte Reiniger |url=https://www.acmi.net.au/stories-and-ideas/lasting-legacy-lotte-reiniger/ |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=[[Australian Centre for the Moving Image]]}}</ref>

===== Animation Production in China =====

In 1941, ''[[Princess Iron Fan (1941 film)|Tieshan gonzhu]](Princess Iron Fan)'' would become the first animated feature film in Asia, given the title of "the Chinese version of [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney's]] ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]".'' Following in 1944, the animated film ''Fengzheng (The Kite)'' would be published combining animation characteristics of [[Walt Disney Animation Studios short films|Disney shorts]] of that era called "plasmaticness" and local Chinese folklore.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Project MUSE -- Verification required! |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/verify?url=%2Farticle%2F919194&r=3624813 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=muse.jhu.edu |doi=10.1353/cj.2024.a919194}}</ref>

This era of East Asian animation would last until the mid 1940's, however a plethora of notable animation films would be produced such as ''Chutian de Beijing'' (Peking in Spring)'', Dongya de liming'' (The dawn in East Asia)'', Kepa de Huliela'' (The terrible cholera)'', Emo de Siyu'' (The demons' whispers), ''Tenkū ryokō'' (1936), ''Kotori to usage'' (Birds and Rabbits), ''Tsuki no Miya no ōjo-sama'' (Princess of the moon palace, 1934), ''Mābō no Tōkyō orinpikku taikai'' (Ma-bo's Tokyo Olympic Games, 1936), ''Sora no Momtarō'' (Momotarō's sky adventure, 1931), ''Saru kani gassen (Monkey and the crabs, 1927), Da duhui (The metropolis, 1941), and Kuala de pengyou(Happy friends, 1942).''<ref name=":1" />

===Features before CGI===

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In 1917, Italian-Argentine director [[Quirino Cristiani]] made the first feature-length film ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (now [[lost film|lost]]), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's ''[[Sin dejar rastros]]'' in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=animafest.hr |url=https://www.animafest.hr/en/2009/film/read_all/quirino_cristiani_the_mystery_of_the_first_animated_movies |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=www.animafest.hr}}</ref>

After working on it for three years, [[Lotte Reiniger]] released the German feature-length [[silhouette animation]] ''[[Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed]]'' in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Maria |date=15 December 2020 |title=The Lasting Legacy of Lotte Reiniger |url=https://www.acmi.net.au/stories-and-ideas/lasting-legacy-lotte-reiniger/ |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=[[Australian Centre for the Moving Image]]}}</ref>

In 1937, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Studios]] premiered their first animated feature ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'', still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features {{as of|lc=y| May 2020}}.<ref>Total prior to 50th anniversary reissue: {{cite news |last=Culhane |first=John |title='Snow White' At 50: Undimmed Magic |date=12 July 1987 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |quote=By now, it has grossed about $330 million worldwide – so it remains one of the most popular films ever made. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200704/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |archive-date=4 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>1987 and 1993 grosses from North America: {{cite web |title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – Releases |work=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |quote=1987 release – $46,594,212; 1993 release – $41,634,471 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529094807/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |archive-date=29 May 2014 }}</ref> The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''[[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)|Gulliver's Travels]]'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'' (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature ''[[Mr. Bug Goes to Town]]'' (1941–1942) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until [[Ralph Bakshi]] became the first to release more than a handful of features. [[Sullivan-Bluth Studios]] began to regularly produce animated features starting with ''[[An American Tail]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Don Bluth Contents |url=http://www.cataroo.com/DBconts.html |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.cataroo.com}}</ref>

In 1937, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Studios]] premiered their first animated feature ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'', still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features {{as of|lc=y| May 2020}}.<ref ~~name="snowwhite1"~~>Total prior to 50th anniversary reissue: {{cite news |last=Culhane |first=John |title='Snow White' At 50: Undimmed Magic |date=12 July 1987 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html ~~|access-date=~~|quote=By now, it has grossed about $330 million worldwide – so it remains one of the most popular films ever made. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200704/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |archive-date=4 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref ~~name="snowwhite2"~~>1987 and 1993 grosses from North America: {{cite web |title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – Releases |work=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm ~~|access-date=~~ |quote=1987 release – $46,594,212; 1993 release – $41,634,471 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529094807/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |archive-date=29 May 2014 ~~|url-status=dead~~ }}</ref> The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''[[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)|Gulliver's Travels]]'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'' (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature ''[[Mr. Bug Goes to Town]]'' (1941–1942) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until [[Ralph Bakshi]] became the first to release more than a handful of features. [[Sullivan-Bluth Studios]] began to regularly produce animated features starting with ''[[An American Tail]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Don Bluth Contents |url=http://www.cataroo.com/DBconts.html |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.cataroo.com}}</ref>

Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including [[stop motion]] and [[cutout animation]] techniques. Soviet [[Soyuzmultfilm]] animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films.

===Television===

Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching [[Saturday-morning cartoon]]s. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as ''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960–1966) (the first [[prime time]] animated series), ''[[Scooby-Doo]]'' (since 1969) and Belgian co-production ''[[The Smurfs (1981 TV series)|The Smurfs]]'' (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker [[limited animation]] methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of [[The Simpsons shorts|The Simpsons]] (1987), which later developed into [[The Simpsons|its own show]] (in 1989) and ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.{{~~citation needed~~|date=~~December 2022~~}}

Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most [[developed countries]]. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching [[Saturday-morning cartoon]]s. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as ''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960–1966) (the first [[prime time]] animated series), ''[[Scooby-Doo]]'' (since 1969) and Belgian co-production ''[[The Smurfs (1981 TV series)|The Smurfs]]'' (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker [[limited animation]] methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of [[The Simpsons shorts|The Simpsons]] (1987), which later developed into [[The Simpsons|its own show]] (in 1989) and ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adidharma |first1=Kadek Satria |title=The Power of Story in an Animation Industry |journal=Humaniora |date=30 April 2011 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=764–770 |doi=10.21512/humaniora.v2i1.3093 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring [[stop motion]] and [[puppetry]] over cel animation. Japanese [[anime]] TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as ''[[Barbapapa]]'' (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), ''[[Vicky the Viking|Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキングビッケ (Vicky the Viking)]]'' (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), ''[[Maya the Honey Bee]]'' (Japan/Germany 1975) and ''[[The Jungle Book (1989 TV series)|The Jungle Book]]'' (Italy/Japan 1989).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

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===Switch from cels to computers===

[[Computer animation]] was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller ''[[Futureworld]]'' (1976).<ref>{{cite web | last=Ferrier | first=Aimee | title=What was the first movie to feature a CGI lead character? | website=Far Out Magazine | date=2022-10-07 | url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/first-movie-cgi-lead-character/ | access-date=2025-05-03}}</ref>

''[[The Rescuers Down Under]]'' was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera.<ref ~~name="first digital guinness"~~>{{cite web |title=First fully digital feature film |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film/ |work=Guinness World Records |publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref> It was produced using the [[Computer Animation Production System]] (CAPS), developed by [[Pixar]] in collaboration with [[The Walt Disney Company]] in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation.<ref ~~name="Ness 2015 p197"~~>{{cite web | last=Ness | first=Mari | title=The Arrival of Computer Animation: The Rescuers Down Under | website=Reactor Magazine | date=17 December 2015 | url=https://reactormag.com/the-arrival-of-computer-animation-the-rescuers-down-under/ | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref ~~name="Guinness World Records 2024 a420"~~>{{cite web | title=First fully digital feature film | website=Guinness World Records | date=27 February 2024 | url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref ~~name="Allison 2022 u732"~~>{{cite web | last=Allison | first=Austin | title=Disney and Pixar's Top 5 Most Innovative Animation Technologies, Explained | website=Collider | date=23 January 2022 | url=https://collider.com/disney-pixar-animation-technologies-explained/#caps | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref>

''[[The Rescuers Down Under]]'' was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera.<ref>{{cite web |title=First fully digital feature film |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film/ |work=Guinness World Records |publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref> It was produced using the [[Computer Animation Production System]] (CAPS), developed by [[Pixar]] in collaboration with [[The Walt Disney Company]] in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ness | first=Mari | title=The Arrival of Computer Animation: The Rescuers Down Under | website=Reactor Magazine | date=17 December 2015 | url=https://reactormag.com/the-arrival-of-computer-animation-the-rescuers-down-under/ | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=First fully digital feature film | website=Guinness World Records | date=27 February 2024 | url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Allison | first=Austin | title=Disney and Pixar's Top 5 Most Innovative Animation Technologies, Explained | website=Collider | date=23 January 2022 | url=https://collider.com/disney-pixar-animation-technologies-explained/#caps | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref>

The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, became the dominant technique following the success of Pixar's ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Zorthian |first=Julia |date=19 November 2015 |title=How ''Toy Story'' Changed Movie History |url=https://time.com/4118006/20-years-toy-story-pixar/ |access-date=29 January 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref>

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Animation has traditionally been very closely related to [[comic book]]s. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many [[manga]] are adapted into [[anime]]), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for [[video game]]s (an interactive form of animation that became its own medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cine-Files » New Screen Order: How Video Games are Changing Cinema Interiority |url=https://www.thecine-files.com/new-screen-order/ |access-date=11 May 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, [[The Walt Disney Company]] is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their [[Mickey Mouse]] mascot has been [[Mickey Mouse#Merchandising|depicted on an enormous amount of products]], as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced some [[Mickey Mouse#Pejorative use of Mickey's name|pejorative use of Mickey's name]], but [[Disney Consumer Products|licensed Disney products]] sell well, and the so-called [[Disneyana]] has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated [[Disneyana Fan Club]] (since 1984).<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426153040/https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html |archive-date=26 April 2023 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Disneyana Fan Club {{!}} Preserving the Legacy of Walt Disney |language=en}}</ref>

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==Awards==

As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. Many are part of general or regional film award programs, like the China's [[Golden Rooster Awards|Golden Rooster Award]] for [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation|Best Animation]] (since 1981). Awards programs dedicated to animation, with many categories, include [[ASIFA-Hollywood]]'s [[Annie Awards]], the [[Emile Awards]] in Europe and the [[Anima Mundi (event)|Anima Mundi]] awards in Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=51st Annual Annie Awards |url=https://annieawards.org/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |website=annieawards.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://animationawards.eu/presentation/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |website=European Animation Awards {{!}} Emile Awards |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2014 |title=Anima Mundi |url=http://www.animamundi.com.br/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118120723/http://www.animamundi.com.br/ |archive-date=18 November 2014 }}</ref>

===Academy Awards===

{{Main|List of animated feature films nominated for Academy Awards}}

Apart from [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]] (since 1932) and [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]] (since 2002), animated movies have been nominated and rewarded in other categories, relatively often for [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]] and [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Score]].

''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' was the first animated film nominated for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]], in 1991. ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009) and ''[[Toy Story 3]]'' (2010) also received Best Picture nominations, after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.<ref>{{cite news|title=Academy Expands Best-Picture Pool to 10 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/movies/25oscars.html | last=Cieply |first=Michael |date=24 June 2009 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

==Production==

== Production ==

[[File:Joy & Heron - Animated CGI Spot by Passion Pictures.webm|thumb|''Joy & Heron'']]

The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of [[filmmaking]], with certain unique aspects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=117}} Traits common to both live-action and animated [[feature film]]s are labor intensity and high production costs.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=274}}

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Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=94}} Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=37}}

This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look ~~like~~ with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=146}} On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}

This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=146}} On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}

Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=99–100}}{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}} The traditional approach worked for several decades because prior to the 1960s, no one except Disney was attempting to regularly produce feature-length animated films.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}} All other animation studios, with occasional exceptions, were producing [[short film]]s only a few minutes in length.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}} For short films, it was enough for the storyboard artists to work up a few [[visual gag]]s and then string them together to form a crude plot.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}}

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Ironically, the Disney studio was relatively slow to adopt this method. The first Disney feature animated film to have a complete screenplay written and approved before storyboarding was ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]'' (1961).{{sfn|Peri|Docter|2024|p=195}} However, ''101 Dalmatians'' was "a short-lived experiment"; the next Disney film to follow this method was ''[[The Great Mouse Detective]]'' (1986).{{sfn|Peri|Docter|2024|p=195}}

Finally, another key difference is that actors traditionally record vocal tracks for animated films in separate individual sessions; they often meet one another for the first time only at the film's [[premiere]].<ref name="~~Hayes_Page_176~~">{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Derek |last2=Webster |first2=Chris |title=Acting and Performance for Animation |date=2013 |publisher=Focal Press |location=New York and London |isbn=~~9781136135989~~ |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176}}</ref> Actors usually schedule sessions in the [[recording studio]] around their live-action work.<ref name="~~Hayes_Page_176~~" /> In live-action filmmaking, it is very common for actors to drop out of projects due to scheduling conflicts, while in animation, recording actors separately makes it possible to "get a lot more stars into one movie than" would be possible if those actors needed to be physically present on the same set at the same time.<ref name="~~Hayes_Page_176~~" />

Finally, another key difference is that actors traditionally record vocal tracks for animated films in separate individual sessions; they often meet one another for the first time only at the film's [[premiere]].<ref name="Hayes-2013">{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Derek |last2=Webster |first2=Chris |title=Acting and Performance for Animation |date=2013 |publisher=Focal Press |location=New York and London |isbn=978-1-136-13598-9 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176}}</ref> Actors usually schedule sessions in the [[recording studio]] around their live-action work.<ref name="Hayes-2013" /> In live-action filmmaking, it is very common for actors to drop out of projects due to scheduling conflicts, while in animation, recording actors separately makes it possible to "get a lot more stars into one movie than" would be possible if those actors needed to be physically present on the same set at the same time.<ref name="Hayes-2013" />

==Techniques==

===Traditional===

[[File:Animhorse.gif|thumb|An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by [[rotoscoping]] from [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s 19th-century photos]]

'''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) is the process that was used for most animated films of the 20th century.{{sfn|White|2006|p=31}} The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=153}} To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]]s,{{sfn|Thomas|Johnston|1981|pp=277–79}} which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=203}} The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film.{{sfn|White|2006|pp=195–201}}

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====Full====

'''Full animation''' is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=71}} having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–95}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=25–26}}

'''Full animation''' is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=71}} having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–95}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[List of Disney theatrical animated feature films|Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=25–26}}

====Limited====

'''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=142}} Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]],{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=54–55}} limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and certain [[anime]] produced in Japan.{{sfn|Ledoux|1997|p=24, 29}} Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera,{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=82}} [[Filmation]],{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=241}} and other TV animation studios{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=xxi}}) and later the [[Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]s).

====Rotoscoping====

'''Rotoscoping''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame.{{sfn|Crafton|1993|p=158}} The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings,{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=163–64}} as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983), ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981), and ''[[The Flowers of Evil (manga)|Aku no Hana]]'' (Japan, 2013).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

====Live-action blending====

'''[[~~List of films with live~~ action ~~and~~ animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–63}} One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live-action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of ''[[Alice Comedies]]'' (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Volere volare]]'' (Italy 1991), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

'''[[Live-action animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–63}} One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live-action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of ''[[Alice Comedies]]'' (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Volere volare]]'' (Italy 1991), ''[[Cool World]]'' (US, 1992), ''[[The Pagemaster]]'' (US, 1994) ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

===Stop motion===

[[Stop motion]] is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}} There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the materials used to create the animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}} Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}}

; [[Stop motion]] : Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=171}} The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=155–56}} Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present).

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; [[Clay animation]] or [[Plasticine]] animation : (Often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika, LLC|trademarked]] name). It uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}}{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=150–151}} The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=151–54}} Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''The [[Gumby]] Show'' (US, 1957–1967), ''[[Mio Mao]]'' (Italy, 1974–2005), ''[[Morph (TV series)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace & Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=250}}

:; [[Strata-cut animation]] : Most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=52–54}}

; [[Cutout animation]] : A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), [[Matt Stone]] and [[Trey Parker]] the first cutout animation [[South Park (franchise)|South Park]] (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).

; [[Cutout animation]] : (Sometimes called paper animation) A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), [[Matt Stone]] and [[Trey Parker]] the first cutout animation [[South Park (franchise)|South Park]] (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).

:; [[Silhouette animation]] : A variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=170–171}} Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Princes et Princesses]]'' (France, 2000).

; [[Model animation]] : Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.{{sfn|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}} Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="~~Harryhausen_Dalton222–226~~"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="~~Harryhausen_Dalton18~~"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933).

:;[[Paper craft|Paper craft animation]] : a stop motion animation using [[Construction paper]] or [[Card stock]] by doing cutting, folding, gluing and assembling.

; [[Model animation]] : Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.{{sfn|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}} Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="Harryhausen-2"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="Harryhausen"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933).

:;[[Go motion]] : A variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion.{{sfn|Smith|1986|p=90}} The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effect]] scenes for the film ''[[Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980).{{sfn|Watercutter|2012}} Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from the 1981 film ''[[Dragonslayer (1981 film)|Dragonslayer]]''.{{sfn|Smith|1986|pages=91–95}}

; [[Object animation]] : The use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=51–57}}

:; [[Graphic animation]] : Uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=128}} At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.

:; [[Brickfilm]] : A subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–63}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and [[animation software]].<ref ~~name="AMPS"~~>{{cite web |title=Brick Films |url=http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924224545/http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-date=2010-09-24 |access-date=2013-08-25 |publisher=Ampsvideo.com}}</ref>

:; [[Brickfilm]] : A subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–63}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and [[animation software]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Brick Films |url=http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924224545/http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-date=2010-09-24 |access-date=2013-08-25 |publisher=Ampsvideo.com}}</ref>

; [[Pixilation]] : Involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts, and the [[Academy Award]]-winning ''[[Neighbours (1952 film)|Neighbours]]'' by [[Norman McLaren]].

===Computer===

'''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=296}}{{sfn|Serenko|2007}} 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=405}} 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.{{sfn|Serenko|2007|p=482}}

====2D====

[[File:Catenary animation.gif|thumb|A 2D animation of two circles joined by a chain]]

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====3D====

[[File:Caminandes- Llama Drama - Short Movie.ogv|thumb|'''<nowiki>Caminandes | Llama Drama</nowiki>''']]

3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D [[polygon mesh]] for the animator to manipulate.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an [[Armature (computer animation)|armature]] that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=208}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|pp=78–80}} This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with [[key frame]]s to create movement.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=285}}

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* '''[[Multi-sketch]] animation'''

* '''[[Special effect]]s animation'''

* '''[[2.5D]] Animation:''' A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Digitalnomads |date=24 October 2023 |title=What is 2.5D animation? |url=https://medium.com/@digitalnomads62/what-is-2-5d-animation-554e1e4110a3 |access-date=12 April 2024 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.<ref name="vfxapprentice.com">{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5D? The Look Dominating Animation and Video Games |url=https://www.vfxapprentice.com/blog/what-is-2-5d-animation-games |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=www.vfxapprentice.com |language=en}}</ref> But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5-Dimensional (2.5D) Culture? |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/what-is-2-5-dimensional-2-5d-culture/YgUBMKSPP6O3LQ |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.<ref name="vfxapprentice.com"/>

* '''[[2.5D]] Animation:''' A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Digitalnomads |date=24 October 2023 |title=What is 2.5D animation? |url=https://medium.com/@digitalnomads62/what-is-2-5d-animation-554e1e4110a3 |access-date=12 April 2024 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.<ref name="www.vfxapprentice.com">{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5D? The Look Dominating Animation and Video Games |url=https://www.vfxapprentice.com/blog/what-is-2-5d-animation-games |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=www.vfxapprentice.com |language=en}}</ref> But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5-Dimensional (2.5D) Culture? |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/what-is-2-5-dimensional-2-5d-culture/YgUBMKSPP6O3LQ |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.<ref name="www.vfxapprentice.com"/>

==See also==

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* [[International Tournée of Animation]]

* [[List of film-related topics]]

* [[List of years in animation]]

* [[Motion graphic design]]

* [[Society for Animation Studies]]

* [[Twelve basic principles of animation]]

* [[Wire-frame model]]

* [[Outline of animation]]

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===Citations===

{{reflist|22em|refs=

<ref name="~~Harryhausen_Dalton18~~">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref>

<ref name="Harryhausen">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref>

<ref name="~~Harryhausen_Dalton222–226~~">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=222–26}}</ref>

<ref name="Harryhausen-2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=222–26}}</ref>

}}

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|last=Anderson

|first=Joseph and Barbara

~~|url-status=dead~~

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091124182503/http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm

|archive-date=24 November 2009

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====Books====

* {{cite book

* {{cite book |last=Baer |first=Eva |title=Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art |year=1983 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-87395-602-4 |pages=58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304}}

|last=Baer

* {{cite book |last=Beck |first=Jerry |title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI |year=2004 |location=Fulhamm London |publisher=Flame Tree Publishing |isbn=978-1-84451-140-2}}

|first=Eva

* {{cite book |last=Beckerman |first=Howard |title=Animation: The Whole Story |publisher=Allworth Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58115-301-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/animationwholest00beck}}

|title=Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art

* {{cite book |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |title=Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/cartoons00gian |url-access=registration |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-253-20937-5}}

|year=1983

* {{cite book |last=Buchan |first=Suzanne |title=Pervasive Animation |location=New York and London |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-80723-4}}

|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]

* {{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |title=Before The Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists |date=1996 |publisher=Hyperion |location=New York |author-link=John Canemaker |isbn=0-7868-6152-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBgRAQAAMAAJ&q=individualistic}}

|isbn=978-0-87395-602-4

* {{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |title=Winsor McCay: His Life and Art |edition=Revised |year=2005 |publisher=Abrams Books |isbn=978-0-8109-5941-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/winsormccayhisli00cane}}

|pages=58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304

* {{cite book |last=Cotte |first=Olivier |author-link=Olivier Cotte |title=Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations |year=2007 |publisher=Focal Press |isbn=978-0-240-52070-4 |url=https://www.routledge.com/Secrets-of-Oscar-winning-Animation-Behind-the-scenes-of-13-classic-short/Cotte/p/book/9780240520704}}

}}

* {{cite book |last=Crafton |first=Donald |year=1993 |title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-11667-9}}

* {{cite book

* {{cite book |author-link=Shamus Culhane |last=Culhane |first=Shamus |title=Animation: Script to Screen |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-312-05052-8}}

|last=Beck

* {{cite book |last=Drazin |first=Charles |title=The Faber Book of French Cinema |year=2011 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21849-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchcinema0000draz}}

|first=Jerry

* {{cite book |last1=Faber |first1=Liz |last2=Walters |first2=Helen |title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940 |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85669-346-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/animationunlimit0000fabe}}

|title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI

* {{cite book |last=Finkielman |first=Jorge |title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History |year=2004 |publisher=McFarland |location=North Carolina |isbn=978-0-7864-1628-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20 20] |url=https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20}}

|year=2004

* {{cite book |last=Furniss |first=Maureen |title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics |year=1998 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-1-86462-039-9}}

|location=Fulhamm London

* {{cite book |last1=Godfrey |first1=Bob |last2=Jackson |first2=Anna |title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book |publisher=BBC Publications |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-563-10829-0}}

|publisher=Flame Tree Publishing

* {{cite book |last1=Harryhausen |first1=Ray |author1-link=Ray Harryhausen |last2=Dalton |first2=Tony |author2-link=Tony Dalton |title=A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman |year=2008 |publisher=Aurum Press |isbn=978-0-8230-9980-1}}

|isbn=978-1-84451-140-2

* {{cite book |last=Herman |first=Sarah |year=2014 |title=Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-62914-649-2}}

}}

* {{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Tim |last2=Persons |first2=Alisa |title=The Magic Behind the Voices |title-link=The Magic Behind the Voices |trans-title=A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57806-696-4}}

* {{cite book

* {{cite book |last=Laybourne |first=Kit |author-link=Kit Laybourne |title=The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking – from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-517-88602-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/animationbookcom00layb}}

|last=Beckerman

* {{cite book |last=Ledoux |first=Trish |title=Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide |publisher=Tiger Mountain Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-9649542-5-0}}

|first=Howard

* {{cite book |editor1-last=Lowe |editor1-first=Richard |editor2-last=Schnotz |editor2-first=Wolfgang |title=Learning with Animation. Research implications for design |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-85189-3}}

|title=Animation: The Whole Story

* {{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Christy |author1-link=Christy Marx |title=Writing for Animation, Comics, and Games |date=2007 |publisher=Focal Press |location=Burlington, Massachusetts |isbn=978-1-136-14445-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6NPkq_cYVgC}}

|publisher=Allworth Press

* {{cite book |last=Masson |first=Terrence |author-link=Terrence Masson |year=2007 |title=CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780977871001 |series=Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. |location=Williamstown, MA |publisher=Digital Fauxtography |isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1}}

|year=2003

* {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |year=1962 |title=Physics and Physical Technology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Science and Civilization in China |volume=IV}}

|isbn=978-1-58115-301-9

* {{cite book |last=Neupert |first=Richard |title=French Animation History |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2}}

|url = https://archive.org/details/animationwholest00beck

* {{cite book |last1=Parent |first1=Rick |title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques |year=2007 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |location=Ohio State University |isbn=978-0-12-532000-9}}

}}

* {{cite book |last=Paul |first=Joshua |title=Digital Video Hacks |year=2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |isbn=978-0-596-00946-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalvideohack00paul_0}}

* {{cite book

* {{cite book |last1=Peri |first1=Don |last2=Docter |first2=Pete |author2-link=Pete Docter |title=Directing at Disney: The Original Directors of Walt's Animated Films |date=2024 |publisher=Disney Editions |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4847-5574-7 |page=195 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovdZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195}}

|last=Bendazzi

* {{cite book |last=Pilling |first=Jayne |title=A Reader in Animation Studies |year=1997 |publisher=Indiana University Press |editor=Society of Animation Studies |isbn=978-1-86462-000-9}}

|first=Giannalberto

* {{cite book |last=Priebe |first=Ken A. |title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation |year=2006 |publisher=Thompson Course Technology |isbn=978-1-59863-244-6}}

|title = Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation

* {{cite book |last1=Rojas |first1=Carlos |last2=Chow |first2=Eileen |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-998844-0}}

|url = https://archive.org/details/cartoons00gian

* {{cite book |last1=Sammond |first1=Nicholas |title=Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation |date=27 August 2015 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, NC |isbn=978-0-8223-5852-7 |doi=10.1515/9780822375784 |oclc=8605897837 |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/188}}

|url-access=registration

* {{cite book |last=Sito |first=Tom |title=Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation |year=2013 |location=Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-01909-5}}

|location=Bloomington, Indiana

* {{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Charles |year=1989 |title=Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation |location=New York |publisher=Random House, Inc. |isbn=978-0-394-54684-1}}

|publisher=Indiana University Press

* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Bob |title=Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ |year=1958 |publisher=Simon and Schuster}}

|year=1994

* {{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Frank |author1-link=Frank Thomas (animator) |last2=Johnston |first2=Ollie |author2-link=Ollie Johnston |title=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life |title-link=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life |publisher=Abbeville Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-89659-233-9}}

|isbn=978-0-253-20937-5

* {{cite book |title=Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects |first=Thomas G. |last=Smith |year=1986 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-345-32263-0}}

}}

* {{cite book |last=White |first=Tony |title=Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator |year=2006 |location=Milton Park |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-240-80670-9}}

* {{cite book

* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Williams (animator) |title=The Animator's Survival Kit |title-link=The Animator's Survival Kit |year=2001 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-571-20228-7}}

|last=Buchan

* {{cite book |first1=Siegfried |last1=Zielinski |title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History |year=1999 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-5356-303-8}}

|first=Suzanne

|title=Pervasive Animation

|location=New York and London

|publisher=Routledge

|year=2013

|isbn=978-0-415-80723-4

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Canemaker

|first=John

|title=Before The Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists

|date=1996

|publisher=Hyperion

|location=New York

|author-link = John Canemaker

|isbn=0-7868-6152-5

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBgRAQAAMAAJ&q=individualistic}}

* {{cite book

|last = Canemaker

|first = John

|title = Winsor McCay: His Life and Art

|edition = Revised

|year = 2005

|publisher = Abrams Books

|isbn = 978-0-8109-5941-5

|url = https://archive.org/details/winsormccayhisli00cane

}}

* {{cite book

|last = Cotte

|first = Olivier

|author-link = Olivier Cotte

|title = Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations

|year = 2007

|publisher = Focal Press

|isbn = 978-~~0240520704~~

|url = https://www.routledge.com/Secrets-of-Oscar-winning-Animation-Behind-the-scenes-of-13-classic-short/Cotte/p/book/9780240520704

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Crafton

|first=Donald

|year=1993

|title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928

|publisher=University of Chicago Press

|location=Chicago

|isbn=978-0-226-11667-9

}}

* {{cite book

|author-link = Shamus Culhane

|last=Culhane

|first=Shamus

|title=Animation: Script to Screen

|publisher=St. Martin's Press

|year=1990

|isbn=978-0-312-05052-8

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Drazin

|first=Charles

|title=The Faber Book of French Cinema

|year=2011

|publisher=Faber & Faber

|isbn=978-0-571-21849-3

|url-access=registration

|url=https://archive.org/details/frenchcinema0000draz

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Faber

|first1=Liz

|last2=Walters

|first2=Helen

|title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940

|publisher=Laurence King Publishing

|location=London

|year=2004

|isbn=978-1-85669-346-2

|url-access=registration

|url = https://archive.org/details/animationunlimit0000fabe

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Finkielman

|first=Jorge

|title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History

|year=2004

|publisher=McFarland

|location=North Carolina

|isbn=978-0-7864-1628-8

|page=[https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20 20]

|url = https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Furniss

|first=Maureen

|title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics

|year=1998

|publisher=Indiana University Press

|isbn=978-1-86462-039-9

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Godfrey

|first1=Bob

|last2=Jackson

|first2=Anna

|title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book

|publisher=BBC Publications

|year=1974

|isbn=978-0-563-10829-0

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Harryhausen

|first1=Ray

|author1-link = Ray Harryhausen

|last2=Dalton

|first2=Tony

|author2-link = Tony Dalton

|title = A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman

|year=2008

|publisher=Aurum Press

|isbn=978-0-8230-9980-1

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Herman

|first=Sarah

|year=2014

|title = Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies

|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing

|location=New York

|isbn=978-1-62914-649-2

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Lawson

|first1=Tim

|last2=Persons

|first2=Alisa

|title = The Magic Behind the Voices

|title-link=The Magic Behind the Voices

|trans-title = A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors

|publisher=University Press of Mississippi

|year=2004

|isbn=978-1-57806-696-4

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Laybourne

|first=Kit

|author-link = Kit Laybourne

|title = The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking – from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation

|publisher=Three Rivers Press

|location=New York

|year=1998

|isbn=978-0-517-88602-1

|url = https://archive.org/details/animationbookcom00layb

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Ledoux

|first=Trish

|title = Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide

|publisher=Tiger Mountain Press

|year=1997

|isbn=978-0-9649542-5-0

}}

* {{cite book

|editor1-last = Lowe

|editor1-first = Richard

|editor2-last = Schnotz

|editor2-first = Wolfgang

|title = Learning with Animation. Research implications for design

|publisher=Cambridge University Press

|location=New York

|year=2008

|isbn=978-0-521-85189-3

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Marx

|first1=Christy

|author1-link=Christy Marx

|title=Writing for Animation, Comics, and Games

|date=2007

|publisher=Focal Press

|location=Burlington, Massachusetts

|isbn=~~9781136144455~~

~~|url~~=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6NPkq_cYVgC}}

* {{cite book

|last=Masson

|first=Terrence

|author-link = Terrence Masson

|year=2007

|title = CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference

|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780977871001

|series = Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels.

|location=Williamstown, MA

|publisher=Digital Fauxtography

|isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Needham

|first=Joseph

|year=1962

|title=Physics and Physical Technology

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|chapter=Science and Civilization in China

|volume=IV

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Neupert

|first=Richard

|title=French Animation History

|year=2011

|publisher=John Wiley & Sons

|isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Parent

|first1=Rick

|title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques

|year=2007

|publisher=Morgan Kaufmann

|location=Ohio State University

|isbn=978-0-12-532000-9

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Paul

|first=Joshua

|title=Digital Video Hacks

|year=2005

|publisher=O'Reilly Media

|isbn=978-0-596-00946-5

|url = https://archive.org/details/digitalvideohack00paul_0

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Peri

|first1=Don

|last2=Docter

|first2=Pete

|author2-link=Pete Docter

|title=Directing at Disney: The Original Directors of Walt's Animated Films

|date=2024

|publisher=Disney Editions

|location=Los Angeles

|isbn=~~9781484755747~~

|page=195

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovdZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195}}

* {{cite book

|last=Pilling

|first=Jayne

|title = A Reader in Animation Studies

|year=1997

|publisher=Indiana University Press

|editor=Society of Animation Studies

|isbn=978-1-86462-000-9

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Priebe

|first=Ken A.

|title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation

|year=2006

|publisher=Thompson Course Technology

|isbn=978-1-59863-244-6

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Rojas

|first1=Carlos

|last2=Chow

|first2=Eileen

|title = The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas

|year=2013

|publisher=Oxford University Press

|isbn=978-0-19-998844-0

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Sammond

|first1=Nicholas

|title=Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation

|date=27 August 2015

|publisher=Duke University Press

|location=Durham, NC

|isbn=~~9780822358527~~

|doi=10.1515/9780822375784

|oclc=8605897837

|url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/188

}}

* {{cite book

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|first=Tom

|title = Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation

|year=2013

|location=Massachusetts

|publisher=[[MIT Press]]

|isbn=978-0-262-01909-5

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Solomon

|first=Charles

|year=1989

|title = Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation

|location=New York

|publisher=Random House, Inc.

|isbn=978-0-394-54684-1

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Thomas

|first=Bob

|title = Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ

|year=1958

~~|work=Walt Disney Studios~~

|publisher=Simon and Schuster

}}

* {{cite book

|last1=Thomas

|first1=Frank

|author1-link = Frank Thomas (animator)

|last2=Johnston

|first2=Ollie

|author2-link = Ollie Johnston

|title = Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life

|title-link=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life

|publisher=Abbeville Press

|year=1981

|isbn=978-0-89659-233-9

}}

* {{cite book

|title = Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects

|first = Thomas G.

|last = Smith

|year = 1986

|publisher = Ballantine Books

|location = New York

|isbn=978-0-345-32263-0

}}

* {{cite book

|last=White

|first=Tony

|title = Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator

|year=2006

|location=Milton Park

|publisher=Taylor & Francis

|isbn=978-0-240-80670-9

}}

* {{cite book

|last=Williams

|first=Richard

|author-link = Richard Williams (animator)

|title = The Animator's Survival Kit

|title-link = The Animator's Survival Kit

|year=2001

|publisher=Faber and Faber

|isbn=978-0-571-20228-7

}}

* {{cite book

|first1=Siegfried

|last1=Zielinski

|title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History

|year=1999

|publisher=Amsterdam University Press

|isbn=978-90-5356-303-8

}}

====Online sources====

* {{cite web |last=Amidi |first=Amid |author-link=Amid Amidi |title = NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year |url = http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html |publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date=19 February 2016 |date=2 December 2011

* {{cite web |last=Amidi |first=Amid |author-link=Amid Amidi |title=NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html |publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date=19 February 2016 |date=2 December 2011}}

}}

* {{cite magazine |last=Ball |first=Ryan |title=Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran |url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/ |magazine=Animation Magazine |access-date=15 March 2016 |date=12 March 2008}}

* {{cite magazine

* {{cite web |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html |title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman" |last=Beck |first=Jerry |date=2 July 2012 |publisher=Cartoon Brew}}

|last=Ball

* {{cite web |url=http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html |title=The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator |publisher=Animation World Network |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |year=1996 |access-date=29 April 2016}}

|first=Ryan

* {{cite web |url=http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |title=Animation |date=November 2009 |access-date=24 July 2012 |website=boi.gov.ph |publisher=Board of Investments |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2012 |ref={{SfnRef|Board of Investments |2009 }}}}

|title=Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran

* {{cite web |url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title=Experimental Animation Techniques |year=2003 |last=Brown |first=Margery |access-date=11 November 2005 |publisher=Evergreen State College |location=Olympia, WA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008}}

|url = http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/

* {{cite magazine |last=Carbone |first=Ken |title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma |magazine=Fast Company |access-date=7 March 2016 |date=24 February 2010}}

|magazine=Animation Magazine

* {{cite web |last=Kenyon |first=Heather |title=How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed |publisher=Animation World Network |access-date=2 March 2016 |date=1 February 1998}}

|access-date=15 March 2016

* {{cite web |last=Nagel |first=Jan |title=Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule |publisher=Animation World Network |access-date=3 March 2016 |date=21 May 2008}}

|date=12 March 2008

* {{cite news |last=McDuling |first=John |title=Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/ |access-date=20 July 2014 |work=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |date=3 July 2014}}

}}

* {{cite web |last=McLaughlin |first=Dan |title=A Rather Incomplete But Still Fascinating |url=http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |website=Film TV |publisher=UCLA |year=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |archive-date=19 November 2009 |access-date=12 February 2013}}

* {{cite web

* {{cite web |last=O'Keefe |first=Matt |url=http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers |title=6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers |work=Theme Park Tourist |access-date=9 March 2016 |date=11 November 2014}}

|url = http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html

* {{cite magazine |last=Watercutter |first=Angela |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/ |title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God |magazine=Wired |date=24 May 2012 |access-date=6 February 2016}}

|title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman"

* {{cite magazine |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003 |title=Coloring the Kingdom |last=Zohn |first=Patricia |date=28 February 2010 |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |access-date=7 December 2015}}

|last=Beck

* {{cite web |title=Władysław Starewicz – Biography |url=http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz |website=culture.pl |date=16 April 2012 |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute |access-date=9 February 2016 |ref={{SfnRef|Adam Mickiewicz Institute|2012}}}}

|first=Jerry

|date=2 July 2012

|publisher=Cartoon Brew

}}

* {{cite web

|url = http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html

|title = The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator |publisher=Animation World Network

|last=Bendazzi

|first=Giannalberto

|year=1996

|access-date=29 April 2016

}}

* {{cite web

|url = http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf

|title=Animation

|date=November 2009

|access-date=24 July 2012

|website=boi.gov.ph

|publisher=Board of Investments

~~|url-status=dead~~

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf

|archive-date=19 October 2012

|ref = {{SfnRef|Board of Investments |2009 }}

}}

* {{cite web |url = http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title = Experimental Animation Techniques |year=2003 |last=Brown |first=Margery |access-date=11 November 2005 |publisher=Evergreen State College |location=Olympia, WA ~~|url-status=dead~~ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008 }}

* {{cite magazine

|last=Carbone

|first= Ken

|title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA

|url = http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma

|magazine=Fast Company

|access-date=7 March 2016

|date=24 February 2010

}}

* {{cite web

|last = Kenyon

|first = Heather

|title = How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed

|url = http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed

|publisher=Animation World Network

|access-date=2 March 2016

|date=1 February 1998

}}

* {{cite web

|last=Nagel

|first=Jan

|title = Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule

|url = http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule

|publisher=Animation World Network

|access-date=3 March 2016

|date=21 May 2008

}}

* {{cite news

|last=McDuling

|first=John

|title = Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy

|url = https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/

|access-date=20 July 2014

|work=The Atlantic

|publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group

|date=3 July 2014

}}

* {{cite web

|last=McLaughlin

|first=Dan

|title = A Rather Incomplete But Still Fascinating

|url = http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html

|website = Film TV

|publisher=UCLA

|year=2001

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html

|archive-date=19 November 2009

|access-date=12 February 2013

}}

* {{cite web

|last = O'Keefe |first = Matt

|url = http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers

|title = 6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers

|work = Theme Park Tourist

|access-date=9 March 2016

|date=11 November 2014

}}

* {{cite magazine

|last=Watercutter

|first=Angela

|url = https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/

|title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God

|magazine=Wired

|date=24 May 2012

|access-date=6 February 2016

}}

* {{cite magazine

|url = http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003

|title=Coloring the Kingdom

|last=Zohn

|first=Patricia

|date=28 February 2010

|magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]

|access-date=7 December 2015

}}

* {{cite web

|title = Władysław Starewicz – Biography

|url = http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz

|website=culture.pl

|date=16 April 2012

|publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute

|access-date=9 February 2016

|ref = {{SfnRef|Adam Mickiewicz Institute|2012}}

}}

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[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

[[Category:Film and video technology]]

[[Category:French inventions]]

[[Category:Video]]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Redirect|Animate|other uses|Animate (disambiguation)|and|Animation (disambiguation)}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
-{{EngvarB|date=November 2024}}
+{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
 {{Multiple image
 | align             = right
@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 | image2            = Animexample3edit.png
 | width2            = 150
-| caption2          = The animation above consists of these six frames repeated indefinitely (This makes it a [[stop motion]] animation.)
+| caption2          = The animation above consists of these six frames repeated indefinitely.
 | image1            = Animexample.gif
 | width1            = 85h
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 | alt1              = Weare
 }}
-'''Animation''' is a [[filmmaking]] technique whereby [[image|still images]] are manipulated to create [[Motion picture|moving images]]. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on [[cel|transparent celluloid sheet]]s to be [[photograph]]ed and exhibited on [[film]]. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the [[Entertainment#Industry|entertainment industry]]. Many animations are either traditional animations or [[computer animation]]s made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Stop motion animation]], in particular [[claymation]], has continued to exist alongside these other forms.
+'''Animation''' is a [[filmmaking]] technique whereby [[image|pictures]] are created or manipulated and then played in sequence to create the illusion of [[Motion picture|moving images]]. In [[traditional animation]], images are drawn or painted by hand on [[cel|transparent celluloid sheet]]s to be [[photograph]]ed and exhibited on [[film]]. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the [[Entertainment#Industry|entertainment industry]]. Many animations are either traditional animations or [[computer animation]]s made with [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI). [[Stop motion animation]], in particular [[claymation]], is also prominent alongside these other forms, albeit to a lesser degree.
-Animation is contrasted with [[live action]], although the two do not exist in isolation. Many moviemakers have produced [[Live-action animation|films that are a hybrid of the two]]. As CGI increasingly [[Photorealism|approximates photographic imagery]], filmmakers can easily [[Compositing|composite]] 3D animations into their film rather than using [[practical effect]]s for showy [[visual effects]] (VFX).
+Animation is contrasted with [[live action]], although the two do not exist in isolation. Many filmmakers have produced [[Live-action animation|films that are a hybrid of the two]]. As CGI increasingly [[Photorealism|approximates photographic imagery]], filmmakers can relatively easily [[Compositing|composite]] 3D animated [[visual effects]] (VFX) into their film, rather than using [[practical effect]]s.
 {{TOC limit|3}}
-== General overview ==
+==General overview==
+[[Computer animation]] can be very detailed [[Computer animation#Animation methods|3D animation]], while [[2D computer animation]] (which may have the look of [[traditional animation]]) can be used for stylistic reasons, low [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]], or faster [[real-time rendering]]s. Other common animation methods apply a [[stop motion]] technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]]s, or [[Claymation|clay figures]].
-[[Computer animation]] can be very detailed [[Computer animation#Animation methods|3D animation]], while 2D computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster [[real-time rendering]]s. Other common animation methods apply a [[stop motion]] technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppet]]s, or [[Claymation|clay figures]].
+{{anchor|Cartoon}}An '''animated cartoon''', or simply a '''cartoon''', is an animated film, usually a [[short film]], that features an exaggerated [[style (visual arts)| style]]. This style is often inspired by [[comic strips]], [[gag cartoons]], and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include [[anthropomorphic]] animals, [[superheroes]], or the adventures of human [[protagonists]]. The action often revolves around exaggerated [[cartoon violence|physical humor]], particularly in [[predator]] and prey dynamics (e.g. [[cats]] and [[mice]], [[coyotes]] and [[birds]]), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and [[explosions]] occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.
-{{anchor|Cartoon}}An '''animated cartoon''', or simply a '''cartoon''', is an animated film, usually short, that features an exaggerated visual style. This style is often inspired by comic strips, gag cartoons, and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include anthropomorphic animals, superheroes, or the adventures of human protagonists. The action often revolves around exaggerated [[cartoon violence|physical humor]], particularly in predator/prey dynamics (e.g. cats and mices, coyotes and birds), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.
+During the late 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to '''''toon''''', referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity first in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'', which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by various animated cartoon characters. In 1990, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of cartoon characters. Then, in 1993, ''[[Animaniacs]]'' followed, featuring the three [[Rubber hose animation|rubber-hose]]-styled Warner siblings, Yakko Warner, Wakko Warner, and Dot Warner, who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the [[Warner Bros. Water Tower|Warner Bros. water tower]] in the 1990s.
-During the 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to '''''toon''''', referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity first in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'', which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by various animated cartoon characters. In 1990, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of cartoon characters. Then, in 1993, ''[[Animaniacs]]'' followed, featuring the [[Rubber hose animation|rubber-hose]]-styled Warner siblings, Yakko Warner, Wakko Warner, and Dot Warner, who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the [[Warner Bros. Water Tower|Warner Bros. water tower]] in the 1990s.
 The illusion of animation—as in motion pictures in general—has traditionally been attributed to the [[persistence of vision]] and later to the [[phi phenomenon]] and [[beta movement]], but the exact neurological causes are still uncertain. The illusion of motion caused by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other, with unnoticeable interruptions, is a [[stroboscopic effect]]. While [[animator]]s traditionally used to draw each part of the movements and changes of figures on transparent cels that could be moved over a separate background, computer animation is usually based on programming paths between [[key frame]]s to maneuver digitally created figures throughout a digitally created environment.
@@ Line 42: / Line 41: @@
 ==Etymology==
-The word ''animation'' comes to the Latin word ''animātiō'', meaning 'bestowing of life'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/animation | title=The definition of animation on dictionary.com}}</ref> The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.
+The word ''animation'' comes from the Latin word ''animātiō'', meaning 'bestowing of life'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.hills-batam.com/spa.html | title=The definition of animation on dictionary.com}}</ref> The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.
 ==History<!--'Animated cartoon' redirects here-->==
@@ Line 54: / Line 53: @@
 Long before modern animation began, audiences around the world were captivated by the magic of moving characters. For centuries, master artists and craftsmen have brought puppets, [[automaton]]s, [[shadow puppets]], and fantastical [[lantern]]s to life, inspiring the imagination through physically manipulated wonders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Modern Animation Originated from Live and Stage Performances - studio9 |url=https://studio9.ie/journal/how-modern-animation-originated-from-live-and-stage-performances |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=studio9.ie}}</ref>
-In 1833, the [[stroboscope|stroboscopic]] disc (better known as the [[phenakistiscope]]) introduced the principle of modern animation, which would also be applied in the [[zoetrope]] (introduced in 1866), the [[flip book]] (1868), the [[praxinoscope]] (1877) and [[film]].
+In 1832, the [[phenakistoscope]], invented by Belgian [[Joseph Plateau]], would introduce the principle of modern animation, the principle of persistence of vision. The principle would be later applied by [[William George Horner|William George Horner's]] [[zoetrope]] (1876), the [[flip book]] (1868), the [[praxinoscope]](1877), and [[film]]. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Access Sites {{!}} Britannica Education |url=https://education.eb.com/en-US?target=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.eb.com%2Flevels%2Fcollegiate%2Farticle%2Fanimation%2F7644 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=education.eb.com}}</ref>
+The device was operated by spinning the cardboard disc and viewing the reflection of the image in a mirror through a series of moving slits, which created the illusion that the image was moving.<ref>{{cite web |title=Phenakistoscopes (1833) | url=https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/phenakistoscopes-1833/ | publisher=The Public Domain Review | access-date=2026-03-20}}</ref>Similarly, the [[zoetrope]] was operated by spinning a rotating drum lined up with a strip of pictures inside.<ref name=":0" />
+In 1876, animation would be adapted for the theatrical audience, as entrepreneurs such as Emile Reynaud began investing in the art form. It wasn't until the invention of [[35 mm movie film|sprocket-drive film stock]], would animation begin to gain traction in cinema.<ref name=":0" />
 ===Silent era===
-When [[cinematography]] eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) by [[J. Stuart Blackton]] popularized [[stop motion]] and reportedly inspired [[Émile Cohl]] to create ''[[Fantasmagorie (film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by [[Ladislas Starevich]] with his puppet animations since 1910 and by [[Winsor McCay]] with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) and ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=22 July 2023 |title=Winsor McCay: American Animator|encyclopedia = Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winsor-McCay |access-date= |language=en}}</ref>
+When [[cinematography]] eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short ''The Haunted Hotel'' (1907) by [[J. Stuart Blackton]] popularized [[stop motion]] and reportedly inspired [[Émile Cohl]] to create ''[[Fantasmagorie (film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by [[Ladislas Starevich]] with his puppet animations since 1910 and by [[Winsor McCay]] with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as ''[[Little Nemo (1911 film)|Little Nemo]]'' (1911) and ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'' (1914).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=22 July 2023 |title=Winsor McCay: American Animator|encyclopedia = Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winsor-McCay |language=en}}</ref>
-During the 1910s, the production of animated "[[cartoons]]" became an industry in the US.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=28}} Successful producer [[John Randolph Bray]] and animator [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=34}} [[Felix the Cat]], who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Michael|last1=Cart|title=The Cat With the Killer Personality|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html|language=en-US|url-status=live|date=31 March 1991|access-date=30 December 2022|archivedate=11 April 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411005148/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html}}</ref>
+=== Animation production across the Globe ===
 [[Image:FelixTheCat-1919-FelineFollies silent.ogv|thumb|''Feline Follies'' with [[Felix the Cat]], silent, 1919]]
-===American golden age===
+==== American golden age ====
 {{main|Golden Age of American animation}}
-In 1928, ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', featuring [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Minnie Mouse]], popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put [[Walt Disney]]'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Disney Animation's]] actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.<ref name="Furniss_Page_107">{{cite book |last1=Furniss |first1=Maureen |title=Art in Motion, Revised Edition |chapter=Classical-era Disney Studio |author1-link=Maureen Furniss |date=2007 |pages=107–132 |publisher=John Libbey Publishing |location=New Barnet |isbn=9780861966639 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005zgm.9 |jstor=j.ctt2005zgm.9 |edition=2014 print-on-demand ed., based on 2007 revised |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2005zgm.9|oclc=1224213919}}</ref>
-The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the [[golden age of American animation]] that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrier |first=Michael |title=Hollywood Cartoons American Animation in Its Golden Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780199839223 |location=}}</ref> Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including [[Walt Disney Productions]]' [[Goofy]] (1932) and [[Donald Duck]] (1934), [[Fleischer Studios]]/[[Paramount Cartoon Studios]]' [[Out of the Inkwell]]' [[Koko the Clown]] (1918), [[Bimbo (Fleischer Studios)|Bimbo]] and [[Betty Boop]] (1930), [[Popeye#Theatrical animated cartoons|Popeye]] (1933) and [[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] (1945), [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios]]' [[Looney Tunes]]' [[Porky Pig]] (1935), [[Daffy Duck]] (1937), [[Elmer Fudd]] (1937–1940), [[Bugs Bunny]] (1938–1940), [[Tweety]] (1942), [[Sylvester the Cat]] (1945), [[Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner]] (1949), [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio|MGM cartoon studio]]'s [[Tom and Jerry]] (1940) and [[Droopy]], [[Walter Lantz Productions|Universal Cartoon Studios]]' [[Woody Woodpecker]] (1940), [[Terrytoons]]/[[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Mighty Mouse]] (1942), and [[United Artists]]' [[Pink Panther (character)|Pink Panther]] (1963).
+During the 1910s, the production of animated "[[cartoons]]" became an industry in the US.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=28}} Successful producer [[John Randolph Bray]] and animator [[Earl Hurd]] patented the [[cel animation]] process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=24}}{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=34}} [[Felix the Cat]], who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Michael|last1=Cart|title=The Cat With the Killer Personality|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html|language=en-US|url-status=live|date=31 March 1991|access-date=30 December 2022|archive-date=11 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411005148/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html}}</ref> The characteristics of [[Felix the Cat|Felix the cat's]] physical appearance would come to be the standard model for cartoon character in the following years.<ref name=":0" />
+In 1928, ''[[Steamboat Willie]]'', featuring [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Minnie Mouse]], popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put [[Walt Disney]]'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Disney Animation's]] actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Furniss |first1=Maureen |title=Art in Motion, Revised Edition |chapter=Classical-era Disney Studio |author1-link=Maureen Furniss |date=2007 |pages=107–132 |publisher=John Libbey Publishing |location=New Barnet |isbn=978-0-86196-663-9 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005zgm.9 |jstor=j.ctt2005zgm.9 |edition=2014 print-on-demand ed., based on 2007 revised |oclc=1224213919}}</ref>
+The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the [[golden age of American animation]] that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrier |first=Michael |title=Hollywood Cartoons American Animation in Its Golden Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-983922-3 |location=}}</ref> Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including [[Walt Disney Productions]]' [[Goofy]] (1932) and [[Donald Duck]] (1934), [[Fleischer Studios]]/[[Paramount Cartoon Studios]]' [[Out of the Inkwell]]' [[Koko the Clown]] (1918), [[Bimbo (Fleischer Studios)|Bimbo]] and [[Betty Boop]] (1930), [[Popeye#Theatrical animated cartoons|Popeye]] (1933) and [[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] (1945), [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios]]' [[Looney Tunes]]' [[Porky Pig]] (1935), [[Daffy Duck]] (1937), [[Elmer Fudd]] (1937–1940), [[Bugs Bunny]] (1938–1940), [[Tweety]] (1942), [[Sylvester the Cat]] (1945), [[Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner]] (1949), [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio|MGM cartoon studio]]'s [[Tom and Jerry]] (1940) and [[Droopy]], [[Walter Lantz Productions|Universal Cartoon Studios]]' [[Woody Woodpecker]] (1940), [[Terrytoons]]/[[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Mighty Mouse]] (1942), and [[United Artists]]' [[Pink Panther (character)|Pink Panther]] (1963).
+==== European History of Animation Production ====
+[[File:Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed (screenshot).jpg|thumb|''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' (1926) by [[Lotte Reiniger]]]]
+Polish art student [[Ladislas Starevich|Ladislas Starevitch]] would employ stop-motion animation creating films such as ''[[The Cameraman's Revenge]] (1912)'' and ''[[The Tale of the Fox]] (1930).''<ref name=":0" />
+[[Pinscreen animation]] would be developed by [[Alexandre Alexeieff|Alexandre Alexeïeff]] in France being used to create films such as ''A Night on Bald Mountain (1933).''<ref name=":0" />
+After working on it for three years, [[Lotte Reiniger]] released the German feature-length [[silhouette animation]] ''[[Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed]]'' in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Maria |date=15 December 2020 |title=The Lasting Legacy of Lotte Reiniger |url=https://www.acmi.net.au/stories-and-ideas/lasting-legacy-lotte-reiniger/ |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=[[Australian Centre for the Moving Image]]}}</ref>
+===== Animation Production in China =====
+In 1941, ''[[Princess Iron Fan (1941 film)|Tieshan gonzhu]](Princess Iron Fan)'' would become the first animated feature film in Asia, given the title of "the Chinese version of [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney's]] ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]".'' Following in 1944, the animated film ''Fengzheng (The Kite)'' would be published combining animation characteristics of [[Walt Disney Animation Studios short films|Disney shorts]] of that era called "plasmaticness" and local Chinese folklore.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Project MUSE -- Verification required! |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/verify?url=%2Farticle%2F919194&r=3624813 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=muse.jhu.edu |doi=10.1353/cj.2024.a919194}}</ref>
+This era of East Asian animation would last until the mid 1940's, however a plethora of notable animation films would be produced such as ''Chutian de Beijing'' (Peking in Spring)'', Dongya de liming'' (The dawn in East Asia)'', Kepa de Huliela'' (The terrible cholera)'', Emo de Siyu'' (The demons' whispers), ''Tenkū ryokō'' (1936), ''Kotori to usage'' (Birds and Rabbits), ''Tsuki no Miya no ōjo-sama'' (Princess of the moon palace, 1934), ''Mābō no Tōkyō orinpikku taikai'' (Ma-bo's Tokyo Olympic Games, 1936), ''Sora no Momtarō'' (Momotarō's sky adventure, 1931), ''Saru kani gassen (Monkey and the crabs, 1927), Da duhui (The metropolis, 1941), and Kuala de pengyou(Happy friends, 1942).''<ref name=":1" />
 ===Features before CGI===
@@ Line 72: / Line 91: @@
 In 1917, Italian-Argentine director [[Quirino Cristiani]] made the first feature-length film ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (now [[lost film|lost]]), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's ''[[Sin dejar rastros]]'' in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=animafest.hr |url=https://www.animafest.hr/en/2009/film/read_all/quirino_cristiani_the_mystery_of_the_first_animated_movies |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=www.animafest.hr}}</ref>
-After working on it for three years, [[Lotte Reiniger]] released the German feature-length [[silhouette animation]] ''[[Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed]]'' in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Maria |date=15 December 2020 |title=The Lasting Legacy of Lotte Reiniger |url=https://www.acmi.net.au/stories-and-ideas/lasting-legacy-lotte-reiniger/ |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=[[Australian Centre for the Moving Image]]}}</ref>
+In 1937, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Studios]] premiered their first animated feature ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'', still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features {{as of|lc=y| May 2020}}.<ref>Total prior to 50th anniversary reissue: {{cite news |last=Culhane |first=John |title='Snow White' At 50: Undimmed Magic |date=12 July 1987 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |quote=By now, it has grossed about $330&nbsp;million worldwide – so it remains one of the most popular films ever made. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200704/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |archive-date=4 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>1987 and 1993 grosses from North America: {{cite web |title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – Releases |work=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |quote=1987 release – $46,594,212; 1993 release – $41,634,471 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529094807/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |archive-date=29 May 2014 }}</ref> The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''[[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)|Gulliver's Travels]]'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'' (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature ''[[Mr. Bug Goes to Town]]'' (1941–1942) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until [[Ralph Bakshi]] became the first to release more than a handful of features. [[Sullivan-Bluth Studios]] began to regularly produce animated features starting with ''[[An American Tail]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Don Bluth Contents |url=http://www.cataroo.com/DBconts.html |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.cataroo.com}}</ref>
-In 1937, [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Studios]] premiered their first animated feature ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'', still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features {{as of|lc=y| May 2020}}.<ref name="snowwhite1">Total prior to 50th anniversary reissue: {{cite news |last=Culhane |first=John |title='Snow White' At 50: Undimmed Magic |date=12 July 1987 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |access-date=|quote=By now, it has grossed about $330&nbsp;million worldwide – so it remains one of the most popular films ever made. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200704/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html |archive-date=4 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="snowwhite2">1987 and 1993 grosses from North America: {{cite web |title=Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – Releases |work=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |access-date= |quote=1987 release – $46,594,212; 1993 release – $41,634,471 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529094807/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm |archive-date=29 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''[[Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)|Gulliver's Travels]]'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'', ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'' (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature ''[[Mr. Bug Goes to Town]]'' (1941–1942) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until [[Ralph Bakshi]] became the first to release more than a handful of features. [[Sullivan-Bluth Studios]] began to regularly produce animated features starting with ''[[An American Tail]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Don Bluth Contents |url=http://www.cataroo.com/DBconts.html |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.cataroo.com}}</ref>
 Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including [[stop motion]] and [[cutout animation]] techniques. Soviet [[Soyuzmultfilm]] animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films.
 ===Television===
-Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching [[Saturday-morning cartoon]]s. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as ''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960–1966) (the first [[prime time]] animated series), ''[[Scooby-Doo]]'' (since 1969) and Belgian co-production ''[[The Smurfs (1981 TV series)|The Smurfs]]'' (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker [[limited animation]] methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of [[The Simpsons shorts|The Simpsons]] (1987), which later developed into [[The Simpsons|its own show]] (in 1989) and ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
+Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most [[developed countries]]. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching [[Saturday-morning cartoon]]s. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as ''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960–1966) (the first [[prime time]] animated series), ''[[Scooby-Doo]]'' (since 1969) and Belgian co-production ''[[The Smurfs (1981 TV series)|The Smurfs]]'' (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker [[limited animation]] methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of [[The Simpsons shorts|The Simpsons]] (1987), which later developed into [[The Simpsons|its own show]] (in 1989) and ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adidharma |first1=Kadek Satria |title=The Power of Story in an Animation Industry |journal=Humaniora |date=30 April 2011 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=764–770 |doi=10.21512/humaniora.v2i1.3093 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring [[stop motion]] and [[puppetry]] over cel animation. Japanese [[anime]] TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as ''[[Barbapapa]]'' (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), ''[[Vicky the Viking|Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキング ビッケ (Vicky the Viking)]]'' (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), ''[[Maya the Honey Bee]]'' (Japan/Germany 1975) and ''[[The Jungle Book (1989 TV series)|The Jungle Book]]'' (Italy/Japan 1989).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
@@ Line 85: / Line 102: @@
 ===Switch from cels to computers===
 {{main|History of computer animation}}
 [[Computer animation]] was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller ''[[Futureworld]]'' (1976).<ref>{{cite web | last=Ferrier | first=Aimee | title=What was the first movie to feature a CGI lead character? | website=Far Out Magazine | date=2022-10-07 | url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/first-movie-cgi-lead-character/ | access-date=2025-05-03}}</ref>
-''[[The Rescuers Down Under]]'' was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera.<ref name="first digital guinness">{{cite web |title=First fully digital feature film |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film/ |work=Guinness World Records |publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref> It was produced using the [[Computer Animation Production System]] (CAPS), developed by [[Pixar]] in collaboration with [[The Walt Disney Company]] in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation.<ref name="Ness 2015 p197">{{cite web | last=Ness | first=Mari | title=The Arrival of Computer Animation: The Rescuers Down Under | website=Reactor Magazine | date=17 December 2015 | url=https://reactormag.com/the-arrival-of-computer-animation-the-rescuers-down-under/ | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref name="Guinness World Records 2024 a420">{{cite web | title=First fully digital feature film | website=Guinness World Records | date=27 February 2024 | url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref name="Allison 2022 u732">{{cite web | last=Allison | first=Austin | title=Disney and Pixar's Top 5 Most Innovative Animation Technologies, Explained | website=Collider | date=23 January 2022 | url=https://collider.com/disney-pixar-animation-technologies-explained/#caps | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref>
+''[[The Rescuers Down Under]]'' was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera.<ref>{{cite web |title=First fully digital feature film |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film/ |work=Guinness World Records |publisher=Guinness World Records Limited |access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref> It was produced using the [[Computer Animation Production System]] (CAPS), developed by [[Pixar]] in collaboration with [[The Walt Disney Company]] in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ness | first=Mari | title=The Arrival of Computer Animation: The Rescuers Down Under | website=Reactor Magazine | date=17 December 2015 | url=https://reactormag.com/the-arrival-of-computer-animation-the-rescuers-down-under/ | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=First fully digital feature film | website=Guinness World Records | date=27 February 2024 | url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Allison | first=Austin | title=Disney and Pixar's Top 5 Most Innovative Animation Technologies, Explained | website=Collider | date=23 January 2022 | url=https://collider.com/disney-pixar-animation-technologies-explained/#caps | access-date=27 February 2024}}</ref>
 The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, became the dominant technique following the success of Pixar's ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Zorthian |first=Julia |date=19 November 2015 |title=How ''Toy Story'' Changed Movie History |url=https://time.com/4118006/20-years-toy-story-pixar/ |access-date=29 January 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 107: / Line 125: @@
 Animation has traditionally been very closely related to [[comic book]]s. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many [[manga]] are adapted into [[anime]]), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for [[video game]]s (an interactive form of animation that became its own medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cine-Files » New Screen Order: How Video Games are Changing Cinema Interiority |url=https://www.thecine-files.com/new-screen-order/ |access-date=11 May 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>
-Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, [[The Walt Disney Company]] is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their [[Mickey Mouse]] mascot has been [[Mickey Mouse#Merchandising|depicted on an enormous amount of products]], as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced some [[Mickey Mouse#Pejorative use of Mickey's name|pejorative use of Mickey's name]], but [[Disney Consumer Products|licensed Disney products]] sell well, and the so-called [[Disneyana]] has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated [[Disneyana Fan Club]] (since 1984).<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426153040/https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html |archive-date=26 April 2023 |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Disneyana Fan Club {{!}} Preserving the Legacy of Walt Disney |language=en}}</ref>
@@ Line 116: / Line 132: @@
 ==Awards==
 {{Main|List of animation awards}}
 As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. Many are part of general or regional film award programs, like the China's [[Golden Rooster Awards|Golden Rooster Award]] for [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation|Best Animation]] (since 1981). Awards programs dedicated to animation, with many categories, include [[ASIFA-Hollywood]]'s [[Annie Awards]], the [[Emile Awards]] in Europe and the [[Anima Mundi (event)|Anima Mundi]] awards in Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=51st Annual Annie Awards |url=https://annieawards.org/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |website=annieawards.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://animationawards.eu/presentation/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |website=European Animation Awards {{!}} Emile Awards |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2014 |title=Anima Mundi |url=http://www.animamundi.com.br/ |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118120723/http://www.animamundi.com.br/ |archive-date=18 November 2014 }}</ref>
 ===Academy Awards===
 {{Main|List of animated feature films nominated for Academy Awards}}
 Apart from [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]] (since 1932) and [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]] (since 2002), animated movies have been nominated and rewarded in other categories, relatively often for [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]] and [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Score]].
 ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' was the first animated film nominated for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]], in 1991. ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009) and ''[[Toy Story 3]]'' (2010) also received Best Picture nominations, after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.<ref>{{cite news|title=Academy Expands Best-Picture Pool to 10 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/movies/25oscars.html | last=Cieply |first=Michael |date=24 June 2009 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
-==Production==
+== Production ==
 [[File:Joy &amp; Heron - Animated CGI Spot by Passion Pictures.webm|thumb|''Joy & Heron'']]
 The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of [[filmmaking]], with certain unique aspects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=117}} Traits common to both live-action and animated [[feature film]]s are labor intensity and high production costs.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=274}}
@@ Line 132: / Line 150: @@
 Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=94}} Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=37}}
-This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=146}} On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}
+This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".{{sfn|Canemaker|1996|pp=xi-xii}} Character designers on the visual development team draw [[model sheet]]s to show how each character should look with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=146}} On traditionally animated projects, [[maquette]]s were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.{{sfn|Williams|2001|p=34}}{{sfn|Williams|2001|pp=52–57}}
 Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=99–100}}{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}}  The traditional approach worked for several decades because prior to the 1960s, no one except Disney was attempting to regularly produce feature-length animated films.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}}  All other animation studios, with occasional exceptions, were producing [[short film]]s only a few minutes in length.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}}  For short films, it was enough for the storyboard artists to work up a few [[visual gag]]s and then string them together to form a crude plot.{{sfn|Marx|2007|pp=3-4}}
@@ Line 140: / Line 158: @@
 Ironically, the Disney studio was relatively slow to adopt this method.  The first Disney feature animated film to have a complete screenplay written and approved before storyboarding was ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]'' (1961).{{sfn|Peri|Docter|2024|p=195}}  However, ''101 Dalmatians'' was "a short-lived experiment"; the next Disney film to follow this method was ''[[The Great Mouse Detective]]'' (1986).{{sfn|Peri|Docter|2024|p=195}}
-Finally, another key difference is that actors traditionally record vocal tracks for animated films in separate individual sessions; they often meet one another for the first time only at the film's [[premiere]].<ref name="Hayes_Page_176">{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Derek |last2=Webster |first2=Chris |title=Acting and Performance for Animation |date=2013 |publisher=Focal Press |location=New York and London |isbn=9781136135989 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176}}</ref>  Actors usually schedule sessions in the [[recording studio]] around their live-action work.<ref name="Hayes_Page_176" />  In live-action filmmaking, it is very common for actors to drop out of projects due to scheduling conflicts, while in animation, recording actors separately makes it possible to "get a lot more stars into one movie than" would be possible if those actors needed to be physically present on the same set at the same time.<ref name="Hayes_Page_176" />
+Finally, another key difference is that actors traditionally record vocal tracks for animated films in separate individual sessions; they often meet one another for the first time only at the film's [[premiere]].<ref name="Hayes-2013">{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Derek |last2=Webster |first2=Chris |title=Acting and Performance for Animation |date=2013 |publisher=Focal Press |location=New York and London |isbn=978-1-136-13598-9 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176}}</ref>  Actors usually schedule sessions in the [[recording studio]] around their live-action work.<ref name="Hayes-2013" />  In live-action filmmaking, it is very common for actors to drop out of projects due to scheduling conflicts, while in animation, recording actors separately makes it possible to "get a lot more stars into one movie than" would be possible if those actors needed to be physically present on the same set at the same time.<ref name="Hayes-2013" />
 ==Techniques==
 ===Traditional===
 {{Main|Traditional animation}}
 [[File:Animhorse.gif|thumb|An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by [[rotoscoping]] from [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s 19th-century photos]]
 '''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) is the process that was used for most animated films of the 20th century.{{sfn|White|2006|p=31}} The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=153}} To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]]s,{{sfn|Thomas|Johnston|1981|pp=277–79}} which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=203}} The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film.{{sfn|White|2006|pp=195–201}}
@@ Line 153: / Line 172: @@
 ====Full====
-'''Full animation''' is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=71}} having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–95}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=25–26}}
+'''Full animation''' is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=71}} having a smooth animation.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=194–95}} Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[List of Disney theatrical animated feature films|Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=25–26}}
 ====Limited====
 {{Main|Limited animation}}
 '''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|p=142}} Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]],{{sfn|Beckerman|2003|pp=54–55}} limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and certain [[anime]] produced in Japan.{{sfn|Ledoux|1997|p=24, 29}} Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera,{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=82}} [[Filmation]],{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=241}} and other TV animation studios{{sfn|Lawson|Persons|2004|p=xxi}}) and later the [[Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]s).
 ====Rotoscoping====
 {{Main|Rotoscoping}}
 '''Rotoscoping''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame.{{sfn|Crafton|1993|p=158}} The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings,{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=163–64}} as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983), ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981), and ''[[The Flowers of Evil (manga)|Aku no Hana]]'' (Japan, 2013).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 ====Live-action blending====
-{{Main|Films with live action and animation}}
+{{Main|Live-action animation}}
-'''[[List of films with live action and animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–63}} One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live-action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of ''[[Alice Comedies]]'' (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Volere volare]]'' (Italy 1991), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
+'''[[Live-action animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=162–63}} One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live-action footage.{{sfn|Beck|2004|pp=18–19}} Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of ''[[Alice Comedies]]'' (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include ''[[Allegro Non Troppo]]'' (Italy, 1976), ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Volere volare]]'' (Italy 1991), ''[[Cool World]]'' (US, 1992), ''[[The Pagemaster]]'' (US, 1994) ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 ===Stop motion===
 {{Main|Stop motion}}
 [[Stop motion]] is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}} There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the materials used to create the animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}} Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=159}}
 ; [[Stop motion]] : Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=171}} The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=155–56}} Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present).
@@ Line 175: / Line 198: @@
 ; [[Clay animation]] or [[Plasticine]] animation : (Often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika, LLC|trademarked]] name). It uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation.{{sfn|Solomon|1989|p=299}}{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=150–151}} The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=151–54}} Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''The [[Gumby]] Show'' (US, 1957–1967), ''[[Mio Mao]]'' (Italy, 1974–2005), ''[[Morph (TV series)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace & Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''.{{sfn|Beck|2004|p=250}}
 :; [[Strata-cut animation]] : Most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.{{sfn|Furniss|1998|pp=52–54}}
-; [[Cutout animation]] : A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), [[Matt Stone]] and [[Trey Parker]] the first cutout animation [[South Park (franchise)|South Park]] (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).
+; [[Cutout animation]] : (Sometimes called paper animation) A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=59–60}} Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); ''[[Tale of Tales (1979 film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), [[Matt Stone]] and [[Trey Parker]] the first cutout animation [[South Park (franchise)|South Park]] (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).
 :; [[Silhouette animation]] : A variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|pp=170–171}} Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Princes et Princesses]]'' (France, 2000).
-; [[Model animation]] : Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.{{sfn|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}} Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933).
+:;[[Paper craft|Paper craft animation]] : a stop motion animation using [[Construction paper]] or [[Card stock]] by doing cutting, folding, gluing and assembling.
+; [[Model animation]] : Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.{{sfn|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=9–11}} Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<ref name="Harryhausen-2"/> Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films, ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963),<ref name="Harryhausen"/> and the work of [[Willis H. O'Brien]] on films, ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933).
 :;[[Go motion]] : A variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion.{{sfn|Smith|1986|p=90}} The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effect]] scenes for the film ''[[Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980).{{sfn|Watercutter|2012}} Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from the 1981 film ''[[Dragonslayer (1981 film)|Dragonslayer]]''.{{sfn|Smith|1986|pages=91–95}}
 ; [[Object animation]] : The use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=51–57}}
 :; [[Graphic animation]] : Uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|p=128}} At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.
-:; [[Brickfilm]] : A subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–63}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and [[animation software]].<ref name="AMPS">{{cite web |title=Brick Films |url=http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924224545/http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-date=2010-09-24 |access-date=2013-08-25 |publisher=Ampsvideo.com}}</ref>
+:; [[Brickfilm]] : A subgenre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation.{{sfn|Paul|2005|pages=357–63}}{{sfn|Herman|2014}} These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, [[YouTube]] and the availability of cheap cameras and [[animation software]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Brick Films |url=http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924224545/http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm |archive-date=2010-09-24 |access-date=2013-08-25 |publisher=Ampsvideo.com}}</ref>
 ; [[Pixilation]] : Involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.{{sfn|Laybourne|1998|pp=75–79}} Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts, and the [[Academy Award]]-winning ''[[Neighbours (1952 film)|Neighbours]]'' by [[Norman McLaren]].
 ===Computer===
 {{Main|Computer animation}}
 '''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.{{sfn|Culhane|1990|p=296}}{{sfn|Serenko|2007}} 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=405}} 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.{{sfn|Serenko|2007|p=482}}
 ====2D====
 {{main|2D computer graphics}}
 [[File:Catenary animation.gif|thumb|A 2D animation of two circles joined by a chain]]
@@ Line 200: / Line 226: @@
 ====3D====
 {{Main|Computer animation|3D computer graphics}}
 [[File:Caminandes- Llama Drama - Short Movie.ogv|thumb|'''<nowiki>Caminandes | Llama Drama</nowiki>''']]
 D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D [[polygon mesh]] for the animator to manipulate.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.{{sfn|Masson|2007|p=88}} Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an [[Armature (computer animation)|armature]] that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=208}}{{sfn|Masson|2007|pp=78–80}} This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with [[key frame]]s to create movement.{{sfn|Sito|2013|p=285}}
@@ Line 231: / Line 258: @@
 * '''[[Multi-sketch]] animation'''
 * '''[[Special effect]]s animation'''
-* '''[[2.5D]] Animation:''' A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Digitalnomads |date=24 October 2023 |title=What is 2.5D animation? |url=https://medium.com/@digitalnomads62/what-is-2-5d-animation-554e1e4110a3 |access-date=12 April 2024 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.<ref name="vfxapprentice.com">{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5D? The Look Dominating Animation and Video Games |url=https://www.vfxapprentice.com/blog/what-is-2-5d-animation-games |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=www.vfxapprentice.com |language=en}}</ref> But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5-Dimensional (2.5D) Culture? |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/what-is-2-5-dimensional-2-5d-culture/YgUBMKSPP6O3LQ |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.<ref name="vfxapprentice.com"/>
+* '''[[2.5D]] Animation:''' A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Digitalnomads |date=24 October 2023 |title=What is 2.5D animation? |url=https://medium.com/@digitalnomads62/what-is-2-5d-animation-554e1e4110a3 |access-date=12 April 2024 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.<ref name="www.vfxapprentice.com">{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5D? The Look Dominating Animation and Video Games |url=https://www.vfxapprentice.com/blog/what-is-2-5d-animation-games |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=www.vfxapprentice.com |language=en}}</ref> But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is 2.5-Dimensional (2.5D) Culture? |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/what-is-2-5-dimensional-2-5d-culture/YgUBMKSPP6O3LQ |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.<ref name="www.vfxapprentice.com"/>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 247: / Line 274: @@
 * [[International Tournée of Animation]]
 * [[List of film-related topics]]
+* [[List of years in animation]]
 * [[Motion graphic design]]
 * [[Society for Animation Studies]]
 * [[Twelve basic principles of animation]]
 * [[Wire-frame model]]
+* [[Outline of animation]]
 {{Div col end}}
@@ Line 257: / Line 285: @@
 ===Citations===
 {{reflist|22em|refs=
-<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton18">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref>
+<ref name="Harryhausen">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|page=18}}</ref>
-<ref name="Harryhausen_Dalton222–226">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=222–26}}</ref>
+<ref name="Harryhausen-2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Harryhausen|Dalton|2008|pages=222–26}}</ref>
 }}
@@ Line 275: / Line 303: @@
   |last=Anderson
   |first=Joseph and Barbara
- |url-status=dead
   |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091124182503/http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm
   |archive-date=24 November 2009
@@ Line 297: / Line 324: @@
 ====Books====
 {{refbegin|35em}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last=Baer |first=Eva |title=Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art |year=1983 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-87395-602-4 |pages=58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304}}
- |last=Baer
+* {{cite book |last=Beck |first=Jerry |title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI |year=2004 |location=Fulhamm London |publisher=Flame Tree Publishing |isbn=978-1-84451-140-2}}
- |first=Eva
+* {{cite book |last=Beckerman |first=Howard |title=Animation: The Whole Story |publisher=Allworth Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58115-301-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/animationwholest00beck}}
- |title=Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art
+* {{cite book |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |title=Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/cartoons00gian |url-access=registration |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-253-20937-5}}
- |year=1983
+* {{cite book |last=Buchan |first=Suzanne |title=Pervasive Animation |location=New York and London |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-80723-4}}
- |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]
+* {{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |title=Before The Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists |date=1996 |publisher=Hyperion |location=New York |author-link=John Canemaker |isbn=0-7868-6152-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBgRAQAAMAAJ&q=individualistic}}
- |isbn=978-0-87395-602-4
+* {{cite book |last=Canemaker |first=John |title=Winsor McCay: His Life and Art |edition=Revised |year=2005 |publisher=Abrams Books |isbn=978-0-8109-5941-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/winsormccayhisli00cane}}
- |pages=58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304
+* {{cite book |last=Cotte |first=Olivier |author-link=Olivier Cotte |title=Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations |year=2007 |publisher=Focal Press |isbn=978-0-240-52070-4 |url=https://www.routledge.com/Secrets-of-Oscar-winning-Animation-Behind-the-scenes-of-13-classic-short/Cotte/p/book/9780240520704}}
-}}
+* {{cite book |last=Crafton |first=Donald |year=1993 |title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-11667-9}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |author-link=Shamus Culhane |last=Culhane |first=Shamus |title=Animation: Script to Screen |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-312-05052-8}}
- |last=Beck
+* {{cite book |last=Drazin |first=Charles |title=The Faber Book of French Cinema |year=2011 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-21849-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchcinema0000draz}}
- |first=Jerry
+* {{cite book |last1=Faber |first1=Liz |last2=Walters |first2=Helen |title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940 |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85669-346-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/animationunlimit0000fabe}}
- |title=Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI
+* {{cite book |last=Finkielman |first=Jorge |title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History |year=2004 |publisher=McFarland |location=North Carolina |isbn=978-0-7864-1628-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20 20] |url=https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20}}
- |year=2004
+* {{cite book |last=Furniss |first=Maureen |title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics |year=1998 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-1-86462-039-9}}
- |location=Fulhamm London
+* {{cite book |last1=Godfrey |first1=Bob |last2=Jackson |first2=Anna |title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book |publisher=BBC Publications |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-563-10829-0}}
- |publisher=Flame Tree Publishing
+* {{cite book |last1=Harryhausen |first1=Ray |author1-link=Ray Harryhausen |last2=Dalton |first2=Tony |author2-link=Tony Dalton |title=A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman |year=2008 |publisher=Aurum Press |isbn=978-0-8230-9980-1}}
- |isbn=978-1-84451-140-2
+* {{cite book |last=Herman |first=Sarah |year=2014 |title=Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-62914-649-2}}
-}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Tim |last2=Persons |first2=Alisa |title=The Magic Behind the Voices |title-link=The Magic Behind the Voices |trans-title=A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57806-696-4}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last=Laybourne |first=Kit |author-link=Kit Laybourne |title=The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking – from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation |publisher=Three Rivers Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-517-88602-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/animationbookcom00layb}}
- |last=Beckerman
+* {{cite book |last=Ledoux |first=Trish |title=Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide |publisher=Tiger Mountain Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-9649542-5-0}}
- |first=Howard
+* {{cite book |editor1-last=Lowe |editor1-first=Richard |editor2-last=Schnotz |editor2-first=Wolfgang |title=Learning with Animation. Research implications for design |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-85189-3}}
- |title=Animation: The Whole Story
+* {{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Christy |author1-link=Christy Marx |title=Writing for Animation, Comics, and Games |date=2007 |publisher=Focal Press |location=Burlington, Massachusetts |isbn=978-1-136-14445-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6NPkq_cYVgC}}
- |publisher=Allworth Press
+* {{cite book |last=Masson |first=Terrence |author-link=Terrence Masson |year=2007 |title=CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780977871001 |series=Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. |location=Williamstown, MA |publisher=Digital Fauxtography |isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1}}
- |year=2003
+* {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |year=1962 |title=Physics and Physical Technology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Science and Civilization in China |volume=IV}}
- |isbn=978-1-58115-301-9
+* {{cite book |last=Neupert |first=Richard |title=French Animation History |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2}}
- |url = https://archive.org/details/animationwholest00beck
+* {{cite book |last1=Parent |first1=Rick |title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques |year=2007 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |location=Ohio State University |isbn=978-0-12-532000-9}}
- }}
+* {{cite book |last=Paul |first=Joshua |title=Digital Video Hacks |year=2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |isbn=978-0-596-00946-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalvideohack00paul_0}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last1=Peri |first1=Don |last2=Docter |first2=Pete |author2-link=Pete Docter |title=Directing at Disney: The Original Directors of Walt's Animated Films |date=2024 |publisher=Disney Editions |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-1-4847-5574-7 |page=195 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovdZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195}}
- |last=Bendazzi
+* {{cite book |last=Pilling |first=Jayne |title=A Reader in Animation Studies |year=1997 |publisher=Indiana University Press |editor=Society of Animation Studies |isbn=978-1-86462-000-9}}
- |first=Giannalberto
+* {{cite book |last=Priebe |first=Ken A. |title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation |year=2006 |publisher=Thompson Course Technology |isbn=978-1-59863-244-6}}
- |title = Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation
+* {{cite book |last1=Rojas |first1=Carlos |last2=Chow |first2=Eileen |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-998844-0}}
- |url = https://archive.org/details/cartoons00gian
+* {{cite book |last1=Sammond |first1=Nicholas |title=Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation |date=27 August 2015 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, NC |isbn=978-0-8223-5852-7 |doi=10.1515/9780822375784 |oclc=8605897837 |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/188}}
- |url-access=registration
+* {{cite book |last=Sito |first=Tom |title=Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation |year=2013 |location=Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-01909-5}}
- |location=Bloomington, Indiana
+* {{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Charles |year=1989 |title=Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation |location=New York |publisher=Random House, Inc. |isbn=978-0-394-54684-1}}
- |publisher=Indiana University Press
+* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Bob |title=Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ |year=1958 |publisher=Simon and Schuster}}
- |year=1994
+* {{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Frank |author1-link=Frank Thomas (animator) |last2=Johnston |first2=Ollie |author2-link=Ollie Johnston |title=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life |title-link=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life |publisher=Abbeville Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-89659-233-9}}
- |isbn=978-0-253-20937-5
+* {{cite book |title=Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects |first=Thomas G. |last=Smith |year=1986 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-345-32263-0}}
-}}
+* {{cite book |last=White |first=Tony |title=Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator |year=2006 |location=Milton Park |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-240-80670-9}}
-* {{cite book
+* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Williams (animator) |title=The Animator's Survival Kit |title-link=The Animator's Survival Kit |year=2001 |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0-571-20228-7}}
- |last=Buchan
+* {{cite book |first1=Siegfried |last1=Zielinski |title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History |year=1999 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-5356-303-8}}
- |first=Suzanne
- |title=Pervasive Animation
- |location=New York and London
- |publisher=Routledge
- |year=2013
- |isbn=978-0-415-80723-4
-}}
-* {{cite book
-  |last=Canemaker
-  |first=John
-  |title=Before The Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists
-  |date=1996
-  |publisher=Hyperion
-  |location=New York
-  |author-link = John Canemaker
-  |isbn=0-7868-6152-5
-  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBgRAQAAMAAJ&q=individualistic}}
-* {{cite book
- |last = Canemaker
- |first = John
- |title = Winsor McCay: His Life and Art
- |edition = Revised
- |year = 2005
- |publisher = Abrams Books
- |isbn = 978-0-8109-5941-5
- |url = https://archive.org/details/winsormccayhisli00cane
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last = Cotte
- |first = Olivier
- |author-link = Olivier Cotte
- |title = Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations
- |year = 2007
- |publisher = Focal Press
- |isbn = 978-0240520704
- |url = https://www.routledge.com/Secrets-of-Oscar-winning-Animation-Behind-the-scenes-of-13-classic-short/Cotte/p/book/9780240520704
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Crafton
- |first=Donald
- |year=1993
- |title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928
- |publisher=University of Chicago Press
- |location=Chicago
- |isbn=978-0-226-11667-9
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |author-link = Shamus Culhane
- |last=Culhane
- |first=Shamus
- |title=Animation: Script to Screen
- |publisher=St. Martin's Press
- |year=1990
- |isbn=978-0-312-05052-8
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Drazin
- |first=Charles
- |title=The Faber Book of French Cinema
- |year=2011
- |publisher=Faber & Faber
- |isbn=978-0-571-21849-3
- |url-access=registration
- |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchcinema0000draz
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Faber
- |first1=Liz
- |last2=Walters
- |first2=Helen
- |title=Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940
- |publisher=Laurence King Publishing
- |location=London
- |year=2004
- |isbn=978-1-85669-346-2
- |url-access=registration
- |url = https://archive.org/details/animationunlimit0000fabe
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Finkielman
- |first=Jorge
- |title=The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History
- |year=2004
- |publisher=McFarland
- |location=North Carolina
- |isbn=978-0-7864-1628-8
- |page=[https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20 20]
- |url = https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Furniss
- |first=Maureen
- |title=Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics
- |year=1998
- |publisher=Indiana University Press
- |isbn=978-1-86462-039-9
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Godfrey
- |first1=Bob
- |last2=Jackson
- |first2=Anna
- |title=The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book
- |publisher=BBC Publications
- |year=1974
- |isbn=978-0-563-10829-0
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Harryhausen
- |first1=Ray
- |author1-link = Ray Harryhausen
- |last2=Dalton
- |first2=Tony
- |author2-link = Tony Dalton
- |title = A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman
- |year=2008
- |publisher=Aurum Press
- |isbn=978-0-8230-9980-1
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Herman
- |first=Sarah
- |year=2014
- |title = Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies
- |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing
- |location=New York
- |isbn=978-1-62914-649-2
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Lawson
- |first1=Tim
- |last2=Persons
- |first2=Alisa
- |title = The Magic Behind the Voices
- |title-link=The Magic Behind the Voices
- |trans-title = A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors
- |publisher=University Press of Mississippi
- |year=2004
- |isbn=978-1-57806-696-4
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Laybourne
- |first=Kit
- |author-link = Kit Laybourne
- |title = The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking – from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation
- |publisher=Three Rivers Press
- |location=New York
- |year=1998
- |isbn=978-0-517-88602-1
- |url = https://archive.org/details/animationbookcom00layb
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Ledoux
- |first=Trish
- |title = Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide
- |publisher=Tiger Mountain Press
- |year=1997
- |isbn=978-0-9649542-5-0
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |editor1-last = Lowe
- |editor1-first = Richard
- |editor2-last = Schnotz
- |editor2-first = Wolfgang
- |title = Learning with Animation. Research implications for design
- |publisher=Cambridge University Press
- |location=New York
- |year=2008
- |isbn=978-0-521-85189-3
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Marx
- |first1=Christy
- |author1-link=Christy Marx
- |title=Writing for Animation, Comics, and Games
- |date=2007
- |publisher=Focal Press
- |location=Burlington, Massachusetts
- |isbn=9781136144455
- |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6NPkq_cYVgC}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Masson
- |first=Terrence
- |author-link = Terrence Masson
- |year=2007
- |title = CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference
- |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780977871001
- |series = Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels.
- |location=Williamstown, MA
- |publisher=Digital Fauxtography
- |isbn=978-0-9778710-0-1
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Needham
- |first=Joseph
- |year=1962
- |title=Physics and Physical Technology
- |publisher=Cambridge University Press
- |chapter=Science and Civilization in China
- |volume=IV
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Neupert
- |first=Richard
- |title=French Animation History
- |year=2011
- |publisher=John Wiley & Sons
- |isbn=978-1-4443-3836-2
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Parent
- |first1=Rick
- |title=Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques
- |year=2007
- |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann
- |location=Ohio State University
- |isbn=978-0-12-532000-9
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Paul
- |first=Joshua
- |title=Digital Video Hacks
- |year=2005
- |publisher=O'Reilly Media
- |isbn=978-0-596-00946-5
- |url = https://archive.org/details/digitalvideohack00paul_0
- }}
-* {{cite book
-  |last1=Peri
-  |first1=Don
-  |last2=Docter
-  |first2=Pete
-  |author2-link=Pete Docter
-  |title=Directing at Disney: The Original Directors of Walt's Animated Films
-  |date=2024
-  |publisher=Disney Editions
-  |location=Los Angeles
-  |isbn=9781484755747
-  |page=195
-  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovdZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Pilling
- |first=Jayne
- |title = A Reader in Animation Studies
- |year=1997
- |publisher=Indiana University Press
- |editor=Society of Animation Studies
- |isbn=978-1-86462-000-9
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Priebe
- |first=Ken A.
- |title=The Art of Stop-Motion Animation
- |year=2006
- |publisher=Thompson Course Technology
- |isbn=978-1-59863-244-6
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Rojas
- |first1=Carlos
- |last2=Chow
- |first2=Eileen
- |title = The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas
- |year=2013
- |publisher=Oxford University Press
- |isbn=978-0-19-998844-0
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Sammond
- |first1=Nicholas
- |title=Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation
- |date=27 August 2015
-|publisher=Duke University Press
- |location=Durham, NC
- |isbn=9780822358527
- |doi=10.1515/9780822375784
- |oclc=8605897837
- |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/188
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Sito
- |first=Tom
- |title = Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation
- |year=2013
- |location=Massachusetts
- |publisher=[[MIT Press]]
- |isbn=978-0-262-01909-5
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Solomon
- |first=Charles
- |year=1989
- |title = Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation
- |location=New York
- |publisher=Random House, Inc.
- |isbn=978-0-394-54684-1
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Thomas
- |first=Bob
- |title = Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art
- |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ
- |year=1958
- |work=Walt Disney Studios
- |publisher=Simon and Schuster
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last1=Thomas
- |first1=Frank
- |author1-link = Frank Thomas (animator)
- |last2=Johnston
- |first2=Ollie
- |author2-link = Ollie Johnston
- |title = Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life
- |title-link=Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life
- |publisher=Abbeville Press
- |year=1981
- |isbn=978-0-89659-233-9
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |title = Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects
- |first = Thomas G.
- |last = Smith
- |year = 1986
- |publisher = Ballantine Books
- |location = New York
- |isbn=978-0-345-32263-0
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=White
- |first=Tony
- |title = Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator
- |year=2006
- |location=Milton Park
- |publisher=Taylor & Francis
- |isbn=978-0-240-80670-9
-}}
-* {{cite book
- |last=Williams
- |first=Richard
- |author-link = Richard Williams (animator)
- |title = The Animator's Survival Kit
- |title-link = The Animator's Survival Kit
- |year=2001
- |publisher=Faber and Faber
- |isbn=978-0-571-20228-7
- }}
-* {{cite book
- |first1=Siegfried
- |last1=Zielinski
- |title=Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History
- |year=1999
- |publisher=Amsterdam University Press
- |isbn=978-90-5356-303-8
-}}
 {{refend}}
 ====Online sources====
 {{refbegin|35em}}
-* {{cite web |last=Amidi |first=Amid |author-link=Amid Amidi |title = NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year |url = http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html |publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date=19 February 2016 |date=2 December 2011
+* {{cite web |last=Amidi |first=Amid |author-link=Amid Amidi |title=NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html |publisher=Cartoon Brew |access-date=19 February 2016 |date=2 December 2011}}
-}}
+* {{cite magazine |last=Ball |first=Ryan |title=Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran |url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/ |magazine=Animation Magazine |access-date=15 March 2016 |date=12 March 2008}}
-* {{cite magazine
+* {{cite web |url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html |title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman" |last=Beck |first=Jerry |date=2 July 2012 |publisher=Cartoon Brew}}
- |last=Ball
+* {{cite web |url=http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html |title=The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator |publisher=Animation World Network |last=Bendazzi |first=Giannalberto |year=1996 |access-date=29 April 2016}}
- |first=Ryan
+* {{cite web |url=http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |title=Animation |date=November 2009 |access-date=24 July 2012 |website=boi.gov.ph |publisher=Board of Investments |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2012 |ref={{SfnRef|Board of Investments |2009 }}}}
- |title=Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran
+* {{cite web |url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title=Experimental Animation Techniques |year=2003 |last=Brown |first=Margery |access-date=11 November 2005 |publisher=Evergreen State College |location=Olympia, WA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008}}
- |url = http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/
+* {{cite magazine |last=Carbone |first=Ken |title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA |url=http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma |magazine=Fast Company |access-date=7 March 2016 |date=24 February 2010}}
- |magazine=Animation Magazine
+* {{cite web |last=Kenyon |first=Heather |title=How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed |publisher=Animation World Network |access-date=2 March 2016 |date=1 February 1998}}
- |access-date=15 March 2016
+* {{cite web |last=Nagel |first=Jan |title=Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule |url=http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule |publisher=Animation World Network |access-date=3 March 2016 |date=21 May 2008}}
-|date=12 March 2008
+* {{cite news |last=McDuling |first=John |title=Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/ |access-date=20 July 2014 |work=The Atlantic |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |date=3 July 2014}}
-}}
+* {{cite web |last=McLaughlin |first=Dan |title=A Rather Incomplete But Still Fascinating |url=http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |website=Film TV |publisher=UCLA |year=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html |archive-date=19 November 2009 |access-date=12 February 2013}}
-* {{cite web
+* {{cite web |last=O'Keefe |first=Matt |url=http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers |title=6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers |work=Theme Park Tourist |access-date=9 March 2016 |date=11 November 2014}}
- |url = http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html
+* {{cite magazine |last=Watercutter |first=Angela |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/ |title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God |magazine=Wired |date=24 May 2012 |access-date=6 February 2016}}
- |title=A Little More About Disney's "Paperman"
+* {{cite magazine |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003 |title=Coloring the Kingdom |last=Zohn |first=Patricia |date=28 February 2010 |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |access-date=7 December 2015}}
- |last=Beck
+* {{cite web |title=Władysław Starewicz – Biography |url=http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz |website=culture.pl |date=16 April 2012 |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute |access-date=9 February 2016 |ref={{SfnRef|Adam Mickiewicz Institute|2012}}}}
- |first=Jerry
- |date=2 July 2012
-|publisher=Cartoon Brew
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |url = http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html
- |title = The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator |publisher=Animation World Network
- |last=Bendazzi
- |first=Giannalberto
- |year=1996
- |access-date=29 April 2016
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |url = http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf
- |title=Animation
- |date=November 2009
- |access-date=24 July 2012
-|website=boi.gov.ph
- |publisher=Board of Investments
- |url-status=dead
- |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf
- |archive-date=19 October 2012
-|ref = {{SfnRef|Board of Investments |2009 }}
-}}
-* {{cite web |url = http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |title = Experimental Animation Techniques |year=2003 |last=Brown |first=Margery |access-date=11 November 2005 |publisher=Evergreen State College |location=Olympia, WA |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2008 }}
-* {{cite magazine
- |last=Carbone
- |first= Ken
- |title=Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA
- |url = http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma
- |magazine=Fast Company
- |access-date=7 March 2016
-|date=24 February 2010
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |last = Kenyon
- |first = Heather
- |title = How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed
- |url = http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed
- |publisher=Animation World Network
- |access-date=2 March 2016
-|date=1 February 1998
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |last=Nagel
- |first=Jan
- |title = Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule
- |url = http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule
- |publisher=Animation World Network
- |access-date=3 March 2016
-|date=21 May 2008
-}}
-* {{cite news
- |last=McDuling
- |first=John
- |title = Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy
- |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/
- |access-date=20 July 2014
-|work=The Atlantic
- |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group
- |date=3 July 2014
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |last=McLaughlin
- |first=Dan
- |title = A Rather Incomplete But Still Fascinating
- |url = http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html
- |website = Film TV
- |publisher=UCLA
- |year=2001
- |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html
- |archive-date=19 November 2009
-|access-date=12 February 2013
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |last = O'Keefe |first = Matt
- |url = http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers
- |title = 6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers
- |work = Theme Park Tourist
- |access-date=9 March 2016
-|date=11 November 2014
-}}
-* {{cite magazine
- |last=Watercutter
- |first=Angela
- |url = https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/
- |title=35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God
- |magazine=Wired
- |date=24 May 2012
-|access-date=6 February 2016
-}}
-* {{cite magazine
- |url = http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003
- |title=Coloring the Kingdom
- |last=Zohn
- |first=Patricia
- |date=28 February 2010
-|magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]
- |access-date=7 December 2015
-}}
-* {{cite web
- |title = Władysław Starewicz – Biography
- |url = http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz
- |website=culture.pl
- |date=16 April 2012
-|publisher=Adam Mickiewicz Institute
- |access-date=9 February 2016
-|ref = {{SfnRef|Adam Mickiewicz Institute|2012}}
-}}
 {{refend}}
@@ Line 841: / Line 404: @@
 [[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
 [[Category:Film and video technology]]
+[[Category:French inventions]]
+[[Category:Video]]

Animation: Difference between revisions

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