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→Genetics: Deleted section that incorrectly sumarizes the authors conclusions; they did not state the origin of the turks was 'east asian'. Rather they say the origin of the founding Ashina clan was North East Asian and that a Sintasha-like group (ie west Eurasian) was a major component of the ethnogeneis of the Turkish people making their origins multi-ethnic.
 
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{{Short description|Founder of the Turkic Khaganate (d. 552 AD)}}
{{Short description|Founder of the Turkic Khaganate (d. 552 AD)}}
{{Infobox monarch
{{distinguish|Yami Qaghan|Illig Qaghan}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name        = Bumin Qaghan
| name        = Bumin Qaghan
| title        =  
| title        =  
| succession  = [[Qaghans of the Turkic khaganates|Qaghan]] of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]]
| succession  = [[Qaghans of the Turkic khaganates|Qaghan]] of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]]
| image        = Ongin inscription Bumin Qaghan.svg
| image        =  
| caption      = A line dedicated to Bumin Qaghan in the [[Ongin inscription]].
| caption      = Modern rendering of Bumin Khagan as one of the founders of the [[16 Great Turkic Empires]], part of the {{langx|tr|Türklük Anıtı||Monument to Turkishness}} in [[Pınarbaşı, Kayseri]]
| reign        = 552
| reign        = 552
| coronation  = 552 in [[Altai Mountains]]<ref>
| coronation  = 552 in [[Altai Mountains]]<ref>
Line 18: Line 19:
}}
}}
</ref>
</ref>
| full name    = Bumin Qaghan<br>Ellig Qaghan
| full name    =  
| regnal name  = Illig Qaghan (伊利可汗)
| successor    = [[Issik Qaghan]]
| successor    = [[Issik Qaghan]]
| spouse      = Princess Changle
| spouse      = {{unbulleted list|Unknown wives|[[Princess Changle (Western Wei)|Princess Changle]]}}
| issue        = [[Issik Qaghan]]
(551)
[[Muqan Qaghan]]
| issue        = {{unbulleted list|[[Issik Qaghan]]|[[Muqan Qaghan]]|[[Taspar Qaghan]]}}
[[Taspar Qaghan]]
| royal house  = [[Ashina tribe|Ashina]]
[[Böri Qaghan]]
| royal house  = [[Ashina tribe|Ashina Clan]]
| father      = [[Ashina Tuwu]]
| father      = [[Ashina Tuwu]]
| mother      =  
| mother      =  
| birth_name  = Ashina Tumen (阿史那土門)
| birth_date  =  
| birth_date  =  
| birth_place  =  
| birth_place  =  
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| religion    = [[Tengrism]]
| religion    = [[Tengrism]]
}}
}}
'''Bumin Qaghan''' ({{langx|otk|𐰉𐰆𐰢𐰣:𐰴𐰍𐰣|Bumïn qaɣan}},<ref name="Kultegin">{{cite web| url = http://irq.kaznpu.kz/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=15&m=1| title = Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG}}</ref> also known as '''Illig Qaghan''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 伊利可汗, [[Pinyin]]: Yīlì Kèhán, [[Wade–Giles]]: i-li k'o-han) or '''Yamï Qaghan'''{{efn|''Yamï Qağan'' on the Ongin inscription is often identified as [[Yami Qaghan|''Qǐmín Kěhàn'']] 啟民可汗 (r. 603–609 or 599–614) of the [[Eastern Turkic Khaganate]]<ref>Baumer's ''History of Central Asia'' (2016), p 324.</ref> W. Radloff identifies Yiamy kagan as Bumyn kagan, basing on similarities of letters "b" and "y" (H.N.Orkhun); Bumyn kagan (S.E Malov),<ref>S.E. Malov Onginsky monument; Monuments of ancient Türkic writing of Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, M., L., 1959, p. 7-11</ref> G.Aidarov,<ref>G. Aydarov On the language of the Kutlug Kagan monument; News of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, Series of social sciences, 1963, issue-6. p. 81-88</ref> Yamï qaγan (T.Tekin),<ref>Orhun H.N. Eski turk yazitlarі. Turk Tarih Kurumu basimevi, Ankara, 1986, p.127-132</ref> Yamï qaγan (L.Bold), according I. Markwart, Yiamy kagan is Bumyn/Tumen.}} ({{langx|otk|𐰖𐰢𐰃:𐰴𐰍𐰣|Yamï qaɣan}}, died 552 AD) was the founder of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]]. He was the eldest son of [[Ashina Tuwu]] (吐務 / 吐务).<ref>[[Ouyang Xiu]] et al., ''[[New Book of Tang]]'', [[:zh:s:新唐書/卷215下|Cilt 215-II]] {{in lang|zh}}</ref> He was the chieftain of the Turks under the sovereignty of [[Rouran Khaganate]].<ref name="Ma Zhangshou">馬長壽, 《突厥人和突厥汗國》, 上海人民出版社, 1957, (Ma Zhangshou, ''Tujue ve Tujue Khaganate''), pp. 10-11. {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="Fengxiang">陳豐祥, 余英時, 《中國通史》, 五南圖書出版股份有限公司, 2002, {{ISBN|978-957-11-2881-8}} (Chen Fengxiang, Yu Yingshi, ''General history of China''), p. 155. {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="Gao Yang">{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1dRpAAAAMAAJ&q=slave++Rouran| title = Gao Yang, "The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate", ''X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 - 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler'', V. Cilt, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1991, s. 731.| year = 1986| publisher = Kenan Matbaası| isbn = 9789751604033}}</ref><ref name="Burhan Oğuz">Burhan Oğuz, ''Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri'', İstanbul Matbaası, 1976, p. 147.  [https://books.google.com/books?id=kOwBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22demirci+k%C3%B6le%22 «Demirci köle» olmaktan kurtulup reisleri Bumin'e] {{in lang|tr}}</ref> He is also mentioned as '''Tumen''' ({{linktext|lang=zh|土門}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|吐門}}, commander of ten thousand<ref>"Tumen" is used for expressing 10,000 and "Bum" is used for expressing 100,000 in ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', Larry Moses, "Legend by the numbers: The Symbolism of Numbers in the 'Secret History of the Mongols'", ''Asian folklore studies'', Vol. 55-56, Nanzan University Institute of Anthropology, 1996, p. 95.</ref>) of the Rouran Khaganate.<ref name="Beckwith">{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |date=16 March 2009 |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=387, 390 |isbn=978-0691135892 |access-date=30 May 2015 }}</ref>
'''Bumin Qaghan''' ({{langx|otk|𐰉𐰆𐰢𐰣:𐰴𐰍𐰣|Bumïn qaɣan}},<ref name="Kultegin">{{cite web |title=Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG |url=https://bitig.kz/?mod=1&tid=1&oid=15&lang=e}}</ref> died 552 AD) was the founder of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]]. His regnal title was '''Illig Qaghan''' ({{Langx|zh|伊利可汗|Yīlì Kèhán}}, [[Wade–Giles]]: i-li k'o-han). He was the eldest son of [[Ashina Tuwu]] (吐務 / 吐务).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ouyang |first=Xiu |author-link=Ouyang Xiu |title=New Book of Tang |title-link=New Book of Tang |volume=[[s:zh:新唐書/卷215下|215A]] |language=zh}}</ref> He was the chieftain of the Turks under the sovereignty of the [[Rouran Khaganate]].<ref name="Ma Zhangshou">{{Cite book |last=Ma |first=Zhangshou |title=突厥人和突厥汗國 |publisher=[[SPPH]] |year=1957 |pages=10–11 |language=zh |trans-title=Turks and the Turkic Qaghanate}}</ref><ref name="Fengxiang">{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Fengxiang |title=中國通史 |last2=Yu |first2=Yingshi |publisher=[[wikidata:Q15922903|Wunan Book Publishing]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-957-11-2881-8 |pages=155 |language=zh |trans-title=General History of China}}</ref><ref name="Gao Yang">{{cite book |last=Gao |first=Yang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dRpAAAAMAAJ&q=slave++Rouran |title=X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 - 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler |publisher=[[Turkish Historical Society]] |year=1991 |isbn=9789751604033 |volume=5 |pages=731 |trans-title=10th Turkish History Congress: Ankara, 22–26 September 1986, Papers Presented to the Congress |chapter=The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate}}</ref><ref name="Burhan Oğuz">{{Cite book |last=Oğuz |first=Burhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOwBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22demirci+k%C3%B6le%22 |title=Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri |date=1976 |publisher=İstanbul Matbaası |isbn=978-975-8586-22-6 |pages=147 |language=tr |trans-title=Cultural roots of the Turkish people: Introduction, nutritional techniques}}</ref> He is also mentioned as '''Tumen''' ({{linktext|lang=zh|土門}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|吐門}}, commander of ten thousand<ref>"Tumen" is used for expressing 10,000 and "Bum" is used for expressing 100,000 in ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'', Larry Moses, "Legend by the numbers: The Symbolism of Numbers in the 'Secret History of the Mongols'", ''Asian folklore studies'', Vol. 55-56, Nanzan University Institute of Anthropology, 1996, p. 95.</ref>) of the Rouran Khaganate.<ref name="Beckwith">{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |date=16 March 2009 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691135892 |pages=387, 390 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>
 
== Name ==
The name Tumen ({{Langx|ltc|土門|thɔ'-mən|links=yes|label=Early Middle Chinese}} and {{Langx|ltc|土門|t<sup>h</sup>uə'mun}}) found in Chinese historical records (such as the ''[[Book of Zhou]]'' and ''[[Book of Sui]]'') and Bumin Qaghan found in Old Turkic inscriptions are considered to refer to the same person: the founder of the Turkic Khaganate. However, the two names do not match phonetically. Turcologist Volker Rybatzki suggested that "Bumin" can be analyzed from an Iranian linguistic perspective, splitting it into the root ''bum-'' and the suffix ''-in''. The suffix ''-in'' often appears in [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] to indicate a nickname or patronymic. The root ''bum-'' can be compared to [[Sanskrit|Old Sanskrit]] ''bhūmi'' ("earth, ground, soil, land"), [[Old Persian]] ''būmī-'' ("earth"), and Sogdian ''ßωmh'' ("earth, land, world").<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Rybatzki |first=Volker |date=2000 |title=Titles of Türk and Uigur Rulers in the Old Turkic Inscriptions |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928233 |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=205–292 |issn=0008-9192}}</ref>
 
According to turcologist Rui Chuanming, ''tu'' (土) means "earth, soil, territory," and ''men'' (門) means "entrance, faction, clan." Given the strong influence of Sogdian culture on the [[First Turkic Khaganate]], the meaning of the name "Bumin" may have been introduced to China by Sogdians, where the Chinese then translated it into "Tu-men"—a name that captures both the sound (approximated) and the meaning, according to his theory.{{Sfn|Rui|2017|p=204}} He suggested that "Bumin" might have been an alternative title for Tumen that was not recorded by Chinese historians.{{Sfn|Rui|2017|p=204}}
 
Other theories suggest "Tumen" is a transliteration of the Turkic word for "ten thousand" (''[[Tumen (unit)|tümen]]''). Sui and Tang historian Cen Zhongmian believed "Bumin" originated from the Sanskrit ''bhuman'' ("vast, wealthy").{{Sfn|Cen|1958|p=892}}


== Early life and reign ==
== Early life and reign ==
According to ''[[History of Northern Dynasties]]'' and ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', in 545 Tumen's tribe started to rise and frequently invaded the western frontier of [[Cao Wei|Wei]]. The [[Chancellor (China)|chancellor]] of [[Western Wei]], [[Yuwen Tai]], sent [[An Nuopanto]] (安諾盤陀, Nanai-Banda, a [[Sogdian people|Sogdian]] from [[Bukhara]],<ref>Shing Müller, "Sogdian in China um 600 n. Chr. Archäologische Zeugnisse eines Lebens zwischen Assimilation und Identitätsbewahrung", NOAG, Vol. 183-184, 2008. [http://www.uni-hamburg.de/Japanologie/noag/noag2008_7.pdf p. 123.] {{in lang|de}}</ref>) as an emissary to the Göktürk chieftain Tumen, in an attempt to establish a commercial relationship.<ref name="Northern99">Li Yanshou (李延寿), ''History of Northern Dynasties'', [[:zh:s:北史/卷099|Vol. 99.]] {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="Zizhi159">[[Sima Guang]], ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷159|Vol. 159.]] {{in lang|zh}}</ref> In 546, Tumen paid tribute to the Western Wei state.<ref name="Zizhi159" /> In that same year, Tumen put down a revolt of the [[Tiele people|Tiele tribes]] against the Rouran Khaganate, their overlords.<ref name="Zizhi159" /> Following this, Tumen felt entitled to request of the Rouran a princess as his wife. The Rouran khagan, [[Yujiulü Anagui|Anagui]], sent a message refusing this request and adding: "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" Bumin got angry, killed Anagui's emissary, and severed relations with the Rouran Khaganate.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50">[[Linghu Defen]] et al., ''[[Book of Zhou]]'', [[:zh:s:周書/卷50|Vol. 50.]] {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref name="Zizhi164">Sima Guang, ''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷164|Vol. 164.]] {{in lang|zh}}</ref><ref>Christopher I. Beckwith, ''Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present'', Princeton University Press, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13589-2}}, p. 9.</ref> Anagui's "blacksmith" ([[wikt:鍛|鍛]][[wikt:奴|奴]] / 锻奴, Pinyin: duàn nú, Wade–Giles: tuan-nu) insult was recorded in Chinese chronicles. Some sources state that members of the Turks (referred as "Tujue" in Chinese sources) did serve as blacksmiths for the Rouran elite,<ref name="Ma Zhangshou" /><ref name="Fengxiang" /><ref name="Gao Yang" /><ref name="Burhan Oğuz" /> and that "blacksmith slavery" may refer to a kind of vassalage that prevailed in Rouran society.<ref>Larry W. Moses, "Relations with the Inner Asian Barbarian", ed. [[John Curtis Perry]], Bardwell L. Smith, ''Essays on Tʻang society: the interplay of social, political and economic forces'', Brill Archive, 1976, {{ISBN|978-90-04-04761-7}}, p. 65. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5s4UAAAAIAAJ&dq=Blacksmith+slave+Juan+Juan&pg=PA65 ''Slave' probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan confederation of Mongolia, whom they served in battle by providing iron weapons, and also marching with qaghan's armies.'']</ref> Nevertheless, after this incident Bumin emerged as the leader of the revolt against Rouran.
According to the ''[[History of the Northern Dynasties]]'' and the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', in 545 Tumen's tribe started to rise and frequently invaded the western frontier of [[Cao Wei|Wei]]. The [[Chancellor (China)|chancellor]] of [[Western Wei]], [[Yuwen Tai]], sent An Nuopanto (安諾盤陀, Nanai-Banda, a [[Sogdian people|Sogdian]] from [[Bukhara]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rong |first=Xinjiang |author-link=Rong Xinjiang |title=世紀的北中國與歐亞大陸 |publisher=[[China Science Publishing & Media]] |year=2006 |editor-last=Zhang |editor-first=Qingjie |location=Beijing |pages=128–139 |language=zh |trans-title=Northern China and Eurasia in the 21st Century |chapter=有關北周同州薩保安伽墓的幾個問題 |trans-chapter=Several questions concerning the tomb of Sabao Anjia in Tongzhou, Northern Zhou Dynasty}}</ref>) as an emissary to the Göktürk chieftain Tumen, in an attempt to establish a commercial relationship.<ref name="Northern99">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Yanshou |author-link=Li Yanshou |title=History of the Northern Dynasties |title-link=History of the Northern Dynasties |volume=[[s:zh:北史/卷099|99]] |language=zh}}</ref><ref name="Zizhi159">{{Cite book |last=Sima |first=Quang |author-link=Sima Guang |url= |title=Zizhi Tongjian |title-link=Zizhi Tongjian |volume=[[wikisource:zh:資治通鑑/卷159|159]] |language=zh}}</ref> In 546, Tumen paid tribute to the Western Wei state.<ref name="Zizhi159" />{{Sfn|Cen|1958|p=499-500}} Tumen later put down a revolt of the [[Tiele people|Tiele tribes]], accepting the surrender of over 50,000 households against the Rouran Khaganate, their overlords.<ref name="Zizhi159" />
 
Following this, Tumen felt entitled to request of the Rouran a princess to be his wife. The Rouran khagan, [[Yujiulü Anagui]], sent a message refusing this request and adding: "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" Bumin got angry, killed Anagui's emissary, and severed relations with the Rouran Khaganate.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50">{{Cite book |last=Linghu |first=Defen |author-link=Linghu Defen |title=Book of Zhou |title-link=Book of Zhou |volume=[[s:zh:周書/卷50|50]] |language=zh}}</ref><ref name="Zizhi164">{{Cite book |last=Sima |first=Quang |author-link=Sima Guang |title=Zizhi Tongjian |volume=[[s:zh:資治通鑑/卷164|164]] |language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |title=Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 |location=Princeton (N.J.) |pages=9}}</ref> Anagui's "blacksmith" ({{Langx|zh|鍛奴|duànnú}}) insult was recorded in Chinese chronicles. Some sources state that members of the Turks did serve as blacksmiths for the Rouran elite,<ref name="Ma Zhangshou" /><ref name="Fengxiang" /><ref name="Gao Yang" /><ref name="Burhan Oğuz" /> and that "blacksmith slavery" may refer to a kind of vassalage that prevailed in Rouran society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perry |first=John Curtis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5s4UAAAAIAAJ&dq=Blacksmith+slave+Juan+Juan&pg=PA65 |title=Essays on Tʻang Society: The Interplay of Social, Political and Economic Forces |last2=Smith |first2=Bardwell Leith |date=1976 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn=978-90-04-04761-7 |pages=65 |language=en}}</ref> Nevertheless, after this incident Bumin emerged as the leader of the revolt against the Rouran.
[[File:First Turk Khaganate(600).PNG|thumb|Gokturk khaganate.]]
[[File:First Turk Khaganate(600).PNG|thumb|Gokturk khaganate.]]
In 551, Bumin requested a Western Wei princess in marriage. Yuwen Tai permitted it and sent [[:zh:长乐公主 (西魏)|Princess Changle(長樂公主)]] of Western Wei to Bumin.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50" /><ref name="Zizhi164" /> In the same year when [[Emperor Wen of Western Wei]] died, Bumin sent mission and gave two hundred horses.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50" />
In 551, Bumin requested a Western Wei princess for marriage. Yuwen Tai permitted it and sent [[Princess Changle (Western Wei)|Princess Changle]] of Western Wei to Bumin in July or August 551.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50" /><ref name="Zizhi164" /> In the same year [[Emperor Wen of Western Wei]] died, and Bumin sent a mission and gave two hundred horses.<ref name="Northern99" /><ref name="Zhou50" />


The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and threw off the yoke of the [[Rouran]] domination. In 552 Bumin's army defeated Anagui's forces at the north of [[Six Frontier Towns|Huaihuang]] and then Anagui committed suicide.<ref name="Zhou50" /> With their defeat Bumin proclaimed himself "'''Illig Qaghan'''" and made his wife [[Khatun|qaghatun]].<ref name="Zhou50" /> "Illig" means [[Ilkhan (title)|Ilkhan]] (i.e. ruler of people) in [[Old Turkic]].<ref>Talat Tekin, (1968), ''A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic'', p. 58</ref> According to the [[Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments|Bilge Qaghan's memorial complex]] and the [[Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments|Kul Tigin's memorial complex]], Bumin and [[Istemi]] ruled people by Turkic laws and they developed them.<ref name="Kultegin" /><ref name="Bilge">{{cite web| url = http://irq.kaznpu.kz/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=16&m=1| title = Bilge kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG}}</ref>
The ''Book of Zhou'' does not explicitly date revolt of the Tiele. Sima Guang's ''Zizhi Tongjian'' places it in 551, but historian Cen Zhongmian argued this dating is incorrect. According to him, since Tumen subsequently requested marriages from both Rouran and Western Wei, the defeat of the Tiele could not have happened as late as 551.{{Sfn|Cen|1958|p=500}} Scholars [[Xue Zongzheng]] and Wu Yugui agree, with Xue further speculating the event occurred in 550 or earlier.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Xue |first=Zhongzheng |author-link=Xue Zongzheng |title=突厥史 |publisher=[[Chinese Social Sciences Press]] |year=1992 |location=Beijing |pages=88 |language=zh |trans-title=A History of Turks}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Yugui |title=突厥汗國與隋唐關係史研究 |date=2017 |publisher=[[Commercial Press]] |isbn=978-7-100-13887-1 |edition=1st |series= |location=Beijing |pages=10 |language=zh |trans-title=A Study on the Relationship between the Turkic Khaganate and the Sui and Tang Dynasties}}</ref>
 
The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and ended their subservience to the Rouran. In February or March 552 Bumin's army defeated Anagui's forces at the north of [[Six Frontier Towns|Huaihuang]] and then Anagui committed suicide.<ref name="Zhou50" /> With their defeat Bumin proclaimed himself Illig Qaghan and made his wife [[Khatun|qaghatun]].<ref name="Zhou50" /> [[Marcel Erdal]] compared "Illig" to [[Ilkhan (title)|ilkhan]] (i.e. ruler of people) in [[Old Turkic]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Erdal |first=Marcel |title=Die türkisch-mongolischen Titel elxan und elči |url=https://www.academia.edu/13719647/Die_t%C3%BCrkisch_mongolischen_Titel_elxan_und_el%C4%8Di |journal=Altaica Berolinensia. Asiatische Forschungen |location=Wiesbaden |issue=126 |pages=81–99}}</ref> Rybatzki instead translated this title as "qaghan who has a land".<ref name=":2" /> According to the [[Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments|Bilge Qaghan's memorial complex]] and the [[Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments|Kul Tigin's memorial complex]], Bumin and [[Istemi]] ruled people by Turkic laws and they developed them.<ref name="Kultegin" /><ref name="Bilge">{{cite web |title=Bilge kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG |url=https://bitig.kz/?mod=1&tid=1&oid=16&lang=e}}</ref>


== Death and family ==
== Death and family ==
Bumin died within several months after proclaiming himself Illig Qaghan. He was married to Princess Changle of [[Western Wei]].  
[[File:An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in Yurt (detail). Xi’an, 579 CE. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg|thumb|Contemporary depiction of the encounter in a Turkic [[yurt]] of the [[Sogdia]]n trader [[Tomb of An Jia|An Jia]] (left) and a Turkic Chieftain (right). 579 CE, [[Tomb of An Jia]], [[Xi’an]], China.]]
Bumin died within several months of proclaiming himself Illig Qaghan.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |publisher=UNESCO |year=2006 |isbn=978-9231032110 |pages=327}}</ref> Xue Zongzheng believes the cause of death was injuries sustained during the war with the Rouran.<ref name=":3" /> He had a younger brother called [[Istämi]] who ruled westernpost portions of the qaghanate.<ref name="MichaelKappler2009">{{cite book|author1=Michalis N. Michael|author2=Matthias Kappler|author3=Eftihios Gavriel|title=Archivum Ottomanicum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjwMAQAAMAAJ&q=mentioned+brother|year=2009|publisher=Mouton.|pages=68, 69|isbn=9783447058995 }}</ref>


Issue:
Wives and children:


* Ashina Keluo (阿史那科罗) - [[Issik Qaghan|Issig Qaghan]]
* Unnamed Turkic khatun(s)
* Ashina Qijin (阿史那俟斤) - [[Muqan Qaghan]]
** [[Issik Qaghan]] (r. 552–553)
* [[Taspar Qaghan]]
** [[Muqan Qaghan]] (r. 553–572)
* Ashina Kutou (阿史那庫頭) - Ditou Qaghan (appointed by [[Muqan Qaghan]] to be lesser khagan of eastern wing of Turkic Empire)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B733|title=Book of Zhou|last=Linghu|first=Defen|pages=33}}</ref>
** [[Taspar Qaghan]] (however Baatar Urgunbuyan claims [[Princess Changle (Western Wei)|Princess Changle]] of [[Western Wei]] was his mother)<ref name="BAA">{{cite journal |last1=Urgunbuyan |first1=Baatar |date=28 August 2023 |title=Princesses of the Central Plains Married into the Turkish Khaganate |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/modi-2023-2006 |journal=Mongolian Diaspora. Journal of Mongolian History and Culture |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=39 |doi=10.1515/modi-2023-2006 |quote=Taspar (他钵, 佗钵), born from King Tumen and Queen Chanle became the fourth Khan of the Turkish Khaganate. |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Mahan Tigin - Lesser khagan appointed by [[Taspar Qaghan]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alyılmaz|first=Cengiz|title=Bugut Yazıtı ve Anıt Mezar Külliyesi Üzerine|url=http://sutad.selcuk.edu.tr/sutad/article/view/203|journal=Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi|year=2003 |volume=1 |issue=13 |pages=11–21 }}</ref>
** Kutlug<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taşağıl |first=Ahmet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ2iucxuQ80C |title=Gök-Türkler |date=1995 |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi |isbn=978-975-16-1631-9 |pages=23 |language=tr |trans-title=Göktürks}}</ref> ({{Langx|zh|阿史那庫頭|Āshǐnà Kùtóu}}) appointed by Muqan Qaghan to be the lesser khagan of the Eastern Turkic Empire with title Ditou Qaghan (地頭可汗) <ref>{{Cite book |last=Linghu |first=Defen |author-link=Linghu Defen |title=Book of Zhou |title-link=Book of Zhou |volume=[[s:zh:周書/卷33|33]] |language=zh}}</ref>
* Rudan Qaghan (褥但可汗)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7099|script-title=zh:北史/卷099 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆|website=zh.wikisource.org|language=zh|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>
** Mahan Tegin (d. 581) — lesser khagan appointed by Taspar Qaghan<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alyılmaz |first=Cengiz |year=2003 |title=Bugut Yazıtı ve Anıt Mezar Külliyesi Üzerine |trans-title=On the Bugut Inscription and the Mausoleum Complex |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/258166 |journal=Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi |volume=1 |issue=13 |pages=11–21}}</ref>
** Böri Qaghan (步離可汗) - Lesser khagan of appointed by [[Taspar Qaghan]]<ref name=":0" />
** Rudan Qaghan ({{Langx|zh|褥但可汗}}) — he is defined almost entirely by his relationship to others rather than his own actions. Might be the brother poisoned by [[Northern Qi]] in the Baoding era (561–565).<ref name="Zhou50"/>
*** Böri Qaghan (步離可汗) - Lesser khagan of west appointed by Taspar Qaghan<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wei |first=Zheng |author-link=Wei Zheng |title=Book of Sui |title-link=Book of Sui |volume=[[s:zh:北史/卷099|99]] |language=zh}}</ref>


===Genetics===
=== Genetics ===
A complete genetic analysis of [[Empress Ashina]] (551–582), Bumin Qaghan' granddaughter through his son Muqan Qaghan, by Xiaoming Yang et al. in 2023 , found nearly exclusively [[Ancient Northeast Asian]] ancestry (97,7%) next to minor West-Eurasian components (2,7%), and no Chinese ("Yellow River") admixture. This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the [[Ashina tribe]] and the [[Göktürk Khanate]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiaomin |title=Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |date=2023 |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=1056–1064 |doi=10.1111/jse.12938 |s2cid=255690237 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366965287|quote=In the principal component analysis (PCA) (Figs. 1B, S3), the Ashina individual clustered with modern Tungusic and Mongolic speakers, ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau, and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter‐gatherers previously referred to as “Ancient Northeast Asian” (ANA), that is, DevilsCave_N, Mongolia_N_North, Boisman_MN, AR_EN (Jeong et al., 2020; Ning et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021), as well as post‐Iron Age Eastern Steppe nomadic people including Xianbei, Rouran, Khitan, and part of the Mongol population. The shared genetic similarity between Ashina and Northeast Eurasians, especially ANA, was also evident in outgroup‐f3 statistics (Fig. S5A).}}</ref> According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses" in favor of an East Asian origin for the Türks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiaomin |last2=Meng |first2=Hailiang |last3=Zhang |first3=Jianlin |last4=Yu |first4=Yao |last5=Allen |first5=Edward |last6=Xia |first6=Ziyang |last7=Zhu |first7=Kongyang |last8=Du |first8=Panxin |last9=Ren |first9=Xiaoying |last10=Xiong |first10=Jianxue |last11=Lu |first11=Xiaoyu |last12=Ding |first12=Yi |last13=Han |first13=Sheng |last14=Liu |first14=Weipeng |last15=Jin |first15=Li |date=2023-01-09 |title=Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jse.12938 |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=61 |issue=6 |language=en |pages=1056–1064 |doi=10.1111/jse.12938 |s2cid=255690237 |issn=1674-4918|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
A complete genetic analysis of [[Empress Ashina]] (551–582), Bumin Qaghan' granddaughter through his son Muqan Qaghan, by Xiaoming Yang et al. in 2023, found nearly exclusively [[Ancient Northeast Asian]] ancestry (97,7%) next to minor West-Eurasian components (2,7%), and no Chinese ("Yellow River") admixture. This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the [[Ashina tribe]]. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiaomin |last2=Meng |first2=Hailiang |last3=Zhang |first3=Jianlin |last4=Yu |first4=Yao |last5=Allen |first5=Edward |last6=Xia |first6=Ziyang |last7=Zhu |first7=Kongyang |last8=Du |first8=Panxin |last9=Ren |first9=Xiaoying |last10=Xiong |first10=Jianxue |last11=Lu |first11=Xiaoyu |last12=Ding |first12=Yi |last13=Han |first13=Sheng |last14=Liu |first14=Weipeng |last15=Jin |first15=Li |date=2023-01-09 |title=Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jse.12938 |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=61 |issue=6 |language=en |pages=1056–1064 |doi=10.1111/jse.12938 |s2cid=255690237 |issn=1674-4918|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


== Legacy ==
=== Legacy ===
He was succeeded by his younger brother [[Istemi]]<ref name="MichaelKappler2009">{{cite book|author1=Michalis N. Michael|author2=Matthias Kappler|author3=Eftihios Gavriel|title=Archivum Ottomanicum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjwMAQAAMAAJ&q=mentioned+brother|year=2009|publisher=Mouton.|pages=68, 69|isbn=9783447058995 }}</ref> in the western part and by his son [[Issik Qaghan]] in the eastern part. In less than one century, his khaganate expanded to comprise most of [[Central Asia]].
The ''[[Tariat inscriptions|Tariat Inscriptions]]'' from the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] period mention a certain Bumin Qaghan,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inscription El etmish Bilge kagan (Tariat // Terh) |url=https://bitig.kz/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=24&m=1 |access-date=2025-11-20 |website=bitig.kz}}</ref> but due to severe damage to the stone face, it cannot be confirmed if this Bumin Qaghan is indeed him.{{Sfn|Geng|2005|p=212}} The ''[[Ongin inscription|Ongin Inscription]]'' from the Second Khaganate period mentions a certain ''Yamï Qağan'' ({{langx|otk|𐰖𐰢𐰃:𐰴𐰍𐰣|Yamï qaɣan}}) who some believe may be Bumin Qaghan, though this interpretation remains controversial. Several scholars, including early researchers [[Wilhelm Radloff]] and [[Josef Marquart]], as well as contemporary scholar Takashi Ōsawa, have identified this figure as Bumin Qaghan, suggesting "Yama" is a variant reference to the founder of the khaganate.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ōsawa |first=Takashi |date=2011 |title=Revisiting the Ongi inscription of Mongolia from the Second Turkic Qaγanate on the basis of rubbings by G. J. Ramstedt |url=https://scispace.com/pdf/revisiting-the-ongi-inscription-of-mongolia-from-the-second-2xe5a6sx7l.pdf |journal=Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne |volume=93 |pages=176–177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Radloff |first=Wilhelm |url=https://archive.org/details/diealtturkischeninschriftendermongol |title=Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei |publisher=Imp. Akademii Nauka |year=1895 |location=St. Petersburg |page=253 |language=de |trans-title=The Old Turkic Inscriptions of Mongolia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marquart |first=Josef |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ZhjgAAAAMAAJ |title=Die Chronologie der Alttürkischen Inschriften |title-link= |publisher=Dieterich'sche verlags |year=1898 |location=Leipzig |page=39 |language=de |trans-title=The Chronology of the Old Turkic Inscriptions}}</ref> However, this identification remains a subject of academic debate and is not universally accepted; scholars such as [[Gerard Clauson]] and [[Talat Tekin]] have challenged this reading,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clauson |first=Gerard |year=1957 |title=The Ongin Inscription |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00115825 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |issue=3 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tekin |first=Talat |url=https://archive.org/details/grammaroforkhont0069tala |title=A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic |publisher=Indiana University |year=1968 |location=Bloomington |page=291}}</ref> and Chinese researchers Geng Shimin and Rui Chuanming note that the interpretation of the text is still controversial.{{Sfn|Geng|2005|p=186-187}}{{Sfn|Rui|2017|p=259|pp=262-263}}
 
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


== Sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Cen |first=Zhongmian |title=突厥集史 |publisher=Zhonghua Book Company |year=1958 |location=Beijing |language=zh |trans-title=A Collection of History of the Turks}}
* {{Cite book |last=Geng |first=Shimin |title=古代突厥文碑銘研究 |publisher=[[Minzu University of China]] |year=2005 |location=Beijing |pages= |language=zh |trans-title=A Study of Ancient Turkic Inscriptions}}
* {{cite book |last=Rui |first=Chuanming |title=古突厥碑銘研究 |publisher=[[The Commercial Press]] |year=2017 |isbn= |edition=Revised |location=Beijing |pages= |language=zh |trans-title=Research on Old Turkic Inscriptions}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-start}}
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{{s-hou|[[Ashina tribe|Ashina Clan]]||}}
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[[Category:552 deaths]]
[[Category:Göktürk khagans]]
[[Category:Göktürk khagans]]
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[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
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[[Category:Rouran Khaganate]]
{{Rouran rulers}}

Latest revision as of 08:47, 1 June 2026

Not to be confused with Yami Qaghan or Illig Qaghan.

Template:Infobox royalty Bumin Qaghan (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.,[1] died 552 AD) was the founder of the First Turkic Khaganate. His regnal title was Illig Qaghan (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist., Wade–Giles: i-li k'o-han). He was the eldest son of Ashina Tuwu (吐務 / 吐务).[2] He was the chieftain of the Turks under the sovereignty of the Rouran Khaganate.[3][4][5][6] He is also mentioned as Tumen (土門, 吐門, commander of ten thousand[7]) of the Rouran Khaganate.[8]

Name

The name Tumen (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. and Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) found in Chinese historical records (such as the Book of Zhou and Book of Sui) and Bumin Qaghan found in Old Turkic inscriptions are considered to refer to the same person: the founder of the Turkic Khaganate. However, the two names do not match phonetically. Turcologist Volker Rybatzki suggested that "Bumin" can be analyzed from an Iranian linguistic perspective, splitting it into the root bum- and the suffix -in. The suffix -in often appears in Sogdian to indicate a nickname or patronymic. The root bum- can be compared to Old Sanskrit bhūmi ("earth, ground, soil, land"), Old Persian būmī- ("earth"), and Sogdian ßωmh ("earth, land, world").[9]

According to turcologist Rui Chuanming, tu (土) means "earth, soil, territory," and men (門) means "entrance, faction, clan." Given the strong influence of Sogdian culture on the First Turkic Khaganate, the meaning of the name "Bumin" may have been introduced to China by Sogdians, where the Chinese then translated it into "Tu-men"—a name that captures both the sound (approximated) and the meaning, according to his theory.[10] He suggested that "Bumin" might have been an alternative title for Tumen that was not recorded by Chinese historians.[10]

Other theories suggest "Tumen" is a transliteration of the Turkic word for "ten thousand" (tümen). Sui and Tang historian Cen Zhongmian believed "Bumin" originated from the Sanskrit bhuman ("vast, wealthy").[11]

Early life and reign

According to the History of the Northern Dynasties and the Zizhi Tongjian, in 545 Tumen's tribe started to rise and frequently invaded the western frontier of Wei. The chancellor of Western Wei, Yuwen Tai, sent An Nuopanto (安諾盤陀, Nanai-Banda, a Sogdian from Bukhara[12]) as an emissary to the Göktürk chieftain Tumen, in an attempt to establish a commercial relationship.[13][14] In 546, Tumen paid tribute to the Western Wei state.[14][15] Tumen later put down a revolt of the Tiele tribes, accepting the surrender of over 50,000 households against the Rouran Khaganate, their overlords.[14]

Following this, Tumen felt entitled to request of the Rouran a princess to be his wife. The Rouran khagan, Yujiulü Anagui, sent a message refusing this request and adding: "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" Bumin got angry, killed Anagui's emissary, and severed relations with the Rouran Khaganate.[13][16][17][18] Anagui's "blacksmith" (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) insult was recorded in Chinese chronicles. Some sources state that members of the Turks did serve as blacksmiths for the Rouran elite,[3][4][5][6] and that "blacksmith slavery" may refer to a kind of vassalage that prevailed in Rouran society.[19] Nevertheless, after this incident Bumin emerged as the leader of the revolt against the Rouran.

File:First Turk Khaganate(600).PNG
Gokturk khaganate.

In 551, Bumin requested a Western Wei princess for marriage. Yuwen Tai permitted it and sent Princess Changle of Western Wei to Bumin in July or August 551.[13][16][17] In the same year Emperor Wen of Western Wei died, and Bumin sent a mission and gave two hundred horses.[13][16]

The Book of Zhou does not explicitly date revolt of the Tiele. Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian places it in 551, but historian Cen Zhongmian argued this dating is incorrect. According to him, since Tumen subsequently requested marriages from both Rouran and Western Wei, the defeat of the Tiele could not have happened as late as 551.[20] Scholars Xue Zongzheng and Wu Yugui agree, with Xue further speculating the event occurred in 550 or earlier.[21][22]

The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and ended their subservience to the Rouran. In February or March 552 Bumin's army defeated Anagui's forces at the north of Huaihuang and then Anagui committed suicide.[16] With their defeat Bumin proclaimed himself Illig Qaghan and made his wife qaghatun.[16] Marcel Erdal compared "Illig" to ilkhan (i.e. ruler of people) in Old Turkic.[23] Rybatzki instead translated this title as "qaghan who has a land".[9] According to the Bilge Qaghan's memorial complex and the Kul Tigin's memorial complex, Bumin and Istemi ruled people by Turkic laws and they developed them.[1][24]

Death and family

File:An Jia with a Turkic Chieftain in Yurt (detail). Xi’an, 579 CE. Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Xi’an.jpg
Contemporary depiction of the encounter in a Turkic yurt of the Sogdian trader An Jia (left) and a Turkic Chieftain (right). 579 CE, Tomb of An Jia, Xi’an, China.

Bumin died within several months of proclaiming himself Illig Qaghan.[25] Xue Zongzheng believes the cause of death was injuries sustained during the war with the Rouran.[21] He had a younger brother called Istämi who ruled westernpost portions of the qaghanate.[26]

Wives and children:

  • Unnamed Turkic khatun(s)
    • Issik Qaghan (r. 552–553)
    • Muqan Qaghan (r. 553–572)
    • Taspar Qaghan (however Baatar Urgunbuyan claims Princess Changle of Western Wei was his mother)[27]
    • Kutlug[28] (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) appointed by Muqan Qaghan to be the lesser khagan of the Eastern Turkic Empire with title Ditou Qaghan (地頭可汗) [29]
    • Mahan Tegin (d. 581) — lesser khagan appointed by Taspar Qaghan[30]
    • Rudan Qaghan (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) — he is defined almost entirely by his relationship to others rather than his own actions. Might be the brother poisoned by Northern Qi in the Baoding era (561–565).[16]
      • Böri Qaghan (步離可汗) - Lesser khagan of west appointed by Taspar Qaghan[31]

Genetics

A complete genetic analysis of Empress Ashina (551–582), Bumin Qaghan' granddaughter through his son Muqan Qaghan, by Xiaoming Yang et al. in 2023, found nearly exclusively Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry (97,7%) next to minor West-Eurasian components (2,7%), and no Chinese ("Yellow River") admixture. This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages".[32]

Legacy

The Tariat Inscriptions from the Uyghur Khaganate period mention a certain Bumin Qaghan,[33] but due to severe damage to the stone face, it cannot be confirmed if this Bumin Qaghan is indeed him.[34] The Ongin Inscription from the Second Khaganate period mentions a certain Yamï Qağan (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) who some believe may be Bumin Qaghan, though this interpretation remains controversial. Several scholars, including early researchers Wilhelm Radloff and Josef Marquart, as well as contemporary scholar Takashi Ōsawa, have identified this figure as Bumin Qaghan, suggesting "Yama" is a variant reference to the founder of the khaganate.[35][36][37] However, this identification remains a subject of academic debate and is not universally accepted; scholars such as Gerard Clauson and Talat Tekin have challenged this reading,[38][39] and Chinese researchers Geng Shimin and Rui Chuanming note that the interpretation of the text is still controversial.[40][41]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG".
  2. ↑ Ouyang, Xiu. New Book of Tang (in Chinese). 215A.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Ma, Zhangshou (1957). 突厥人和突厥汗國 [Turks and the Turkic Qaghanate] (in Chinese). SPPH. pp. 10–11.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Chen, Fengxiang; Yu, Yingshi (2002). 中國通史 [General History of China] (in Chinese). Wunan Book Publishing. p. 155. ISBN 978-957-11-2881-8.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Gao, Yang (1991). "The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate". X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 - 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler [10th Turkish History Congress: Ankara, 22–26 September 1986, Papers Presented to the Congress]. 5. Turkish Historical Society. p. 731. ISBN 9789751604033.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Oğuz, Burhan (1976). Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri [Cultural roots of the Turkish people: Introduction, nutritional techniques] (in Turkish). İstanbul Matbaası. p. 147. ISBN 978-975-8586-22-6.
  7. ↑ "Tumen" is used for expressing 10,000 and "Bum" is used for expressing 100,000 in Secret History of the Mongols, Larry Moses, "Legend by the numbers: The Symbolism of Numbers in the 'Secret History of the Mongols'", Asian folklore studies, Vol. 55-56, Nanzan University Institute of Anthropology, 1996, p. 95.
  8. ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. pp. 387, 390. ISBN 978-0691135892. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Rybatzki, Volker (2000). "Titles of Türk and Uigur Rulers in the Old Turkic Inscriptions". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (2): 205–292. ISSN 0008-9192.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Rui 2017, p. 204.
  11. ↑ Cen 1958, p. 892.
  12. ↑ Rong, Xinjiang (2006). "有關北周同州薩保安伽墓的幾個問題" [Several questions concerning the tomb of Sabao Anjia in Tongzhou, Northern Zhou Dynasty]. In Zhang, Qingjie (ed.). 世紀的北中國與歐亞大陸 [Northern China and Eurasia in the 21st Century] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Science Publishing & Media. pp. 128–139.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Li, Yanshou. History of the Northern Dynasties (in Chinese). 99.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Sima, Quang. Zizhi Tongjian (in Chinese). 159.
  15. ↑ Cen 1958, p. 499-500.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Linghu, Defen. Book of Zhou (in Chinese). 50.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Sima, Quang. Zizhi Tongjian (in Chinese). 164.
  18. ↑ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
  19. ↑ Perry, John Curtis; Smith, Bardwell Leith (1976). Essays on Tʻang Society: The Interplay of Social, Political and Economic Forces. Brill Archive. p. 65. ISBN 978-90-04-04761-7.
  20. ↑ Cen 1958, p. 500.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Xue, Zhongzheng (1992). 突厥史 [A History of Turks] (in Chinese). Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. p. 88.
  22. ↑ Wu, Yugui (2017). 突厥汗國與隋唐關係史研究 [A Study on the Relationship between the Turkic Khaganate and the Sui and Tang Dynasties] (in Chinese) (1st ed.). Beijing: Commercial Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-7-100-13887-1.
  23. ↑ Erdal, Marcel. "Die türkisch-mongolischen Titel elxan und elči". Altaica Berolinensia. Asiatische Forschungen. Wiesbaden (126): 81–99.
  24. ↑ "Bilge kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG".
  25. ↑ History of Civilizations of Central Asia. UNESCO. 2006. p. 327. ISBN 978-9231032110.
  26. ↑ Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009). Archivum Ottomanicum. Mouton. pp. 68, 69. ISBN 9783447058995.
  27. ↑ Urgunbuyan, Baatar (28 August 2023). "Princesses of the Central Plains Married into the Turkish Khaganate". Mongolian Diaspora. Journal of Mongolian History and Culture. 3 (1): 39. doi:10.1515/modi-2023-2006. Taspar (他钵, 佗钵), born from King Tumen and Queen Chanle became the fourth Khan of the Turkish Khaganate.
  28. ↑ Taşağıl, Ahmet (1995). Gök-Türkler [Göktürks] (in Turkish). Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi. p. 23. ISBN 978-975-16-1631-9.
  29. ↑ Linghu, Defen. Book of Zhou (in Chinese). 33.
  30. ↑ Alyılmaz, Cengiz (2003). "Bugut Yazıtı ve Anıt Mezar Külliyesi Üzerine" [On the Bugut Inscription and the Mausoleum Complex]. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi. 1 (13): 11–21.
  31. ↑ Wei, Zheng. Book of Sui (in Chinese). 99.
  32. ↑ Yang, Xiaomin; Meng, Hailiang; Zhang, Jianlin; Yu, Yao; Allen, Edward; Xia, Ziyang; Zhu, Kongyang; Du, Panxin; Ren, Xiaoying; Xiong, Jianxue; Lu, Xiaoyu; Ding, Yi; Han, Sheng; Liu, Weipeng; Jin, Li (2023-01-09). "Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 61 (6): 1056–1064. doi:10.1111/jse.12938. ISSN 1674-4918. S2CID 255690237 Check |s2cid= value (help).
  33. ↑ "Inscription El etmish Bilge kagan (Tariat // Terh)". bitig.kz. Retrieved 2025-11-20.
  34. ↑ Geng 2005, p. 212.
  35. ↑ Ōsawa, Takashi (2011). "Revisiting the Ongi inscription of Mongolia from the Second Turkic Qaγanate on the basis of rubbings by G. J. Ramstedt" (PDF). Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. 93: 176–177.
  36. ↑ Radloff, Wilhelm (1895). Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei [The Old Turkic Inscriptions of Mongolia] (in German). St. Petersburg: Imp. Akademii Nauka. p. 253.
  37. ↑ Marquart, Josef (1898). Die Chronologie der Alttürkischen Inschriften [The Chronology of the Old Turkic Inscriptions] (in German). Leipzig: Dieterich'sche verlags. p. 39.
  38. ↑ Clauson, Gerard (1957). "The Ongin Inscription". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (3): 184.
  39. ↑ Tekin, Talat (1968). A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Bloomington: Indiana University. p. 291.
  40. ↑ Geng 2005, p. 186-187.
  41. ↑ Rui 2017, p. 259.

Sources

  • Cen, Zhongmian (1958). 突厥集史 [A Collection of History of the Turks] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
  • Geng, Shimin (2005). 古代突厥文碑銘研究 [A Study of Ancient Turkic Inscriptions] (in Chinese). Beijing: Minzu University of China.
  • Rui, Chuanming (2017). 古突厥碑銘研究 [Research on Old Turkic Inscriptions] (in Chinese) (Revised ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Template:S-hou
Preceded by
none
 Qaghan of the First Turkic Khaganate
552 		Succeeded by

Template:Göktürks

Template:Rouran rulers

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