Breton language: Difference between revisions

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| pronunciation = {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk|}}, {{IPA|br|brəhɔ̃ˈnek|}}

| states = [[Brittany]] ([[France]])

| region = [[Lower Brittany]]

| ethnicity = [[Bretons]]

| speakers = {{sigfig|107000|3}} in Brittany

| date = 2024

| ref = <ref>https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/</ref>

| ref = <ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/|title=Communiqué · Transmission et usage du breton et du gallo : résultats de l'étude sociolinguistique 2024 · Région Bretagne}}</ref>

| speakers2 = {{sigfig|16000|2}} in {{lang|fr|[[Île-de-France]]}}<ref>{{lang|fr|[http://www.ofis-bzh.org/upload/travail_paragraphe/fichier/206fichier.pdf Diagnostic de la langue bretonne en Île-de-France]}}. {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}.</ref> (Number includes students in bilingual education)<ref name="Broudic2009">{{Cite book |title=Parler breton au XXIe siècle : Le nouveau sondage de TMO Régions |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Emgleo Breiz |year=2009 |language=fr}}</ref>

| familycolor = Indo-European

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| dia3 = Leoneg

| dia4 = [[Trégorrois Breton dialect|Tregerieg]]

| dia5 = Batz-sur-Mer †

| dia5 = [[Batz-sur-Mer Breton|Gwerranneg]] †

| script = [[Latin script]] (Breton alphabet)

| minority = [[France]]

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| imagecaption = Bilingual sign in [[Huelgoat]] in Brittany

| map = Breton - les taux de locuteurs selon le pays - sondage 2018.svg

| mapalt = Map showing the percentage of Breton speakers in each ~~country~~ of Brittany, 2018

| mapalt = Map showing the percentage of Breton speakers in each region of Brittany, 2018

| mapcaption = Percentage of Breton speakers in each ~~country~~ of Brittany, 2018

| mapcaption = Percentage of Breton speakers in each region of Brittany, 2018

| map2 = Lang Status 40-SE.svg

| mapcaption2 = {{center|Breton is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas">{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref>}}

| mapcaption2 = {{center|Breton is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas">{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref>}}

| notice = IPA

| glotto = bret1245

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| glottorefname3 = Vannetais

}}

'''Breton''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɹ|ɛ|t|~~ə|n|~~}}, {{respell|BRET|ən}}, {{IPA|fr|bʁətɔ̃|lang}}; {{langx|br|label=[[endonym]]|brezhoneg}} {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk||brezhoneg.ogg}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Linguistic Student's Handbook |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |date=2007 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref~~> <small~~>or~~~~ {{IPA|br|bɾəhɔ̃ˈnek|}} ~~~~in [[Morbihan]]~~)~~ is a [[Southwestern Brittonic language]] of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language group]] spoken in [[Brittany]], part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still ~~widely~~ in use on the European mainland~~, albeit as a member of the [[Insular Celtic languages|insular]] branch instead of the extinct [[Continental Celtic languages|continental]] grouping~~.<ref>[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]] (2012) ''The World Until Yesterday'' New York: Viking. p.399. {{isbn|978-0-670-02481-0}}</ref>

'''Breton'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɛ|t|ən}}, {{respell|BRET|ən}}; {{IPA|fr|bʁətɔ̃|lang}}; {{langx|br|label=[[endonym]]|brezhoneg}} {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk||brezhoneg.ogg}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Linguistic Student's Handbook |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |date=2007 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> or {{IPA|br|bɾəhɔ̃ˈnek|}} in [[Morbihan]]}} is a [[Southwestern Brittonic language]] of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language group]] spoken in [[Brittany]], part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still in use on the European mainland.<ref>[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]] (2012) ''The World Until Yesterday'' New York: Viking. p.399. {{isbn|978-0-670-02481-0}}</ref>

Breton was brought from [[Great Britain]] to ~~[[Armorica]] (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the~~ Brittany ~~peninsula)~~ by migrating [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]], ~~making it an [[Insular Celtic language]].~~ Breton is most closely related to [[Cornish language|Cornish]], another Southwestern Brittonic language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Breton-language|title=Breton language|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], both [[Western Brittonic languages]], are more distantly related, and the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], [[Scottish Gaelic]]) have a slight connection due to ~~both of~~ their origins being from Insular Celtic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brythonic languages {{!}} Celtic, Welsh & Cornish {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brythonic-languages |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Breton is an [[Insular Celtic language]] that was brought from [[Great Britain]] to Brittany by migrating [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]], which makes Breton most closely related to [[Cornish language|Cornish]], another Southwestern Brittonic language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Breton-language|title=Breton language|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], both [[Western Brittonic languages]], are more distantly related, and the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], and [[Scottish Gaelic]]) have a slight connection due to their origins being from Insular Celtic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brythonic languages {{!}} Celtic, Welsh & Cornish {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brythonic-languages |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to 107,000 in 2024,<ref~~>https:/~~/~~www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/</ref~~> Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO ''[[Red Book of Endangered Languages|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas"~~>{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}<~~/~~ref~~> ~~However, the~~ number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.<ref name="Broudic2009" /><ref name="ofis-stats">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr |title=Enquête socio-linguistique : qui parle les langues de bretagne aujourd'hui ? |website=Région Bretagne |date=8 October 2018 |access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref>

Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to 107,000 in 2024,<ref name="auto"/> Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO ''[[Red Book of Endangered Languages|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas"/> The number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.<ref name="Broudic2009" /><ref name="ofis-stats">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr |title=Enquête socio-linguistique : qui parle les langues de bretagne aujourd'hui ? |website=Région Bretagne |date=8 October 2018 |access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref>__TOC__

__TOC__

==History and status==

Breton is spoken in [[Lower Brittany]] ({{langx|br|Breizh-Izel|link=no}}), roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] (west of [[Saint-Brieuc]]) and [[La Roche-Bernard]] (east of [[Vannes]]). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from [[Great Britain]] to [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.<ref>[[Benjamin W. Fortson IV]], ''Indo European Language and Culture'', chapter 14 paragraph 63.</ref> It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century after which it became the language of [[commoners]] in Lower Brittany. The [[nobility]], followed by the [[bourgeoisie]], adopted [[French language|French]]. The written language of the [[Duchy of Brittany]] was [[Latin]] until it switched to French in the 15th century. There is a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Some [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Science|scientific]] terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are '''Old Breton''' – {{Circa|800}} to {{Circa|1100}}, '''Middle Breton''' – {{Circa|1100}} to {{Circa|1650}}, '''Modern Breton''' – {{Circa|1650}} to present.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |last=Koch |first=John T. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=62381207}}</ref>

Breton is spoken in [[Lower Brittany]] ({{langx|br|Breizh-Izel}}), roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] (west of [[Saint-Brieuc]]) and [[La Roche-Bernard]] (east of [[Vannes]]). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.<ref>[[Benjamin W. Fortson IV]], ''Indo European Language and Culture'', chapter 14 paragraph 63.</ref> It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the [[bourgeoisie]], adopted [[French language|French]]. The written language of the [[Duchy of Brittany]] was [[Latin]], switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Some [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are: '''Old Breton''' – {{Circa|800}} to {{Circa|1100}}, '''Middle Breton''' – {{Circa|1100}} to {{Circa|1650}}, '''Modern Breton''' – {{Circa|1650}} to present.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |last=Koch |first=John T. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=62381207}}</ref>

The French monarchy was not concerned with the [[minority language|minority]] [[languages of France]], which were spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the [[French Revolution]], the government introduced policies favouring French over the [[regional language]]s, which it pejoratively referred to as {{lang|fr|[[patois]]}}. The revolutionaries assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred regional languages to keep the peasant masses underinformed. In 1794, [[Bertrand Barère]] submitted his "report on the {{lang|fr|patois}}" to the [[Committee of Public Safety]] in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".<ref name="breizh"/>

The French monarchy was not concerned with the [[~~Minority~~ language|minority]] [[languages of France]], spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the [[French Revolution]], the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional ~~languages~~, which it pejoratively referred to as {{lang|fr|[[patois]]}}. The revolutionaries assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred [[regional ~~language]]s to try~~ to keep the peasant masses ~~under-informed~~. In 1794, [[Bertrand Barère]] submitted his "report on the {{lang|fr|patois}}" to the [[Committee of Public Safety]] in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".<ref name="breizh"/>

Since the 19th century, under the [[French Third Republic|Third]], [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth]] and now [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republics]], the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.<ref name="breizh">{{Cite web |url=http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/endangered.htm#Image%2520No.%25202:%2520Breton%2520is%2520a%2520hindrance%2520to%2520good%2520citizenship |title=Breton – An Endangered Language of Europe |last=Kuter |first=Lois |date=May 2004 |website=breizh.net}}</ref>

In the early 21st century, ~~due to~~ the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people ~~are~~ active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. ~~The majority~~ of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an [[endangered language]].<ref name="Broudic2009" />

In the early 21st century, the political centralization of France, the influence of the media and the increasing mobility of people have caused only about 200,000 people to be active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. Most of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an [[endangered language]].<ref name="Broudic2009" />

~~At the beginning of~~ the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 [[monolingualism|monolingual]] Bretons, and ~~this~~ rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Brud Nevez |year=1999 |location=Brest |language=fr}}</ref> In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Breton|url=https://elalliance.org/languages/breton/|url-status=live|website=Endangered Language Alliance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721002750/https://www.elalliance.org/languages/breton |archive-date=2021-07-21 }}</ref>

In the early 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 [[monolingualism|monolingual]] Bretons, and the rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15-to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Brud Nevez |year=1999 |location=Brest |language=fr}}</ref> In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Breton|url=https://elalliance.org/languages/breton/|url-status=live|website=Endangered Language Alliance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721002750/https://www.elalliance.org/languages/breton |archive-date=2021-07-21 }}</ref>

==Revival efforts==

[[File:Affiche Charrue Huard.jpg|thumb|1911 poster with Breton slogan, {{lang|br|Burzudus eo!!}} ("It's miraculous!!")]]

In 1925, Professor [[Roparz Hemon]] founded the Breton-language review {{lang|br|[[Gwalarn]]}}. During its 19-year run, {{lang|br|Gwalarn}} tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language.<ref>Francis Favereau, "Anthologie de la littérature bretonne au XXe siècle : 1919–1944", "Tome 2 : Breiz Atao et les autres en littérature", Skol Vreizh, 2003, {{ISBN|2-911447-94-8}}.</ref> Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, {{lang|br|[[Al Liamm]]}} replaced {{lang|br|Gwalarn}}. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Literatures and Modernism: Scots, Breton, and Occitan, 1920–1990 |last=Calin |first=William |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780802083654}}</ref>

In 1977, [[Diwan (school)|Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by [[~~Language~~ immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.

In 1977, [[Diwan (school)|Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by [[language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully-immersive primary school and partially-immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.

The ''[[Asterix]]'' comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the [[Gaul]]ish village where Asterix lives is in the [[Armorica|Armorica peninsula]], which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'', {{lang|fr|[[Spirou et Fantasio|Spirou]]}}, ''[[Titeuf]]'', ''[[Hägar the Horrible]]'', ''[[Peanuts]]'' and ''[[Yakari]]''.

Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, {{lang|br|Ken Tuch}}, is in Breton.<ref>{{cite AV media |last1= an Henaff |first1= Goulwena |last2= Strubel |first2= Etienne |year= 2008 |title= Ken Tuch' |medium= Web videos |language= br |url= http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |access-date= 25 February 2015 |location= An Oriant, Breizh |publisher= Dizale |archive-date= 11 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022330/http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Adkins | first1 = Madeleine | last2 = Davis | first2 = Jenny L. | title = The naïf, the sophisticate, and the party girl: Regional and gender stereotypes in Breton language web videos | journal = Gender and Language | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 291–308 | doi = 10.1558/genl.v6i2.291 | date = September 2012 }} [https://www.academia.edu/1927936/The_na%C3%AFf_the_sophisticate_and_the_party_girl_Regional_and_gender_stereotypes_in_Breton_language_web_videos Pdf.]</ref> [[Radio Kerne]], broadcasting from [[Finistère]], has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'', ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', ''[[Marion du Faouet]]'', ''[[Sezneg]]'') and TV series (''[[Columbo (TV series)|Columbo]]'', ''[[Perry Mason (1957 TV series)|Perry Mason]]'') have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including [[Yann-Ber Kallocʼh]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Añjela Duval]], [[Xavier de Langlais]], [[Pêr-Jakez Helias]], [[Youenn Gwernig]], [[Glenmor]], [[Vefa de Saint-Pierre]] and [[Alan Stivell]] are now known internationally.

Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom {{lang|br|Ken Tuch}} is in Breton.<ref>{{cite AV media |last1= an Henaff |first1= Goulwena |last2= Strubel |first2= Etienne |year= 2008 |title= Ken Tuch' |medium= Web videos |language= br |url= http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |access-date= 25 February 2015 |location= An Oriant, Breizh |publisher= Dizale |archive-date= 11 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022330/http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Adkins | first1 = Madeleine | last2 = Davis | first2 = Jenny L. | title = The naïf, the sophisticate, and the party girl: Regional and gender stereotypes in Breton language web videos | journal = Gender and Language | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 291–308 | doi = 10.1558/genl.v6i2.291 | date = September 2012 }} [https://www.academia.edu/1927936/The_na%C3%AFf_the_sophisticate_and_the_party_girl_Regional_and_gender_stereotypes_in_Breton_language_web_videos Pdf.]</ref> [[Radio Kerne]], broadcasting from [[Finistère]], has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'', ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', ''[[Marion du Faouet]]'', ''[[Sezneg]]'') and TV series (''[[Columbo (TV series)|Columbo]]'', ''[[Perry Mason (1957 TV series)|Perry Mason]]'') have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including [[Yann-Ber Kallocʼh]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Añjela Duval]], [[Xavier de Langlais]], [[Pêr-Jakez Helias]], [[Youenn Gwernig]], [[Glenmor]], [[Vefa de Saint-Pierre]] and [[Alan Stivell]] are now known internationally.

Today, Breton is the only living [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.

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The first Breton dictionary, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Booton |first=Diane E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdWDwAAQBAJ |title=Publishing Networks in France in the Early Era of Print |date=2018-04-17 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-77805-3}}</ref> it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary, {{lang|br|Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here}} was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.

In the early 21st century, the {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}} ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the [[Spilhennig]] to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an [[Internationalization and localization]] policy asking [[Google]], [[Firefox]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drouizig.org/index.php/br/troidigezh-br/kenrouedad-br/231-firefox-ha-thunderbird|title=Firefox ha Thunderbird|website=drouizig.org}}</ref> and [[SPIP]] to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the [[Breton Wikipedia]] started, which counts ~~more than 85~~,000 articles as of ~~August 2024~~. In March 2007, the {{lang|br|Ofis ar Brezhoneg}} signed a [[wikt:tripartite|tripartite agreement]] with [[Regional Council of Brittany]] and [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|title=Microsoft au secours des langues celtiques y compris du breton|website=agencebretagnepresse.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019204103/http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|archive-date=2014-10-19}}</ref> for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, [[Facebook]] added Breton as one of its 121 languages<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ouest-france.fr/facebook-et-maintenant-une-version-en-breton-2873502|title=Facebook. Et maintenant une version en breton|date=2 October 2014 }}</ref> after three years of talks between the {{lang|br|Ofis}} and Facebook.

In the early 21st century, the {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}} ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the [[Spilhennig]] to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an [[Internationalization and localization]] policy asking [[Google]], [[Firefox]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drouizig.org/index.php/br/troidigezh-br/kenrouedad-br/231-firefox-ha-thunderbird|title=Firefox ha Thunderbird|website=drouizig.org}}</ref> and [[SPIP]] to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the [[Breton Wikipedia]] started, which counts just over 90,000 articles as of December 2025. In March 2007, the {{lang|br|Ofis ar Brezhoneg}} signed a [[wikt:tripartite|tripartite agreement]] with [[Regional Council of Brittany]] and [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|title=Microsoft au secours des langues celtiques y compris du breton|website=agencebretagnepresse.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019204103/http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|archive-date=2014-10-19}}</ref> for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, [[Facebook]] added Breton as one of its 121 languages<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ouest-france.fr/facebook-et-maintenant-une-version-en-breton-2873502|title=Facebook. Et maintenant une version en breton|date=2 October 2014 }}</ref> after three years of talks between the {{lang|br|Ofis}} and Facebook.

[[France in the Eurovision Song Contest|France]] has twice chosen to enter the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with songs in Breton; once in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1996|1996]] in Oslo with "{{lang|br|Diwanit bugale}}" by [[Dan Ar Braz]] and the fifty piece band [[Héritage des Celtes]], and most recently in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022|2022]] in Turin with "{{lang|br|[[Fulenn]]}}" by [[Alvan (musician)|Alvan Morvan Rosius]] and vocal trio [[Ahez]]. These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its [[Languages of France|minority languages]] for the contest, the others being in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992|1992]] (bilingual French and [[Antillean Creole]]), [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] (bilingual French and [[Corsican language|Corsican]]), and [[Eurovision Song Contest 2011|2011]] (Corsican).

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==Geographic distribution and dialects==

[[File:Breton dialectes-en.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Dialects of Breton]]

Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside [[Gallo language|Gallo]] and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.

Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside [[Gallo language|Gallo]] and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.

The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics, rather than to linguistic divisions. They are {{lang|br|leoneg}} ({{lang|fr|léonard}}, of the [[Viscounty of Léon|county of Léon]]), {{lang|br|tregerieg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Trégorrois Breton dialect|trégorrois]]}}, of [[Trégor]]), {{lang|br|kerneveg}} ({{lang|fr|cornouaillais}}, of {{lang|fr|[[Cornouaille]]}}), and {{lang|br|[[gwenedeg]]}} ({{lang|fr|vannetais}}, of [[Vannes]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages#toc74852|title=Celtic languages|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> {{lang|br|Gwerranneg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Batz-sur-Mer Breton|guérandais]]}}, of [[Guérande]]) was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and [[Batz-sur-Mer]]. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a [[dialect continuum]] and vary only slightly from one village to the next.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Breton Orthographies and Dialects: The Twentieth-century, Vol. 2|last=Wmffre|first=Iwan|publisher=Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften|year=2008|isbn=978-3039113651|pages=3}}</ref> {{lang|br|[[Gwenedeg]]}}, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.<ref name=kergoat>Kergoat, Lukian. [https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA250 "Breton Dialects" in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 250 ff]. ABC-CLIO ([[Santa Barbara, California|Sta. Barbara]]), 2006.</ref> Due to this difficulty in intelligibility, the [[Glottolog]] project split the Gwenedeg dialects into a separate language entry from the KLT Breton dialects in v5.2 under the name Vannetais.<ref name="glottoKLT">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |title=Glottolog 5.2 - Vannetais |date=2025-06-11 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717194840/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |archive-date=2025-07-17 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>

The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They are {{lang|br|leoneg}} ({{lang|fr|léonard}}, of the [[Viscounty of Léon|county of Léon]]), {{lang|br|tregerieg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Trégorrois Breton dialect|trégorrois]]}}, of [[Trégor]]), {{lang|br|kerneveg}} ({{lang|fr|cornouaillais}}, of {{lang|fr|[[Cornouaille]]}}), and {{lang|br|[[gwenedeg]]}} ({{lang|fr|vannetais}}, of [[Vannes]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages#toc74852|title=Celtic languages|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> {{lang|fr|~~Guérandais~~}} was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of [[Guérande]] and [[Batz-sur-Mer]]. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a [[dialect continuum]]~~, varying~~ only slightly from one village to the next.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Breton Orthographies and Dialects: The Twentieth-century, Vol. 2|last=Wmffre|first=Iwan|publisher=Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften|year=2008|isbn=978-3039113651|pages=3}}</ref> {{lang|br|[[Gwenedeg]]}}, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.<ref name=kergoat>Kergoat, Lukian. [https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA250 "Breton Dialects" in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 250 ff]. ABC-CLIO ([[Santa Barbara, California|Sta. Barbara]]), 2006.</ref> Due to this difficulty in intelligibility, the [[Glottolog]] project split the Gwenedeg dialects into a separate language entry from the KLT Breton dialects in v5.2 under the name Vannetais.<ref name="glottoKLT">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |title=Glottolog 5.2 - Vannetais |date=2025-06-11 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717194840/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |archive-date=2025-07-17 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>

[[File:Municipal_electronic_information_sign_in_Breton_in_Carhaix.jpg|thumb|Electronic information sign in Breton, [[Carhaix]]]]

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===Nation===

French is the sole [[official language]] of [[France]]. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.<ref name="Hoopes">{{cite news|title=France a 'rogue state' on regional languages|author=Simon Hooper|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|access-date=30 March 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232943156736852.html |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>

French is the sole [[official language]] of [[France]]. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.<ref name="Hoopes">{{cite news|title=France a 'rogue state' on regional languages|author=Simon Hooper|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|access-date=30 March 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232943156736852.html |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>

====Constitution====

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===Region===

Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns.

Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed such as street name signs in Breton towns.

Under the [[Toubon Law]], it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French ~~only~~. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.{{~~Citation needed~~|date=~~September 2017~~}}

Under the [[Toubon Law]], it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or only in French. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mandatory use of National Languages for Contractual Documents: A European Perspective {{!}} Association of Corporate Counsel (ACC) |url=https://www.acc.com/resource-library/mandatory-use-national-languages-contractual-documents-european-perspective |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=www.acc.com}}</ref>

{{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofis-bzh.org |title=Ofis ar Brezhoneg |publisher=Ofis-bzh.org |access-date=2010-10-03}}</ref> It helped to create the {{lang|br|[[Ya d'ar brezhoneg]]}} campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.<ref>{{cite web |title=La charte "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" / Ar garta "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" {{!}} KLEG INFOS |url=https://cleguerec.fr/la-charte-ya-dar-brezhoneg-ar-garta-ya-dar-brezhoneg/ |language=fr-FR}}</ref>

{{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}, the Breton-language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofis-bzh.org |title=Ofis ar Brezhoneg |publisher=Ofis-bzh.org |access-date=2010-10-03}}</ref> It helped to create the {{lang|br|[[Ya d'ar brezhoneg]]}} campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.<ref>{{cite web |title=La charte "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" / Ar garta "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" {{!}} KLEG INFOS |url=https://cleguerec.fr/la-charte-ya-dar-brezhoneg-ar-garta-ya-dar-brezhoneg/ |language=fr-FR}}</ref>

==Education==

[[File:Breton school sign in Rennes.jpg|thumb|Sign in French and partly in Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes]]

In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called {{lang|br|[[Diwan (school)|Diwan]]}}) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the French [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]] based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The [[Toubon Law]] implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Devine |first=Mary Catherine |title=La Loi Toubon: Language Policy and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in France |date=2017 |degree=Thesis |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University |url=https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/pstorage-cmu-348901238291901/14491631/Devine.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/pstorage-cmu-348901238291901/14491631/Devine.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The ~~[[Diwan (school)|~~Diwan schools]] were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by [[Language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.diwanbreizh.org/sections.php4?op=viewarticle&artid=6 Diwan FAQ, #6].</ref> Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol8/Feb2005_guest_diwan.html|title=The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA):Articulation of Language Instruction|website=carla.umn.edu|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>

The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by [[Language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.diwanbreizh.org/sections.php4?op=viewarticle&artid=6 Diwan FAQ, #6].</ref> Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol8/Feb2005_guest_diwan.html|title=The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA):Articulation of Language Instruction|website=carla.umn.edu|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>

Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by {{lang|br|Div Yezh}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://div-yezh.org/|title=Actualités|first=Yannick /|last=Rostrenn|publisher=div-yezh.org|language=fr}}</ref> ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. {{lang|br|Dihun}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dihun.com/|title=Dihun – Dihun Language|access-date=9 July 2008|archive-date=15 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615055340/http://www.dihun.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.

===Statistics===

In 2018, 18,337<ref name="ofis-stats" /> pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended {{lang|br|Diwan}}, {{lang|br|Div Yezh}} and {{lang|br|Dihun}} schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of [[Jean-Yves Le Drian]] (president of the [[Regional Council of Brittany|Regional Council]]), who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010, and of "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless he ~~describes~~ being encouraged by the growth of the movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/fetch.php?id=11436|title=Interview with Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Region Council|publisher=angencebretagnepresse.com}}</ref>

In 2018, 18,337<ref name="ofis-stats" /> pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended {{lang|br|Diwan}}, {{lang|br|Div Yezh}} and {{lang|br|Dihun}} schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of [[Jean-Yves Le Drian]], the president of the [[Regional Council of Brittany|Regional Council]], who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010 and "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless, he described being encouraged by the growth of the movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/fetch.php?id=11436|title=Interview with Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Region Council|publisher=angencebretagnepresse.com}}</ref>

In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed an evening or correspondence one Breton-language course.{{Vague|reason = A course distributed by mail? Student writing as unmonitored practice? Perhaps with consistent feedback? With feedback based in formal standards?...from screened speakers? etc.|date=January 2020}} The transmission{{vague| reason = within families?|date=June 2020}} of Breton in 1999 was estimated to be 3 percent.<ref name="ofis-stats" />

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| 2007 || 11,732 || 1.38%

|-

| 2008 || 12,333 || ± 1.4%

| 2008 || 12,333 || 1.4%

|-

| 2009 || 13,077 || 1.45%

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| 2020 || 19,165 || 2.00%

|-

| 2021 || 19,336 || ± 2.2%

| 2021 || 19,336 || 2.2%

|-

| 2022 || 19,765 || ± 2.3%

| 2022 || 19,765 || 2.3%

|-

| 2024 || 20,280 || ± 2.5%

| 2024 || 20,280 || 2.5%

|}

|valign="top"|

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! Commune !! Percentage (2023)<ref name="ofis-education" /> !! Population (2007)<ref name="insee">{{Cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119892?sommaire=2119897 |title=Populations légales 2007 |website=Insee |language=fr}}</ref>

|-

| [[Saint-Rivoal]] (Finistère) || 100% || 177

| [[Saint-Rivoal|Sant-Riwal]] (Finistère) || 100% || 177

|-

| [[Bulat-Pestivien]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 412

| [[Bulat-Pestivien|Bulad-Pestivien]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 412

|-

| [[Lanrivain]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 457

| [[Lanrivain|Larruen]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 457

|-

| [[Plounévez-Moëdec]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 68.2% || 1,467

| [[Plounévez-Moëdec|Plounevez-Moedeg]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 68.2% || 1,467

|-

| [[Langonnet]] (Morbihan) || 43.6% || 1771

| [[Langonnet|Langoned]] (Morbihan) || 43.6% || 1771

|-

| [[Cavan, Côtes-d'Armor|~~Cavan~~]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 42.9% || 1528

| [[Cavan, Côtes-d'Armor|Kawan]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 42.9% || 1528

|-

| [[Commana]] (Finistère) || 42.1% || 995

| [[Commana|Kommanna]] (Finistère) || 42.1% || 995

|-

| [[Maël-Carhaix]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 40.9% || 1463

| [[Maël-Carhaix|Mêl-Karaez]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 40.9% || 1463

|-

| [[Ploëzal]] / [[Runan ]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 39.4% || 1466

| [[Ploëzal|Pleuzal]] / [[Runan]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 39.4% || 1466

|-

| [[Melrand]] (Morbihan) || 38.8% || 1519

| [[Melrand|Mêlrant]] (Morbihan) || 38.8% || 1519

|}

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! Commune !! Percentage (2008)<ref name="ofis-education" /> !! Population (2007)<ref name="insee" />

|-

| [[Nantes]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 1.4% || 290,943

| [[Nantes|Naoned]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 1.4% || 290,943

|-

| [[Rennes]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 2.87% || 213,096

| [[Rennes|Roazhon]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 2.87% || 213,096

|-

| [[Brest, France|Brest]] (Finistère) || 1.94% || 146,519

|-

| [[Saint-Nazaire]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 0.41% || 71,046

| [[Saint-Nazaire|Señ Neñseir]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 0.41% || 71,046

|-

| [[Quimper, Finistère|~~Quimper~~]] (Finistère) || 3.17% || 67,255

| [[Quimper, Finistère|Kemper]] (Finistère) || 3.17% || 67,255

|-

| [[Lorient]] (Morbihan) || 2.71% || 59,805

| [[Lorient|An Oriant]] (Morbihan) || 2.71% || 59,805

|-

| [[Vannes]] (Morbihan) || 7.71% || 55,383

| [[Vannes|Gwened]] (Morbihan) || 7.71% || 55,383

|-

| [[Saint-Malo]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 0.55% || 50,206

| [[Saint-Malo|Sant-Maloù]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 0.55% || 50,206

|-

| [[Saint-Brieuc]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 3.98% || 48,178

| [[Saint-Brieuc|Sant-Brieg]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 3.98% || 48,178

|-

| [[Saint-Herblain]] (Loire-Atlantique) || ? || 44,364

| [[Saint-Herblain|Sant-Ervlan]] (Loire-Atlantique) || ? || 44,364

|}

===Other forms of education===

In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. ~~These~~ "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.

In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education), the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. The "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week and consist of songs and games.

Schools in secondary education ({{lang|fr|[[collège]]s}} and {{lang|br|[[lycée]]s}}) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://studi.canalblog.com/archives/2010/06/20/18372084.html |title=L'option de breton: que faire?|date=2010-06-20 |website=Studi: enseigner le breton et en breton}}</ref> Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department ~~offering~~ courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.

Schools in secondary education ({{lang|fr|[[collège]]s}} and {{lang|br|[[lycée]]s}}) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://studi.canalblog.com/archives/2010/06/20/18372084.html |title=L'option de breton: que faire?|date=2010-06-20 |website=Studi: enseigner le breton et en breton}}</ref> Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton-language department, which offers courses in the language, along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.

==Phonology==

===Vowels===

Vowels in Breton may be [[vowel length|short or long]]. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (~~vowel lengths are~~ not noted in usual orthographies as ~~they are~~ implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position~~, among~~ different dialects.

Vowels in Breton may be [[vowel length|short or long]]. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long. (Vowel length is not noted in usual orthographies, as it is implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long. An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position in different dialects.

All vowels can also be [[nasalization|nasalized]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemon |first1=Roparz |author-link1=Roparz Hemon |last2=Everson |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Everson |title=Breton Grammar |edition=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Evertype/Al Liamm |isbn=978-1-904808-11-4}}</ref> which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for ''a'' and ''o'' ~~due to the~~ [[Portuguese orthography~~|Portuguese letters~~]]), or ~~more~~ commonly by non-ambiguously appending an {{Angle bracket|ñ}} letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).

All vowels can also be [[nasalization|nasalized]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemon |first1=Roparz |author-link1=Roparz Hemon |last2=Everson |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Everson |title=Breton Grammar |edition=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Evertype/Al Liamm |isbn=978-1-904808-11-4}}</ref> which is noted by appending an {{angbr|n}} letter after the base vowel, by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for ''a'' and ''o'' because they are used in [[Portuguese orthography]]) or most commonly by non-ambiguously appending an {{Angle bracket|ñ}} letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

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|-

! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]

! {{small|[[~~Central~~ consonant|~~central~~]]}}

! {{small|[[median consonant|median]]}}

|

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|

|}

* The pronunciation of the letter {{angbr|r}} varies ~~nowadays~~: {{IPA|[ʁ]}} is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille) whereas {{IPA|[r]}} is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), ~~though~~ in rapid speech mostly a tapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}} occurs. In the other regions of Trégor {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or even {{IPA|[ɹ]}} may be found.

* The pronunciation of the letter {{angbr|r}} now varies: {{IPA|[ʁ]}} is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille), whereas {{IPA|[r]}} is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), but in rapid speech, mostly a tapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}} occurs. In the other regions of Trégor, {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or even {{IPA|[ɹ]}} may be found.

* The voiced dental fricative ({{IPAslink|ð}}) is a conservative realisation of the [[lenition]] (or the "spirant mutation" in cases ~~where~~ the phenomenon originates from the mutation of {{IPA|/t~θ/}}, respectively) of the consonants {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and ~~thus~~ it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The ''Peurunvan'', for instance, uses {{angbr|z}} for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are ~~employed for representing~~ the dental fricative, depending on the scripture's historical period. There ~~once~~ was a time ~~when~~ {{angbr|d}} was used ~~to transcribe~~ the sound, but today mostly the regular {{angbr|z}} ~~is instead used~~, ~~and this~~ practice can be traced back to at least the ~~end of the~~ 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christmas Hymns in the Vannes Dialect of Breton|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1956|editor-last=Hemon|editor-first=Roparz|location=Dublin|pages=x, xxvi}}</ref> The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of [[Pontivy]] and [[Baud, Morbihan|Baud]] and surrounding smaller villages like [[Cléguérec]], [[Noyal-Pontivy]], [[Pluméliau]], [[Saint-Allouestre|St. Allouestre]], [[Saint-Barthélemy, Morbihan|St. Barthélemy]], [[Pluvigner]] and ~~also~~ parts of [[Belle Île|Belle-Île]]. The only known place ~~where~~ the mutation ~~occurs~~ outside of the Vannes country is the [[Île de Sein]], an island located off [[Finistère]]'s coast. Some scholars also used {{IPA|[ẓ]}} as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol {{IPA|/ð/}} is usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of [[Sauzon]] in Belle-Île) or ~~due to the fact~~ that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions ~~were~~ not in need of a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation as it was a clearly distinguishable phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Historical Phonology of Breton|last=Jackson|first=Kenneth H.|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1968|location=Dublin|pages=661 ff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last = Hemon|first = Roparz|publisher = Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year = 1975|isbn = 978-0901282637|location = Dublin|pages = 5}}</ref>

* The voiced dental fricative ({{IPAslink|ð}}) is a conservative realisation of the [[lenition]] (or the "spirant mutation" in cases that the phenomenon originates from the mutation of {{IPA|/t~θ/}}, respectively) of the consonants {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and so it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The ''Peurunvan'', for instance, uses {{angbr|z}} for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are used to represent the dental fricative depending on the scripture's historical period. There was a time that {{angbr|d}} was used for the sound, but it is today mostly replaced by the regular {{angbr|z}}, a practice that can be traced back to at least the late 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christmas Hymns in the Vannes Dialect of Breton|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1956|editor-last=Hemon|editor-first=Roparz|location=Dublin|pages=x, xxvi}}</ref> The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of [[Pontivy]] and [[Baud, Morbihan|Baud]] and surrounding smaller villages like [[Cléguérec]], [[Noyal-Pontivy]], [[Pluméliau]], [[Saint-Allouestre|St. Allouestre]], [[Saint-Barthélemy, Morbihan|St. Barthélemy]], [[Pluvigner]] and parts of [[Belle Île|Belle-Île]]. The only known place to have the mutation occur outside the Vannes country is the [[Île de Sein]], an island located off [[Finistère]]'s coast. Some scholars also used {{IPA|[ẓ]}} as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant, than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol {{IPA|/ð/}} usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of [[Sauzon]] in Belle-Île) or because that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions did not need a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation, as it was a clearly-distinguishable phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Historical Phonology of Breton|last=Jackson|first=Kenneth H.|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1968|location=Dublin|pages=661 ff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last = Hemon|first = Roparz|publisher = Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year = 1975|isbn = 978-0901282637|location = Dublin|pages = 5}}</ref>

* The digraph ''zh'' represents a variable sound that may exhibit as {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, or {{IPA|/h/}}, and descends from a now-extinct sound {{IPA|/θ/}}, which is still extant in Welsh as ''th''.

* Finally, '''C''' (as a single letter), '''Q''' and '''X''' occurs mainly in loanwords.

~~==Grammar==~~

~~{{main|Breton grammar}}~~

~~~~

~~===Nouns===~~

Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.

~~====Gender====~~

Breton has two genders: masculine ({{lang|br|gourel}}) and feminine ({{lang|br|gwregel}}), having largely lost its historic neuter ({{lang|br|nepreizh}}) as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj,<ref name=BallGender/> -(a)dur,<ref name=BallGender/> -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va''<ref name="Stephens"/>) are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.<ref name="Stephens">{{Cite book|last=Stephens|first=Janig|title=The Celtic Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=041528080X|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions|location=London|pages=379|chapter=Breton|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}</ref> The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.<ref name=BallGender/>

There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for {{lang|br|eur}} "hour", {{lang|br|noz}} "night" and {{lang|br|sizhun}} "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.<ref name=BallGender>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|page=364|year=1993}}</ref>

~~However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.<ref name=BallGender/>~~

~~====Number====~~

Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.<ref name=BallNumber>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|pages=365–369|year=1993}}</ref> However, the system is full of complexities<ref name=Fortson/> in how this distinction is realized.

Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in {{lang|br|daou}}, {{lang|br|di}} or {{lang|br|div}}) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Fortson/> The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes ({{lang|br|daoulagad}}) and ears ({{lang|br|divskouarn}}) can be pluralized "again" to form {{lang|br|daoulagad'''où'''}} and {{lang|br|diskouarn'''où'''}}.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Stephens/>

Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a [[singulative]] suffix that is used to form singulars out of [[collective nouns]], for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective {{lang|br|logod}} "mice" is {{lang|br|logod'''enn'''}} "mouse".<ref name=BallNumber/> However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- {{lang|br|pesk}} "fish" (singular) is pluralized to {{lang|br|pesked}}, singulativized to {{lang|br|peskedenn}}, referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make {{lang|br|peskedennoù}} "fishes".<ref name=Fortson/>

On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of {{lang|br|park}}: {{lang|br|parkoù}} "parks" and {{lang|br|parkeier}} "various different parks".<ref name=Fortson/> Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.<ref name=BallNumber/> Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: {{lang|br|dour}} "water" pluralized forms {{lang|br|dourioù}} which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while {{lang|br|doureier}} now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: {{lang|br|keloù}} means "news" and {{lang|br|*kel}} is not used, while {{lang|br|keleier}} has become the regular plural,<ref name=BallNumber/> 'different news items'.

Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – {{lang|br|bugel}} "child" is pluralized once into {{lang|br|bugale}} "children" and then pluralized a second time to make {{lang|br|bugaleoù}} "groups of children".<ref name=Fortson/>

The diminutive suffix {{lang|br|-ig}} also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: {{lang|br|bugelig}} means "little child", but the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bug'''ale'''ig'''où'''}} means "little children"; {{lang|br|bag}} boat has a singular diminutive {{lang|br|bagig}} and a simple plural {{lang|br|bagoù}}, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bag'''où'''ig'''où'''}}.<ref name=Fortson/><ref name=BallNumber/>

~~As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.~~

The most common plural marker is {{lang|br|-où}}, with its variant {{lang|br|-ioù}};<ref name=BallNumber/> most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in {{lang|br|-ed}}.<ref name=BallNumber/> However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word {{lang|br|Saoz}} ("Englishman", plural {{lang|br|Saozon}}) take the suffix {{lang|br|-ien}}, with a range of variants including {{lang|br|-on}}, {{lang|br|-ion}}, {{lang|br|-an}} and {{lang|br|-ian}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

The rare pluralizing suffixes {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} and {{lang|br|-i}} are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: {{lang|br|-i}} triggers a [[vowel harmony]] effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to {{lang|br|i}} ({{lang|br|kenderv}} "cousin" → {{lang|br|kindirvi}} "cousins"; {{lang|br|bran}} "crow" → {{lang|br|brini}} "crows"; {{lang|br|klujur}} "partridge" → {{lang|br|klujiri}} "partridges"); the changes associated with {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} are less predictable.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Various nouns instead form their plural merely with [[ablaut]]: {{lang|br|a}} or {{lang|br|o}} in the [[Word stem|stem]] being changed to {{lang|br|e}}: {{lang|br|askell}} "wing" → {{lang|br|eskell}} "wings"; {{lang|br|dant}} "tooth" → {{lang|br|dent}} "teeth"; {{lang|br|kordenn}} "rope" → {{lang|br|kerdenn}} "ropes".<ref name=BallNumber/>

Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include {{lang|br|placʼh}} "girl" → {{lang|br|mercʼhed}}, {{lang|br|porcʼhell}} "pig" → {{lang|br|mocʼh}}, {{lang|br|buocʼh}} "cow" → {{lang|br|saout}}, and {{lang|br|ki}} "dog" → {{lang|br|chas}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

~~In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.<ref name=BallNumber/>~~

~~===Verbal aspect===~~

As in other Celtic languages as well as [[English language|English]], a variety of verbal constructions is available to express [[grammatical aspect]], for example: showing a distinction between [[progressive tense|progressive]] and habitual actions:

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"~~

~~! Breton~~

~~! Cornish~~

~~! Irish~~

~~! English~~

|-

~~| {{lang|br|Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|'''Yth eso'vy ow kewsel''' orth ow hentrevek}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|'''Táim ag labhairt''' le mo chomharsa}}~~

~~| I '''am talking''' to my neighbour~~

|-

~~| {{lang|br|Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|My '''a gews''' orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|'''Labhraím''' le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)}}~~

~~| I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)~~

|}

~~===Inflected prepositions===~~

As in other modern [[Celtic languages]], Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of [[inflected preposition]]. Below are some examples in Breton, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]], along with English translations.

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"~~

~~! Breton~~

~~! Cornish~~

~~! Welsh~~

~~! Irish~~

~~! Scottish Gaelic~~

~~! Manx~~

~~! English~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|ul levr zo '''ganin'''|a book is '''with-me'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma lyver '''genev'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae llyfr '''gennyf'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá leabhar '''agam'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha leabhar '''agam'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta lioar '''aym'''}}~~

~~| I have a book~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|un died zo '''ganit'''|a drink is '''with-you.SG'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma diwes '''genes'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae diod '''gennyt'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá deoch '''agat'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha deoch '''agad'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta jough '''ayd'''}}~~

~~| you have a drink~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''|a computer is '''with-him'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma jynn-amontya '''ganso'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae cyfrifiadur '''ganddo'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha coimpiutair '''aige'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta co-earrooder '''echey'''}}~~

~~| he has a computer~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''|a child is '''with-her'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma flogh '''gensi'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae plentyn '''ganddi'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá leanbh '''aici'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha leanabh '''aice'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta lhiannoo '''eck'''}}~~

~~| she has a child~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur cʼharr zo '''ganimp'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|ganeomp}}')|a car is '''with-us'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma karr '''genen'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae car '''gennym'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá gluaisteán / carr '''againn'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha càr '''againn'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta gleashtan / carr '''ain'''}}~~

~~| we have a car~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|un ti zo '''ganeocʼh'''|a house is '''with-you.PL'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma chi '''genowgh'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae tŷ '''gennych'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá teach '''agaibh'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha taigh '''agaibh'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta thie '''eu'''}}~~

~~| you have a house~~

|-

~~| {{interlinear|lang=br|arcʼhant zo '''ganto'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|gante}}')|money is '''with-them'''|}}~~

~~| {{lang|kw|yma mona '''gansa'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|cy|mae arian '''ganddynt'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|ga|tá airgead '''acu'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gd|tha airgead '''aca'''}}~~

~~| {{lang|gv|ta argid '''oc'''}}~~

~~| they have money~~

|}

In the examples above the [[Goidelic languages]] (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, whereas the [[Brittonic languages]] use ''with''. The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition ''with'' to express "belong to" (Irish {{lang|ga|is liom an leabhar}}, Scottish {{lang|gd|is leam an leabhar}}, Manx {{lang|gv|s'lhiams yn lioar}}, The book belongs to me).

The ~~Welsh examples~~ are in [[~~literary Welsh morphology#Prepositions~~|~~literary Welsh~~]]. The ~~order and preposition may differ slightly~~ in [[~~colloquial Welsh morphology#Prepositions~~|~~colloquial Welsh~~]] ~~(Formal~~ {{~~lang|cy~~|~~mae car gennym~~}}, ~~North Wales~~ {{~~lang~~|cy|~~mae gynnon ni gar~~}}, ~~South Wales~~ {{~~lang~~|cy|~~mae car gyda ni~~}}).

== Orthography ==

The first extant Breton texts, contained in the [[Leyden Manuscript|Leyden manuscript]], were written at the end of the 8th century, 50 years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], which are considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. Like many medieval [[Orthography|orthographies]], Old and Middle Breton had an orthography that was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at the author's discretion. In 1499, however, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the ''Catholicon'' was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|qu}}, which was a remnant of the sound change {{IPA|/kʷ/}} > {{IPA|/k/}} in Latin, and the Brittonic {{vr|cou-}} or {{vr|cu-}} to represent {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels.

~~===Initial consonant mutations===~~

As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the [[Bro Gwened|Vannes country]], began to devise their own orthographies. Many of those orthographies were more closely related to the French model albeit with some modifications. Examples of modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -{{vr|z}} with -{{vr|h}} to denote word-final {{IPA|/x~h/}} (an evolution of Old Breton {{IPA|/θ/}} in the Vannes dialect) and the use of -{{vr|h}} to denote the initial mutation of {{IPA|/k/}} (today, this mutation is written {{vr|cʼh}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last=Hemon|first=Roparz|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1975|location=Dublin|pages=5}}</ref>

~~Breton has four~~ initial ~~[[consonant mutation]]s: though modern Breton lost the nasal~~ mutation of ~~[[Welsh language~~|~~Welsh]]~~ (~~but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor")~~, ~~it also has a "hard"~~ mutation~~, in which voiced stops become voiceless,~~ and ~~a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture~~ of ~~hard and soft mutations.~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"~~

In the 1830s, [[Jean-François Le Gonidec]] created a modern phonetic system for the language.

~~|+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton~~

|-

~~! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Unmutated consonant~~

~~! scope="col" colspan="4" | Mutations~~

|-

~~! scope="col"| Hard~~

~~! scope="col"| Mixed~~

~~! scope="col"| Soft~~

~~! scope="col"| Aspirant~~

|-

~~! scope="row"| ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}~~

~~|   || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} ||  ~~

|-

~~! scope="row"| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}~~

~~| ''p'' {{IPA|[p̎]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} ||  ~~

|-

~~! scope="row"| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}~~

~~|   ||   || ''b'' {{IPA|[b̥]}} || ''f'' {{IPA|[v̥]}}~~

|-

~~! scope="row"| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ]}}~~

~~| ''k'' {{IPA|[k͈]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} ||  ~~

|-

~~! scope="row"| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}~~

~~|   ||   || ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[x]}}~~

|-

~~!''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}~~

~~|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}~~

~~|''z'' {{IPA|[z]}}~~

~~| ~~

|-

~~!''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}~~

~~| ~~

~~|''d'' {{IPA|[d̥]}}~~

~~|''z'' {{IPA|[h]}}~~

|-

~~!''gw'' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}~~

~~|''kw'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}~~

~~|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}~~

~~| ~~

|}

~~===Word order===~~

~~{{expand section|V2 word order|date=May 2022}}~~

~~Normal word order, like~~ the ~~other [[Insular Celtic languages]]~~, ~~is at its core~~ [[~~verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] (verb~~-~~subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in [[main clause]]s are additionally subject to [[V2 word order~~]] in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.<ref name="V2">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=Non-Negative Word Order in Breton: Maintaining Verb-Second | journal=Transactions of the Philological Society | publisher=Wiley | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=12 January 2018 | issn=0079-1636 | doi=10.1111/1467-968x.12119 | pages=153–178| s2cid=148910543 | url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9131b11a-3eff-43b1-9055-b6c9f19b413b}}</ref> That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a ~~little difference in meaning):~~

*the first places the verbal [[infinitive]] in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the ~~[[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] {{lang|br|ober}} 'to do'.~~

*the second places the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}} 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive''. At the end comes the Object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.

*the third places the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}}, the Subject, and the Object.

*the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.

*the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO).

~~{{interlinear|number=(1)~~

~~| Lenn a ra brezhoneg~~

~~| read PRT do.3SG Breton~~

~~| 'He/she reads Breton~~.~~'}}~~

{{~~interlinear~~|~~number=~~(2)

During the early 20th century, a group of writers known as {{lang|br|Emglev ar Skrivanerien}} elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], Leon and Trégor (known as from {{lang|br|Kernev}}, {{lang|br|Leon}} and {{lang|br|Treger}} in Breton). This '''KLT''' orthography was established in 1911. At the same time, writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system, which was also based on that of Le Gonidec.

| ~~Ema Yann~~ {~~o lenn~~} ~~brezhoneg~~

| ~~be.3SG Yann reading Breton~~

| ~~'Yann is reading~~ Breton.'}}

{{~~interlinear~~|~~number=~~(3)

Following proposals that had been made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This {{lang|br|Peurunvan}} ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph {{vr|zh}}, which represents a {{IPA|/h/}} in Vannetais and corresponds to a {{IPA|/z/}} in the KLT dialects.

| {~~O lenn~~} ~~ema Yann brezhoneg~~

~~| reading be.3SG Yann Breton~~

| ~~'Yann is reading Breton.'~~}}

{{~~interlinear~~|~~number=~~(4)

In 1955, [[François Falcʼhun]] and the group {{ill|Emgleo Breiz|fr|Emgleo Breiz|br|Emgleo Breiz}} proposed a new orthography, which was designed to use a set of [[graphemes]] closer to the conventions of French. This {{lang|fr|Orthographe universitaire}} ("University Orthography", known in Breton as {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education". It was opposed in the region and was only by the magazine {{lang|br|Brud Nevez}} and the publishing house Emgleo Breiz, which disappeared in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Guérin|first=Yannick|title=Les Éditions Emgleo Breiz en liquidation|url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/bretagne/les-editions-emgleo-breiz-en-liquidation-3822711}}</ref>

| ~~Mad eo an istor~~

| ~~good be~~.~~3SG the story~~

| ~~'The story is good~~.'}}

{{~~interlinear~~|~~number=(5)~~

In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised: the {{lang|br|etrerannyezhel}} or {{lang|fr|interdialectale}}. This system is based on the derivation of the words.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hewitt|first=Steve|title=Background information on Breton|url=https://www.academia.edu/2157237}}</ref>

| ~~An istor zo mad~~

| the ~~story be~~.~~3SG good~~

| ~~'The story is good~~.'}}

~~==Vocabulary==~~

Today, most writers continue to use the ''Peurunvan orthography'', and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.

Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French.<ref name=Fortson>Fortson, Benjamin W. 2005. ''Indo-European Language and Culture''. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".</ref>

~~==Orthography==~~

~~The first extant Breton texts~~, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. Like many medieval [[Orthography|orthographies]], Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion. In 1499, however, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the ''Catholicon'' was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|qu}}—a remnant of the sound change {{IPA|/kʷ/}} > {{IPA|/k/}} in Latin—and Brittonic {{vr|cou-}} or {{vr|cu-}} to represent {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels.

As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications. Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -{{vr|z}} with -{{vr|h}} to denote word-final {{IPA|/x~h/}} (an evolution of Old Breton {{IPA|/θ/}} in the Vannes dialect) and use of -{{vr|h}} to denote the initial mutation of {{IPA|/k/}} (today this mutation is written {{vr|cʼh}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last=Hemon|first=Roparz|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1975|location=Dublin|pages=5}}</ref> and thus needed another transcription.

~~In the 1830s [[Jean-François Le Gonidec]] created a modern phonetic system for the language.~~

During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as {{lang|br|Emglev ar Skrivanerien}} elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], Leon and Trégor (known as from {{lang|br|Kernev}}, {{lang|br|Leon}} and {{lang|br|Treger}} in Breton). This '''KLT''' orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.

Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This {{lang|br|Peurunvan}} ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph {{vr|zh}}, which represents a {{IPA|/h/}} in Vannetais and corresponds to a {{IPA|/z/}} in the KLT dialects.

In 1955 [[François Falcʼhun]] and the group {{ill|Emgleo Breiz|fr|Emgleo Breiz|br|Emgleo Breiz}} proposed a new orthography. It was designed to use a set of [[graphemes]] closer to the conventions of French. This {{lang|fr|Orthographe universitaire}} ("University Orthography", known in Breton as {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education." It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazine {{lang|br|Brud Nevez}} and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.

In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised – the {{lang|br|etrerannyezhel}} or {{lang|fr|interdialectale}}. This system is based on the derivation of the words.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hewitt|first=Steve|title=Background information on Breton|url=https://www.academia.edu/2157237}}</ref>

~~Today the majority of~~ writers continue to use the ''Peurunvan orthography'', and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.

===Alphabet===

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: a, b, ch, cʼh, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y, z

The [[circumflex]], [[grave accent]], [[trema (diacritic)|trema]] and [[tilde]] appear on some letters. ~~These~~ [[~~diacritic~~]]s are used in the following way:

The [[circumflex]], [[grave accent]], [[trema (diacritic)|trema]] and [[tilde]] appear on some letters. The [[diacritics]] are used in the following way:

: â, ê, î, ô, û, ù, ü, ñ

===Differences between {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}} and {{lang|br|Peurunvan}}===

Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although {{vr|é}} is used only in {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}.

Both orthographies use the above alphabet although {{vr|é}} is used only in {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}.

Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final [[obstruent]]s, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: {{lang|br|braz}} "big", {{lang|br|brasocʼh}} "bigger".

Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final [[obstruent]]s, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced sounds]], are represented by a grapheme that indicates a [[Voicelessness|voiceless sound]]. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: {{lang|br|braz}} "big", {{lang|br|brasocʼh}} "bigger".

In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g. {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} "Breton language" vs. {{lang|br|brezhonek}} "Breton (adj)".

In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation. {{abbr|e.g.|for example}}, {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} {{gloss|Breton language}} vs. {{lang|br|brezhonek}} {{gloss|Breton ({{abbr|adj|adjective}})}}.

{| class="wikitable"

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===Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet===

'''C''' (as a single letter), '''Q''' and '''X''' appear mainly in loanwords. ⟨ks⟩ or ⟨gz⟩ may be used to represent /ks/ or /ɡz/. The digraph {{angbr|zh}} represents a variable sound that may exhibit as {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, or {{IPA|/h/}}, and descends from a now-extinct sound {{IPA|/θ/}}, which is still extant in Welsh as {{angbr|th}}.

{| class="wikitable sortable"

! Letter ~~!! Revised~~!! Kerneveg !! Leoneg !! Tregiereg !! Gwenedeg

! Letter !! Kerneveg !! Leoneg !! Tregiereg !! Gwenedeg

|-

~~| '''A a'''~~

| '''A a'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ä, a, ɑː]}}

|-

~~| â~~

| â

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑː]}}{{Ref|Pron-1}}

|-

~~| ae~~

| ae

| {{IPA|[ae̯~aj]}}

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|-

| an

~~| agn~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑ̃n]}}

|-

| añ

~~| ag~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑ̃]}}

|-

| ao

~~| aw~~

| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ao̯~aw]}}

| {{IPA|[ɔː]}}

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|-

| aou

~~| aow~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔʊ̯~ɔw]}}

|-

~~| '''B b'''~~

| '''B b'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[b], [p]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}

|-

| '''Ch ch'''

~~| '''Sh sh'''~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʃ], [ʒ]}}{{Ref|Pron-4}}

|-

| '''Cʼh cʼh'''

~~| '''Ch ch'''~~

| {{IPA|[h]}},{{Ref|Pron-2}} {{IPA|[x]}}

| {{IPA|[h]}},{{Ref|Pron-2}} {{IPA|[ɣ~ɦ]}},{{Ref|Pron-19}} {{IPA|[x]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}

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|-

| cʼhw

~~| chw~~

| {{IPA|[xw~f]}}

| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[xw]}}

| {{IPA|[hw~(hɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}

|-

~~| '''D d'''~~

| '''D d'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[d], [t]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}

|-

~~| '''E e'''~~

| '''E e'''

| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}

| colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː]}},{{Ref|Pron-5}} {{IPA|[ə]}}{{Ref|Pron-22}}

|-

~~| ê~~

| ê

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛː]}}{{Ref|Pron-17}}

|-

~~| ei~~

| ei

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛi̯~ɛj]}}

|-

| eeu

~~| ey~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[eø̯~ew]}}

|-

~~| eo~~

| eo

| {{IPA|[eː]}}

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|-

| eu

~~| y~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[œ, œ̞, ø, øː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}

|-

| eü

~~| eu~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛɥ, e(v)y]}}

|-

| eue

~~| ye~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ø̯e~ɥe]}}

|-

~~| '''F f'''~~

| '''F f'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[f], [v]}}{{Ref|Pron-4}}

|-

| 'f

~~| ff~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[v~ɸ]}}

|-

| '''G g'''

~~| '''Q q'''~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɡ, k]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}

| {{IPA|[ɡ~(ɟ), k~(c)]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}

|-

| gn

~~| nh~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɲ]}}{{Ref|Pron-7}}

|-

| gw

~~| qw~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɡw]}}{{Ref|Pron-27}}

| {{IPA|[ɡw~(ɟɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}

|-

~~| '''H h'''~~

| '''H h'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[h]}}{{Ref|Pron-8}}

|-

~~| '''I i'''~~

| '''I i'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[i, iː, j]}}{{Ref|Pron-9}}

|-

~~| ilh~~

| ilh

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[(i)ʎ]}}{{Ref|Pron-10}}

|-

~~| '''J j'''~~

| '''J j'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʒ], [ʃ]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}

|-

| '''K k'''

~~| '''C c'''~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[k]}}

| {{IPA|[k~(c)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}

|-

~~| '''L l'''~~

| '''L l'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[l]}},{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[ɬ]}}{{Ref|Pron-11}}

|-

~~| '''M m'''~~

| '''M m'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[m]}}

|-

~~| '''N n'''~~

| '''N n'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[n]}},{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[ŋ]}}{{Ref|Pron-12}}

|-

| ñ

~~| g~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[◌̃]}}

|-

| ñv

~~| gmf~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[◌̃v]}}

|-

~~| '''O o'''~~

| '''O o'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ, ɔ̞, o, oː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}{{Ref|Pron-24}}

|-

~~| oa~~

| oa

| {{IPA|[ɔ̯a~wa, ɔ̯ɑː~wɑː]}}

Line 944:

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| {{IPA|[ɔ̯ɛ~wɛ, ɔ̯eː~weː]}}

|-

~~| ôa~~

| ôa

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[oːa]}}{{Ref|Pron-18}}

|-

~~| oe~~

| oe

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̯ɛ(ː)~wɛ(ː)]}}

|-

| on

~~| ogn~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̃n]}}

|-

| oñ

~~| og~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}

|-

| ou

~~| w~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[u, uː, w]}}

| {{IPA|[u, uː, w~(ɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}{{Ref|Pron-13}}

|-

| où{{Ref|Pron-14}}

~~| ow~~

| colspan="2" |{{IPA|[u]}}

| {{IPA|[o]}}

Line 972:

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|-

| oü

~~| oy~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[oy̆, oːy]}}

|-

~~| '''P p'''~~

| '''P p'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[p]}}

|-

~~| '''R r'''~~

| '''R r'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʀ~ʁ~r~ɾ~ɹ]}},{{Ref|Pron-21}}{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[χ~r̥~ɾ̥~ɹ̥]}}{{Ref|Pron-11}}

|-

~~| '''S s'''~~

| '''S s'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[s, z]}}

|-

| sh

~~| ss~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[s]}}

| {{IPA|[h]}}

|-

| sk

~~| sc~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[sk]}}

| {{IPA|[sk~(sc~ʃc)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}

|-

~~| st~~

| st

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[st]}}

| {{IPA|[ʃt]}}

|-

~~| '''T t'''~~

| '''T t'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[t]}}

|-

~~| '''U u'''~~

| '''U u'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[y, yː, ɥ]}}{{Ref|Pron-28}}

|-

~~| ui~~

| ui

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɥi, ɥiː]}}

|-

| ul, un, ur{{Ref|Pron-29}}

~~| yl, yn, yr{{Ref|Pron-29}}~~

| {{IPA|[ɔl, ɔn, ɔʀ]}}

| {{IPA|[œl, œn, œr]}}

Line 1,021:

Line 737:

| {{IPA|[yl, yn, yʁ]}}

|-

~~| '''V v'''~~

| '''V v'''

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[v]}}{{Ref|Pron-15}}

|-

| vh

~~| ph~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[f]}}

|-

~~| '''W w'''~~

| '''W w'''

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[w]}}{{Ref|Pron-25}}

Line 1,035:

Line 748:

|-

| '''Y y'''

~~| '''I i'''~~

| colspan="4" | {{IPA|[j]}}

|-

~~| '''Z z'''~~

| '''Z z'''

| {{IPA|[z]}}, Ø,{{Ref|Pron-16}} {{IPA|[s]}}{{Ref|Pron-20}}

Line 1,046:

Line 757:

|-

| zh

~~| th~~

| colspan="3" | {{IPA|[z]}}{{Ref|Pron-16}}

| {{IPA|[h]}}{{Ref|Pron-16}}

Line 1,052:

Line 762:

'''Notes:'''

# {{Note|Pron-1}} Vocative particle: {{lang|br|â Vreizh~~}} / {{lang|br|â Vreith~~}} "O Brittany".

# {{Note|Pron-1}} Vocative particle: {{lang|br|â Vreizh}} "O Brittany".

# {{Note|Pron-2}} Word-initially.

# {{Note|Pron-3}} Word-finally.

Line 1,083:

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# {{Note|Pron-30}} A conservative realisation of the initial mutation of {{vr|d}} and {{vr|t}}, used in certain parts of the Vannes country.

==~~Sample texts~~==

==Grammar==

===Nouns===

Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton has a fairly typical gender system for Western Europe, Breton has number markers that demonstrate rarer behaviors.

====Gender====

Breton has two genders: masculine ({{lang|br|gourel}}) and feminine ({{lang|br|gwregel}}). It has largely lost its historic neuter ({{lang|br|nepreizh}}), as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages and in the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj,<ref name=BallGender/> -(a)dur,<ref name=BallGender/> -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va''<ref name="Stephens"/>) are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.<ref name="Stephens">{{Cite book|last=Stephens|first=Janig|title=The Celtic Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=041528080X|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions|location=London|pages=379|chapter=Breton|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}</ref> The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.<ref name=BallGender/>

There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for {{lang|br|eur}} "hour", {{lang|br|noz}} "night" and {{lang|br|sizhun}} "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.<ref name=BallGender>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|page=364|year=1993}}</ref>

However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.<ref name=BallGender/>

====Number====

Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.<ref name=BallNumber>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|pages=365–369|year=1993}}</ref> However, the system is full of complexities<ref name=Fortson/> in how the distinction is realized.

Although modern Breton has lost the dual number as a productive grammatical category, remnants of its use are preserved in certain nouns referring to paired body parts such as for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs and wings. Those forms typically feature a prefix (''daou-'', ''di-'' or ''div-''), which is etymologically derived from the numeral two.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Fortson/> The dual number is no longer a productive feature of Breton grammar and survives only in a lexicalized form. Certain words such as ''daoulagad'' ('eyes') and ''divskouarn'' ('ears') are historically dual in origin. These forms can nevertheless undergo pluralization once more to yield ''daoulagadoù'' ('pairs of eyes') and ''diskouarnoù'' ('pairs of ears').<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Stephens/>

Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a [[singulative]] suffix, which forms singulars out of [[collective nouns]] for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective {{lang|br|logod}} "mice" is {{lang|br|logod'''enn'''}} "mouse".<ref name=BallNumber/> "Breton exhibits a more complex system than Welsh in this respect. Collective nouns can undergo pluralization, yielding forms with meanings distinct from the base collective. For example, ''pesk'' ('fish', singular) forms the collective plural ''pesked'' ('fish'), which may then be singulativized as ''peskedenn'' to denote an individual fish from a group. This singulative of the plural can in turn be pluralized once more, producing ''peskedennoù'' ('fishes')."<ref name=Fortson/>

"In addition, the Breton plural system is complicated by the existence of two distinct pluralizing functions. Alongside the 'default' plural, there is a second formation used to convey a sense of variety or diversity. As a result, a single noun may yield two semantically different plurals; for example, ''park'' ('park') forms ''parkoù'' ('parks') and ''parkeier'' ('various different parks')."<ref name=Fortson/> Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.<ref name=BallNumber/> Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: {{lang|br|dour}} "water" pluralized forms {{lang|br|dourioù}} which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while {{lang|br|doureier}} now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: {{lang|br|keloù}} means "news" and {{lang|br|*kel}} is not used, while {{lang|br|keleier}} has become the regular plural,<ref name=BallNumber/> 'different news items'.

Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – {{lang|br|bugel}} "child" is pluralized once into {{lang|br|bugale}} "children" and then pluralized a second time to make {{lang|br|bugaleoù}} "groups of children".<ref name=Fortson/>

The diminutive suffix {{lang|br|-ig}} also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: {{lang|br|bugelig}} means "little child", but the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bug'''ale'''ig'''où'''}} means "little children"; {{lang|br|bag}} boat has a singular diminutive {{lang|br|bagig}} and a simple plural {{lang|br|bagoù}}, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bag'''où'''ig'''où'''}}.<ref name=Fortson/><ref name=BallNumber/>

As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be difficult to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.

The most common plural marker is {{lang|br|-où}}, with its variant {{lang|br|-ioù}};<ref name=BallNumber/> most nouns that use that marker are inanimates, but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Most animate nouns, including trees, have a plural in {{lang|br|-ed}}.<ref name=BallNumber/> However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations, as well as the word {{lang|br|Saoz}} ("Englishman", plural {{lang|br|Saozon}}), take the suffix {{lang|br|-ien}}, with a range of variants including {{lang|br|-on}}, {{lang|br|-ion}}, {{lang|br|-an}} and {{lang|br|-ian}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

The rare pluralizing suffixes {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} and {{lang|br|-i}} are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: {{lang|br|-i}} triggers a [[vowel harmony]] effect in which some or all preceding vowels are changed to {{lang|br|i}} ({{lang|br|kenderv}} "cousin" → {{lang|br|kindirvi}} "cousins"; {{lang|br|bran}} "crow" → {{lang|br|brini}} "crows"; {{lang|br|klujur}} "partridge" → {{lang|br|klujiri}} "partridges"); the changes associated with {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} are less predictable.<ref name=BallNumber/>

Various nouns instead form their plural merely with [[ablaut]]: {{lang|br|a}} or {{lang|br|o}} in the [[word stem|stem]] is changed to {{lang|br|e}}: {{lang|br|askell}} "wing" → {{lang|br|eskell}} "wings"; {{lang|br|dant}} "tooth" → {{lang|br|dent}} "teeth"; {{lang|br|kordenn}} "rope" → {{lang|br|kerdenn}} "ropes".<ref name=BallNumber/>

Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include {{lang|br|placʼh}} "girl" → {{lang|br|mercʼhed}}, {{lang|br|porcʼhell}} "pig" → {{lang|br|mocʼh}}, {{lang|br|buocʼh}} "cow" → {{lang|br|saout}}, and {{lang|br|ki}} "dog" → {{lang|br|chas}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>

In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.<ref name=BallNumber/>

===Verbal aspect===

Like in other Celtic languages, as well as in [[English language|English]], a variety of verbal constructions can be used to express [[grammatical aspect]] such as to show a distinction between [[progressive tense|progressive]] and habitual actions:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! Breton

! Cornish

! Irish

! English

|-

| {{lang|br|Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg}}

| {{lang|kw|'''Yth eso'vy ow kewsel''' orth ow hentrevek}}

| {{lang|ga|'''Táim ag labhairt''' le mo chomharsa}}

| I '''am talking''' to my neighbour

|-

| {{lang|br|Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)}}

| {{lang|kw|My '''a gews''' orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)}}

| {{lang|ga|'''Labhraím''' le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)}}

| I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)

|}

===Inflected prepositions===

Like in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of [[inflected preposition]]. Here are some examples in Breton, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]], along with English translationsL

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! Breton

! Cornish

! Welsh

! Irish

! Scottish Gaelic

! Manx

! English

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|ul levr zo '''ganin'''|a book is '''with-me'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma lyver '''genev'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae llyfr '''gennyf'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá leabhar '''agam'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha leabhar '''agam'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta lioar '''aym'''}}

| I have a book

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|un died zo '''ganit'''|a drink is '''with-you.SG'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma diwes '''genes'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae diod '''gennyt'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá deoch '''agat'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha deoch '''agad'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta jough '''ayd'''}}

| you have a drink

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''|a computer is '''with-him'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma jynn-amontya '''ganso'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae cyfrifiadur '''ganddo'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha coimpiutair '''aige'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta co-earrooder '''echey'''}}

| he has a computer

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''|a child is '''with-her'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma flogh '''gensi'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae plentyn '''ganddi'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá leanbh '''aici'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha leanabh '''aice'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta lhiannoo '''eck'''}}

| she has a child

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur cʼharr zo '''ganimp'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|ganeomp}}')|a car is '''with-us'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma karr '''genen'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae car '''gennym'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá gluaisteán / carr '''againn'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha càr '''againn'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta gleashtan / carr '''ain'''}}

| we have a car

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|un ti zo '''ganeocʼh'''|a house is '''with-you.PL'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma chi '''genowgh'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae tŷ '''gennych'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá teach '''agaibh'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha taigh '''agaibh'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta thie '''eu'''}}

| you have a house

|-

| {{interlinear|lang=br|arcʼhant zo '''ganto'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|gante}}')|money is '''with-them'''|}}

| {{lang|kw|yma mona '''gansa'''}}

| {{lang|cy|mae arian '''ganddynt'''}}

| {{lang|ga|tá airgead '''acu'''}}

| {{lang|gd|tha airgead '''aca'''}}

| {{lang|gv|ta argid '''oc'''}}

| they have money

|}

In the examples above, the [[Goidelic languages]] (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, and the [[Brittonic languages]] use the one meaning ''with''. The Goidelic languages, however, use the preposition ''with'' to express "belong to" (Irish {{lang|ga|is liom an leabhar}}, Scottish {{lang|gd|is leam an leabhar}}, Manx {{lang|gv|s'lhiams yn lioar}}, The book belongs to me).

The Welsh examples are in [[literary Welsh morphology#Prepositions|literary Welsh]]. The order and the preposition may differ slightly in [[Colloquial Welsh morphology#Prepositions|Colloquial Welsh]] (Formal {{lang|cy|mae car gennym}}, North Wales {{lang|cy|mae gynnon ni gar}}, South Wales {{lang|cy|mae car gyda ni}}).

===Initial consonant mutations===

Breton has four initial [[consonant mutations]]. Though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, which has voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.

'''~~Article 1 of the~~ [[~~Universal Declaration of Human Rights~~]]'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

{|

|+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton

|-

|| '''~~Breton~~'''~~: ~~{{~~lang~~|~~br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.~~}}~~<ref>~~{{~~cite web~~ |~~title~~=~~Universal Declaration of Human Rights~~ |~~publisher=~~[[~~Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights~~]] |~~url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/breton~~ }}~~</ref>~~

! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Unmutated consonant

|~~style~~="~~padding-left: 1em~~"| '''~~English~~'''~~: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>~~{{~~cite web~~ |~~url=https://www.un.org/en/about~~-~~us/universal~~-~~declaration~~-~~of-human-rights~~ |~~title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights~~ |~~publisher=~~[[~~United Nations~~]] }}~~</ref>~~

! scope="col" colspan="4" | Mutations

|-

! scope="col"| Hard

! scope="col"| Mixed

! scope="col"| Soft

! scope="col"| Aspirant

|-

! scope="row"| ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}

|   || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} ||  

|-

! scope="row"| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}

| ''p'' {{IPA|[p̎]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} ||  

|-

! scope="row"| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}

|   ||   || ''b'' {{IPA|[b̥]}} || ''f'' {{IPA|[v̥]}}

|-

! scope="row"| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ]}}

| ''k'' {{IPA|[k͈]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} ||  

|-

! scope="row"| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}

|   ||   || ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[x]}}

|-

!''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}

|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}

|''z'' {{IPA|[z]}}

| 

|-

!''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}

| 

|''d'' {{IPA|[d̥]}}

|''z'' {{IPA|[h]}}

|-

!''gw'' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}

|''kw'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}

|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}

| 

|}

===~~Lord~~'~~s Prayer~~===

===Word order===

Normal word order, like the other [[Insular Celtic languages]], is at its core [[verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in [[main clauses]] are additionally subject to [[V2 word order]] in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.<ref name="V2">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=Non-Negative Word Order in Breton: Maintaining Verb-Second | journal=Transactions of the Philological Society | publisher=Wiley | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=12 January 2018 | issn=0079-1636 | doi=10.1111/1467-968x.12119 | pages=153–178| s2cid=148910543 | url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9131b11a-3eff-43b1-9055-b6c9f19b413b}}</ref> In fact, starting a sentence with a finite verb is generally ungrammatical in Breton.

Noun phrases, adverbial phrases, verbal nouns and the negative particle ''ne'' may stand in sentence-initial position to satisfy the V2 requirement.<ref name="V2 neg">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=The persistence of verb second in negative utterances in Breton | journal=Journal of Historical Linguistics | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=May 22, 2014 | issn=2210-2116 | doi=10.1075/jhl.4.1.01ken | pages=1–39}}</ref> That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):

*the first places the verbal [[infinitive]] in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] {{lang|br|ober}} {{gloss|to do}}.

*the second places the auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}} {{gloss|to be}} in initial position (as in (2)), followed by the subject and the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive''. At the end comes the object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.

*the third places the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}}, the subject and the object.

*the fourth option places the object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb and then by the subject.

*the fifth, and originally least common, places the subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the object, just like in English (SVO).

{{interlinear

| number = (1)|Lenn a ra brezhoneg|read PRT do.3SG Breton|'He/she reads Breton.'

}}

{{interlinear

| number = (2)|Emañ Yann {o lenn} brezhoneg|be.3SG Yann reading Breton|'Yann is reading Breton.'

}}

{{interlinear

| number = (3)|{O lenn} emañ Yann brezhoneg|reading be.3SG Yann Breton|'Yann is reading Breton.'

}}

{{interlinear

| number = (4)|Mat eo an istor|good be.3SG the story|'The story is good.'

}}

{{interlinear

| number = (5)|An istor zo mat|the story be.3SG good|'The story is good.'

}}

== Vocabulary ==

~~: ''Hon Tad,''~~

~~: ''cʼhwi hag~~ a ~~zo en Neñv~~,''

~~: ''ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.''~~

~~: ''Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.''~~

~~: ''Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.''~~

~~: ''Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.''~~

~~: ''Distaolit dimp hon dleoù''~~

~~: ''evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.''~~

~~: ''Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur~~,''

~~: ''met hon dieubit eus an Droug~~.''

=~~==Words~~ and ~~phrases in~~ Breton~~===~~

Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loanwords from French.<ref name=Fortson>Fortson, Benjamin W. 2005. ''Indo-European Language and Culture''. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".</ref>

[[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper/Kemper]]. Note the use of the word ''ti'' in the Breton for ''police station'' and ''tourist office'', plus {{lang|br|da bep lecʼh}} for ''all directions''.]]

=== Words and phrases ===

[[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper/Kemper]]. Note the use of the word {{lang|br|ti}} in the Breton for 'police station' and 'tourist office', plus {{lang|br|da bep lecʼh}} for ''all directions''.]]

<!--

Some short examples of the language in the writing system(s) used to write the language. You might also include sound samples of the language being spoken.

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| {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} || Breton ''(language)''

|-

| {{lang|br|ti}}, "ty" || house

| {{lang|br|ti}}, {{lang|br|ty}} || house

|-

| {{lang|br|ti-kêr}} || town hall

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| {{lang|br|kenavo}} || goodbye

|-

| {{lang|br|krampouezh}} || pancakes (''a'' pancake = {{lang|br|ur grampouezh'''enn'''}})

| {{lang|br|krampouezh}} || pancakes (''a'' pancake = {{lang|br|ur grampouezh'''enn'''}}, see [[singulative number|singulative]])

|-

| {{lang|br|sistr}} || cider

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| {{lang|br|war vor atav}} || always at sea

|-

| {{lang|br|[[kouign amann]] }}|| rich butter and sugar cake

| {{lang|br|[[kouign amann]]}} || rich butter and sugar cake

|}

=== Borrowing from Breton by other languages ===

The English words {{lang|en|dolmen}} and {{lang|en|[[menhir]]}} have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, {{lang|en|menhir}} is {{lang|br|peulvan}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} ("long stone"), {{lang|br|maen sav}} ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. ''Dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be {{lang|br|taol-'''v'''aen}}). Some studies state<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strang|first=Barbara M. H|title=A History of English|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317421917|pages=94}}</ref> that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. {{lang|cy|Maen hir}} can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a {{lang|en|menhir}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish {{lang|kw|men}} {{lang|kw|hyr}} ("long stone"), as does {{lang|kw|Tremenheere}} "settlement by the long stone".

The French word {{lang|fr|baragouiner}} ("to jabber in a foreign language or an unintelligible manner") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|bara}} ("bread") and {{lang|br|gwin}} ("wine"). The French word {{lang|fr|goéland}} ("large seagull") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|gwelan}}, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh {{lang|cy|gwylan}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|goelann}}).

==Sample texts==

{|

|+ Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]

|| '''Breton''': {{lang|br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/breton }}</ref>

|style="padding-left: 1em"| '''English''': All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[United Nations]] }}</ref>

|}

==Language comparison==

===Lord's Prayer===

Hon Tad,

cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,

ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.

Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.

Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.

Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.

Distaolit dimp hon dleoù

evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.

Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,

met hon dieubit eus an Droug.

</poem>

== Language comparison ==

{| class="wikitable"

! English !! French !! Breton !! Cornish !! Welsh !! Scottish Gaelic !! Irish

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| winter || {{lang|fr|hiver}} || {{lang|br|goañv}} || {{lang|kw|gwav}} || {{lang|cy|gaeaf}} || {{lang|gd|geamhradh}} || {{lang|ga|geimhreadh}}

|}

~~==Borrowing from Breton by other languages==~~

~~{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2025}}~~

The English words {{lang|en|dolmen}} and {{lang|en|[[menhir]]}} have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, {{lang|en|menhir}} is {{lang|br|peulvan}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} ("long stone"), {{lang|br|maen sav}} ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. ''Dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be {{lang|br|taol-'''v'''aen}}). Some studies state<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strang|first=Barbara M. H|title=A History of English|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317421917|pages=94}}</ref> that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. {{lang|cy|Maen hir}} can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a {{lang|en|menhir}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish {{lang|kw|men}} {{lang|kw|hyr}} ("long stone"), as does {{lang|kw|Tremenheere}} "settlement by the long stone".

The French word {{lang|fr|baragouiner}} ("to jabber in a foreign language") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|bara}} ("bread") and {{lang|br|gwin}} ("wine"). The French word {{lang|fr|goéland}} ("large seagull") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|gwelan}}, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh {{lang|cy|gwylan}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|goelann}}).

==.bzh==

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==See also==

* [[Armoricani]]

* [[Gaelic revival]], Irish language revival

* [[Gaelic revival]], Irish-language revival

* [[Julian Maunoir]], 17th-century Breton language orthographer

* [[Julian Maunoir]], 17th-century Breton-language orthographer

* [[List of Celtic-language media]]

* {{lang|br|[[Stourm ar Brezhoneg]]}}, an association promoting the language

==Notes==

==References==

~~'''Notes'''~~

'''~~Further reading~~'''

===Further reading===

~~;Overviews~~

'''Overviews'''

* {{Cite book|title=The Celtic languages, 2nd Edition|last=Press|first=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2010|location=Abingdon; New York|pages=427–487|chapter=Breton|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin J.|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}

*{{Cite book|title = The Celtic languages|last = Stephens|first = Janig|publisher = Routledge|year = 1993|isbn = 978-0415280808|location = Abingdon; New York|pages = 349–409|chapter = Breton|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BP9QCJ2FQzYC&q=%22the%20celtic%20languages%22&pg=PA349|editor-last = Ball|editor-first = Martin J.|editor-last2 = Fife|editor-first2 = James|series = Routledge language family descriptions}}

* {{Cite book|title = The Celtic languages|last = Ternes|first = Elmar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1992|isbn = 978-0521231275|location = Cambridge; New York; Oakleigh|pages = 371–452|chapter = The Breton language|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=y3kIq1DYAkMC&q=%22the%20celtic%20languages%22&pg=PA371|editor-last = MacAulay|editor-first = Donald|series = Cambridge language surveys}}

;Historical development

'''Historical development'''

* Hemon, Roparz. ''A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton''. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.

* {{Cite book|title = A historical phonology of Breton|last = Jackson|first = Kenneth H.|publisher = [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies]]|year = 1967|isbn = 978-0-901282-53-8|location = Dublin}}

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|text=[[v:Topic:Breton|Wikiversity offers lessons in the Breton language]]}}

* [[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]] [~~http~~://www.~~ofis-~~bzh~~.org~~/ official website].

* [[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]] [https://www.brezhoneg.bzh/ official website].

* {{Citation | url = http://www.france3breizh.fr/ | title = France 3 breizh}}, the public Breton TV channel.

* {{Citation | url = http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/endangered.htm | title = Endangered | publisher = Breizh net}}: an essay about the situation of the Breton language.

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'''Learning'''

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140704082247/http://www.kervarker.org/index.php?newlang=english%2F Breton site including online lessons]

* [http://www.linguashop.com/breton-language/ Audio CD, workbooks, software in English to learn Breton]

* Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)

* Jouitteau, M. ''[http://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/index.php/Grammaire_du_breton Grammaire du breton]'', (extensive Breton grammar in French, with glossed examples and typological comparisons), IKER, CNRS, 2009 > 2017].

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[[Category:Languages of France]]

[[Category:Verb–subject–object languages]]

[[Category:Verb-second languages]]

[[Category:Severely endangered languages]]

@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 | pronunciation    = {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk|}}, {{IPA|br|brəhɔ̃ˈnek|}}
 | states           = [[Brittany]] ([[France]])
 | region           = [[Lower Brittany]]
 | ethnicity        = [[Bretons]]
 | speakers         = {{sigfig|107000|3}} in Brittany
 | date             = 2024
-| ref              = <ref>https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/</ref>
+| ref              = <ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/|title=Communiqué · Transmission et usage du breton et du gallo : résultats de l'étude sociolinguistique 2024 · Région Bretagne}}</ref>
 | speakers2        = {{sigfig|16000|2}} in {{lang|fr|[[Île-de-France]]}}<ref>{{lang|fr|[http://www.ofis-bzh.org/upload/travail_paragraphe/fichier/206fichier.pdf Diagnostic de la langue bretonne en Île-de-France]}}. {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}.</ref><br />(Number includes students in bilingual education)<ref name="Broudic2009">{{Cite book |title=Parler breton au XXIe siècle : Le nouveau sondage de TMO Régions |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Emgleo Breiz |year=2009 |language=fr}}</ref>
 | familycolor      = Indo-European
@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 | dia3             = Leoneg
 | dia4             = [[Trégorrois Breton dialect|Tregerieg]]
-| dia5             = Batz-sur-Mer †
+| dia5             = [[Batz-sur-Mer Breton|Gwerranneg]] †
 | script           = [[Latin script]] (Breton alphabet)
 | minority         = [[France]]
@@ Line 45: / Line 45: @@
 | imagecaption     = Bilingual sign in [[Huelgoat]] in Brittany
 | map              = Breton - les taux de locuteurs selon le pays - sondage 2018.svg
-| mapalt           = Map showing the percentage of Breton speakers in each country of Brittany, 2018
+| mapalt           = Map showing the percentage of Breton speakers in each region of Brittany, 2018
-| mapcaption       = Percentage of Breton speakers in each country of Brittany, 2018
+| mapcaption       = Percentage of Breton speakers in each region of Brittany, 2018
 | map2             = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
-| mapcaption2      = {{center|Breton is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas">{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref>}}
+| mapcaption2      = {{center|Breton is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas">{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref>}}
 | notice           = IPA
 | glotto           = bret1245
@@ Line 59: / Line 59: @@
 | glottorefname3   = Vannetais
 }}
-'''Breton''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɹ|ɛ|t|ə|n|}}, {{respell|BRET|ən}}, {{IPA|fr|bʁətɔ̃|lang}}; {{langx|br|label=[[endonym]]|brezhoneg}} {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk||brezhoneg.ogg}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Linguistic Student's Handbook |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |date=2007 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> <small>or</small> {{IPA|br|bɾəhɔ̃ˈnek|}} <small>in [[Morbihan]]</small>) is a [[Southwestern Brittonic language]] of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language group]] spoken in [[Brittany]], part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of the [[Insular Celtic languages|insular]] branch instead of the extinct [[Continental Celtic languages|continental]] grouping.<ref>[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]] (2012) ''The World Until Yesterday'' New York: Viking. p.399. {{isbn|978-0-670-02481-0}}</ref>
+'''Breton'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɛ|t|ən}}, {{respell|BRET|ən}}; {{IPA|fr|bʁətɔ̃|lang}}; {{langx|br|label=[[endonym]]|brezhoneg}} {{IPA|br|bʁeˈzɔ̃ːnɛk||brezhoneg.ogg}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Linguistic Student's Handbook |last=Bauer |first=Laurie |date=2007 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> or {{IPA|br|bɾəhɔ̃ˈnek|}} in [[Morbihan]]}} is a [[Southwestern Brittonic language]] of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language group]] spoken in [[Brittany]], part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still in use on the European mainland.<ref>[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]] (2012) ''The World Until Yesterday'' New York: Viking. p.399. {{isbn|978-0-670-02481-0}}</ref>
-Breton was brought from [[Great Britain]] to [[Armorica]] (the ancient name for the coastal region that includes the Brittany peninsula) by migrating [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]], making it an [[Insular Celtic language]]. Breton is most closely related to [[Cornish language|Cornish]], another Southwestern Brittonic language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Breton-language|title=Breton language|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], both [[Western Brittonic languages]], are more distantly related, and the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], [[Scottish Gaelic]]) have a slight connection due to both of their origins being from Insular Celtic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brythonic languages {{!}} Celtic, Welsh & Cornish {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brythonic-languages |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
+Breton is an [[Insular Celtic language]] that was brought from [[Great Britain]] to Brittany by migrating [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]], which makes Breton most closely related to [[Cornish language|Cornish]], another Southwestern Brittonic language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Breton-language|title=Breton language|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], both [[Western Brittonic languages]], are more distantly related, and the [[Goidelic languages]] ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Manx language|Manx]], and [[Scottish Gaelic]]) have a slight connection due to their origins being from Insular Celtic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brythonic languages {{!}} Celtic, Welsh & Cornish {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brythonic-languages |access-date=2025-02-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
-Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to 107,000 in 2024,<ref>https://www.bretagne.bzh/presse/communiques-dossiers/transmission-et-usage-du-breton-et-du-gallo-resultats-de-letude-sociolinguistique-2024/</ref> Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO ''[[Red Book of Endangered Languages|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas">{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref> However, the number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.<ref name="Broudic2009" /><ref name="ofis-stats">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr |title=Enquête socio-linguistique : qui parle les langues de bretagne aujourd'hui ? |website=Région Bretagne |date=8 October 2018 |access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref>
+Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to 107,000 in 2024,<ref name="auto"/> Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO ''[[Red Book of Endangered Languages|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref name="cite UNESCO Atlas"/> The number of children attending bilingual classes rose 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.<ref name="Broudic2009" /><ref name="ofis-stats">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr |title=Enquête socio-linguistique : qui parle les langues de bretagne aujourd'hui ? |website=Région Bretagne |date=8 October 2018 |access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref>__TOC__
-__TOC__
 ==History and status==
 {{see also|Linguistic boundary of Brittany}}
+Breton is spoken in [[Lower Brittany]] ({{langx|br|Breizh-Izel|link=no}}), roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] (west of [[Saint-Brieuc]]) and [[La Roche-Bernard]] (east of [[Vannes]]). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from [[Great Britain]] to [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.<ref>[[Benjamin W. Fortson IV]], ''Indo European Language and Culture'', chapter 14 paragraph 63.</ref> It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century after which it became the language of [[commoners]] in Lower Brittany. The [[nobility]], followed by the [[bourgeoisie]], adopted [[French language|French]]. The written language of the [[Duchy of Brittany]] was [[Latin]] until it switched to French in the 15th century. There is a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Some [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Science|scientific]] terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are '''Old Breton''' – {{Circa|800}} to {{Circa|1100}}, '''Middle Breton''' – {{Circa|1100}} to {{Circa|1650}}, '''Modern Breton''' – {{Circa|1650}} to present.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |last=Koch |first=John T. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=62381207}}</ref>
-Breton is spoken in [[Lower Brittany]] ({{langx|br|Breizh-Izel}}), roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] (west of [[Saint-Brieuc]]) and [[La Roche-Bernard]] (east of [[Vannes]]). It comes from a Brittonic language community that once extended from Great Britain to [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany) and had even established a toehold in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] (in present-day Spain). Old Breton is attested from the 9th century.<ref>[[Benjamin W. Fortson IV]], ''Indo European Language and Culture'', chapter 14 paragraph 63.</ref> It was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the [[bourgeoisie]], adopted [[French language|French]]. The written language of the [[Duchy of Brittany]] was [[Latin]], switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Some [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and scientific terms in Modern Breton come from Old Breton. The recognized stages of the Breton language are: '''Old Breton''' – {{Circa|800}} to {{Circa|1100}}, '''Middle Breton''' – {{Circa|1100}} to {{Circa|1650}}, '''Modern Breton''' – {{Circa|1650}} to present.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |last=Koch |first=John T. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=62381207}}</ref>
+The French monarchy was not concerned with the [[minority language|minority]] [[languages of France]], which were spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the [[French Revolution]], the government introduced policies favouring French over the [[regional language]]s, which it pejoratively referred to as {{lang|fr|[[patois]]}}. The revolutionaries assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred regional languages to keep the peasant masses underinformed. In 1794, [[Bertrand Barère]] submitted his "report on the {{lang|fr|patois}}" to the [[Committee of Public Safety]] in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".<ref name="breizh"/>
-The French monarchy was not concerned with the [[Minority language|minority]] [[languages of France]], spoken by the lower classes, and required the use of French for government business as part of its policy of national unity. During the [[French Revolution]], the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as {{lang|fr|[[patois]]}}. The revolutionaries assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred [[regional language]]s to try to keep the peasant masses under-informed. In 1794, [[Bertrand Barère]] submitted his "report on the {{lang|fr|patois}}" to the [[Committee of Public Safety]] in which he said that "federalism and superstition speak Breton".<ref name="breizh"/>
 Since the 19th century, under the [[French Third Republic|Third]], [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth]] and now [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republics]], the French government has attempted to stamp out minority languages—including Breton—in state schools, in an effort to build a national culture. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s.<ref name="breizh">{{Cite web |url=http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/endangered.htm#Image%2520No.%25202:%2520Breton%2520is%2520a%2520hindrance%2520to%2520good%2520citizenship |title=Breton – An Endangered Language of Europe |last=Kuter |first=Lois |date=May 2004 |website=breizh.net}}</ref>
-In the early 21st century, due to the political centralization of France, the influence of the media, and the increasing mobility of people, only about 200,000 people are active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. The majority of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an [[endangered language]].<ref name="Broudic2009" />
+In the early 21st century, the political centralization of France, the influence of the media and the increasing mobility of people have caused only about 200,000 people to be active speakers of Breton, a dramatic decline from more than 1 million in 1950. Most of today's speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an [[endangered language]].<ref name="Broudic2009" />
-At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 [[monolingualism|monolingual]] Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Brud Nevez |year=1999 |location=Brest |language=fr}}</ref> In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Breton|url=https://elalliance.org/languages/breton/|url-status=live|website=Endangered Language Alliance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721002750/https://www.elalliance.org/languages/breton |archive-date=2021-07-21 }}</ref>
+In the early 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton; the other half were bilingual. By 1950, there were only 100,000 [[monolingualism|monolingual]] Bretons, and the rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany of whom about 190,000 were aged 60 or older. Few 15-to 19-year-olds spoke Breton.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qui parle breton aujourd'hui? Qui le parlera demain? |last=Broudic |first=Fañch |publisher=Brud Nevez |year=1999 |location=Brest |language=fr}}</ref> In 1993, parents were finally legally allowed to give their children Breton names.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012|title=Breton|url=https://elalliance.org/languages/breton/|url-status=live|website=Endangered Language Alliance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721002750/https://www.elalliance.org/languages/breton |archive-date=2021-07-21 }}</ref>
 ==Revival efforts==
 [[File:Affiche Charrue Huard.jpg|thumb|1911 poster with Breton slogan, {{lang|br|Burzudus eo!!}} ("It's miraculous!!")]]
 In 1925, Professor [[Roparz Hemon]] founded the Breton-language review {{lang|br|[[Gwalarn]]}}. During its 19-year run, {{lang|br|Gwalarn}} tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language.<ref>Francis Favereau, "Anthologie de la littérature bretonne au XXe siècle : 1919–1944", "Tome 2 : Breiz Atao et les autres en littérature", Skol Vreizh, 2003, {{ISBN|2-911447-94-8}}.</ref> Its publication encouraged the creation of original literature in all genres, and proposed Breton translations of internationally recognized foreign works. In 1946, {{lang|br|[[Al Liamm]]}} replaced {{lang|br|Gwalarn}}. Other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Literatures and Modernism: Scots, Breton, and Occitan, 1920–1990 |last=Calin |first=William |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780802083654}}</ref>
-In 1977, [[Diwan (school)|Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by [[Language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.
+In 1977, [[Diwan (school)|Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by [[language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully-immersive primary school and partially-immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton.
 The ''[[Asterix]]'' comic series has been translated into Breton. According to the comic, the [[Gaul]]ish village where Asterix lives is in the [[Armorica|Armorica peninsula]], which is now Brittany. Some other popular comics have also been translated into Breton, including ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'', {{lang|fr|[[Spirou et Fantasio|Spirou]]}}, ''[[Titeuf]]'', ''[[Hägar the Horrible]]'', ''[[Peanuts]]'' and ''[[Yakari]]''.
-Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom, {{lang|br|Ken Tuch}}, is in Breton.<ref>{{cite AV media |last1= an Henaff |first1= Goulwena |last2= Strubel |first2= Etienne |year= 2008 |title= Ken Tuch' |medium= Web videos |language= br |url= http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |access-date= 25 February 2015 |location= An Oriant, Breizh |publisher= Dizale |archive-date= 11 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022330/http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Adkins | first1 = Madeleine | last2 = Davis | first2 = Jenny L. | title = The naïf, the sophisticate, and the party girl: Regional and gender stereotypes in Breton language web videos | journal = Gender and Language | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 291–308 | doi = 10.1558/genl.v6i2.291 | date = September 2012 }} [https://www.academia.edu/1927936/The_na%C3%AFf_the_sophisticate_and_the_party_girl_Regional_and_gender_stereotypes_in_Breton_language_web_videos Pdf.]</ref> [[Radio Kerne]], broadcasting from [[Finistère]], has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'', ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', ''[[Marion du Faouet]]'', ''[[Sezneg]]'') and TV series (''[[Columbo (TV series)|Columbo]]'', ''[[Perry Mason (1957 TV series)|Perry Mason]]'') have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including [[Yann-Ber Kallocʼh]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Añjela Duval]], [[Xavier de Langlais]], [[Pêr-Jakez Helias]], [[Youenn Gwernig]], [[Glenmor]], [[Vefa de Saint-Pierre]] and [[Alan Stivell]] are now known internationally.
+Some original media are created in Breton. The sitcom {{lang|br|Ken Tuch}} is in Breton.<ref>{{cite AV media |last1= an Henaff |first1= Goulwena |last2= Strubel |first2= Etienne |year= 2008 |title= Ken Tuch' |medium= Web videos |language= br |url= http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |access-date= 25 February 2015 |location= An Oriant, Breizh |publisher= Dizale |archive-date= 11 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022330/http://www.breizhvod.com/video/product/ken-tuch-l-integrale.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Adkins | first1 = Madeleine | last2 = Davis | first2 = Jenny L. | title = The naïf, the sophisticate, and the party girl: Regional and gender stereotypes in Breton language web videos | journal = Gender and Language | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 291–308 | doi = 10.1558/genl.v6i2.291 | date = September 2012 }} [https://www.academia.edu/1927936/The_na%C3%AFf_the_sophisticate_and_the_party_girl_Regional_and_gender_stereotypes_in_Breton_language_web_videos Pdf.]</ref> [[Radio Kerne]], broadcasting from [[Finistère]], has exclusively Breton programming. Some movies (''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'', ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', ''[[Marion du Faouet]]'', ''[[Sezneg]]'') and TV series (''[[Columbo (TV series)|Columbo]]'', ''[[Perry Mason (1957 TV series)|Perry Mason]]'') have also been translated and broadcast in Breton. Poets, singers, linguists, and writers who have written in Breton, including [[Yann-Ber Kallocʼh]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Añjela Duval]], [[Xavier de Langlais]], [[Pêr-Jakez Helias]], [[Youenn Gwernig]], [[Glenmor]], [[Vefa de Saint-Pierre]] and [[Alan Stivell]] are now known internationally.
 Today, Breton is the only living [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] that is not recognized by a national government as an official or regional language.
@@ Line 95: / Line 91: @@
 The first Breton dictionary, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was also the first French dictionary. Edited by Jehan Lagadec in 1464,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Booton |first=Diane E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdWDwAAQBAJ |title=Publishing Networks in France in the Early Era of Print |date=2018-04-17 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-77805-3}}</ref> it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today bilingual dictionaries have been published for Breton and languages including English, Dutch, German, Spanish and Welsh. A monolingual dictionary, {{lang|br|Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here}} was published in 1995. The first edition contained about 10,000 words, and the second edition of 2001 contains 20,000 words.
-In the early 21st century, the {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}} ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the [[Spilhennig]] to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an [[Internationalization and localization]] policy asking [[Google]], [[Firefox]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drouizig.org/index.php/br/troidigezh-br/kenrouedad-br/231-firefox-ha-thunderbird|title=Firefox ha Thunderbird|website=drouizig.org}}</ref> and [[SPIP]] to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the [[Breton Wikipedia]] started, which counts more than 85,000 articles as of August 2024. In March 2007, the {{lang|br|Ofis ar Brezhoneg}} signed a [[wikt:tripartite|tripartite agreement]] with [[Regional Council of Brittany]] and [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|title=Microsoft au secours des langues celtiques y compris du breton|website=agencebretagnepresse.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019204103/http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|archive-date=2014-10-19}}</ref> for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, [[Facebook]] added Breton as one of its 121 languages<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ouest-france.fr/facebook-et-maintenant-une-version-en-breton-2873502|title=Facebook. Et maintenant une version en breton|date=2 October 2014 }}</ref> after three years of talks between the {{lang|br|Ofis}} and Facebook.
+In the early 21st century, the {{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}} ("Public Office for the Breton language") began a campaign to encourage daily use of Breton in the region by both businesses and local communes. Efforts include installing bilingual signs and posters for regional events, as well as encouraging the use of the [[Spilhennig]] to let speakers identify each other. The office also started an [[Internationalization and localization]] policy asking [[Google]], [[Firefox]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drouizig.org/index.php/br/troidigezh-br/kenrouedad-br/231-firefox-ha-thunderbird|title=Firefox ha Thunderbird|website=drouizig.org}}</ref> and [[SPIP]] to develop their interfaces in Breton. In 2004, the [[Breton Wikipedia]] started, which counts just over 90,000 articles as of December 2025. In March 2007, the {{lang|br|Ofis ar Brezhoneg}} signed a [[wikt:tripartite|tripartite agreement]] with [[Regional Council of Brittany]] and [[Microsoft]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|title=Microsoft au secours des langues celtiques y compris du breton|website=agencebretagnepresse.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019204103/http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/article.php?id=6519|archive-date=2014-10-19}}</ref> for the consideration of the Breton language in Microsoft products. In October 2014, [[Facebook]] added Breton as one of its 121 languages<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ouest-france.fr/facebook-et-maintenant-une-version-en-breton-2873502|title=Facebook. Et maintenant une version en breton|date=2 October 2014 }}</ref> after three years of talks between the {{lang|br|Ofis}} and Facebook.
 [[France in the Eurovision Song Contest|France]] has twice chosen to enter the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with songs in Breton; once in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1996|1996]] in Oslo with "{{lang|br|Diwanit bugale}}" by [[Dan Ar Braz]] and the fifty piece band [[Héritage des Celtes]], and most recently in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022|2022]] in Turin with "{{lang|br|[[Fulenn]]}}" by [[Alvan (musician)|Alvan Morvan Rosius]] and vocal trio [[Ahez]]. These are two of five times France has chosen songs in one of its [[Languages of France|minority languages]] for the contest, the others being in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992|1992]] (bilingual French and [[Antillean Creole]]), [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] (bilingual French and [[Corsican language|Corsican]]), and [[Eurovision Song Contest 2011|2011]] (Corsican).
@@ Line 101: / Line 97: @@
 ==Geographic distribution and dialects==
 [[File:Breton dialectes-en.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Dialects of Breton]]
+Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside [[Gallo language|Gallo]] and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.
-Breton is spoken mainly in Lower Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Upper Brittany (where it is spoken alongside [[Gallo language|Gallo]] and French), and in areas around the world that have Breton emigrants.
+The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics, rather than to linguistic divisions. They are {{lang|br|leoneg}} ({{lang|fr|léonard}}, of the [[Viscounty of Léon|county of Léon]]), {{lang|br|tregerieg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Trégorrois Breton dialect|trégorrois]]}}, of [[Trégor]]), {{lang|br|kerneveg}} ({{lang|fr|cornouaillais}}, of {{lang|fr|[[Cornouaille]]}}), and {{lang|br|[[gwenedeg]]}} ({{lang|fr|vannetais}}, of [[Vannes]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages#toc74852|title=Celtic languages|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> {{lang|br|Gwerranneg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Batz-sur-Mer Breton|guérandais]]}}, of [[Guérande]]) was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of Guérande and [[Batz-sur-Mer]]. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a [[dialect continuum]] and vary only slightly from one village to the next.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Breton Orthographies and Dialects: The Twentieth-century, Vol. 2|last=Wmffre|first=Iwan|publisher=Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften|year=2008|isbn=978-3039113651|pages=3}}</ref> {{lang|br|[[Gwenedeg]]}}, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.<ref name=kergoat>Kergoat, Lukian. [https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA250 "Breton Dialects" in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 250 ff]. ABC-CLIO ([[Santa Barbara, California|Sta. Barbara]]), 2006.</ref> Due to this difficulty in intelligibility, the [[Glottolog]] project split the Gwenedeg dialects into a separate language entry from the KLT Breton dialects in v5.2 under the name Vannetais.<ref name="glottoKLT">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |title=Glottolog 5.2 - Vannetais |date=2025-06-11 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717194840/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |archive-date=2025-07-17 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
-The four traditional dialects of Breton correspond to medieval bishoprics rather than to linguistic divisions. They are {{lang|br|leoneg}} ({{lang|fr|léonard}}, of the [[Viscounty of Léon|county of Léon]]), {{lang|br|tregerieg}} ({{lang|fr|[[Trégorrois Breton dialect|trégorrois]]}}, of [[Trégor]]), {{lang|br|kerneveg}} ({{lang|fr|cornouaillais}}, of {{lang|fr|[[Cornouaille]]}}), and {{lang|br|[[gwenedeg]]}} ({{lang|fr|vannetais}}, of [[Vannes]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages#toc74852|title=Celtic languages|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref> {{lang|fr|Guérandais}} was spoken up to the beginning of the 20th century in the region of [[Guérande]] and [[Batz-sur-Mer]]. There are no clear boundaries between the dialects because they form a [[dialect continuum]], varying only slightly from one village to the next.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Breton Orthographies and Dialects: The Twentieth-century, Vol. 2|last=Wmffre|first=Iwan|publisher=Peter Lang AG, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften|year=2008|isbn=978-3039113651|pages=3}}</ref> {{lang|br|[[Gwenedeg]]}}, however, requires a little study to be intelligible with most of the other dialects.<ref name=kergoat>Kergoat, Lukian. [https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA250 "Breton Dialects" in ''Celtic Culture'', pp. 250 ff]. ABC-CLIO ([[Santa Barbara, California|Sta. Barbara]]), 2006.</ref> Due to this difficulty in intelligibility, the [[Glottolog]] project split the Gwenedeg dialects into a separate language entry from the KLT Breton dialects in v5.2 under the name Vannetais.<ref name="glottoKLT">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |title=Glottolog 5.2 - Vannetais |date=2025-06-11 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717194840/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vann1244 |archive-date=2025-07-17 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
 [[File:Municipal_electronic_information_sign_in_Breton_in_Carhaix.jpg|thumb|Electronic information sign in Breton, [[Carhaix]]]]
@@ Line 174: / Line 169: @@
 ===Nation===
-French is the sole [[official language]] of [[France]]. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition, and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.<ref name="Hoopes">{{cite news|title=France a 'rogue state' on regional languages|author=Simon Hooper|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|access-date=30 March 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232943156736852.html |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>
+French is the sole [[official language]] of [[France]]. Supporters of Breton and other minority languages continue to argue for their recognition and for their place in education, public schools, and public life.<ref name="Hoopes">{{cite news|title=France a 'rogue state' on regional languages|author=Simon Hooper|publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|access-date=30 March 2012|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/03/201232943156736852.html |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>
 ====Constitution====
@@ Line 184: / Line 179: @@
 ===Region===
-Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed, such as street name signs in Breton towns.
+Regional and departmental authorities use Breton to a very limited extent. Some bilingual signage has also been installed such as street name signs in Breton towns.
-Under the [[Toubon Law]], it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or French only. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}
+Under the [[Toubon Law]], it is illegal for commercial signage to be in Breton alone. Signs must be bilingual or only in French. Since commercial signage usually has limited physical space, most businesses have signs only in French.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mandatory use of National Languages for Contractual Documents: A European Perspective {{!}} Association of Corporate Counsel (ACC) |url=https://www.acc.com/resource-library/mandatory-use-national-languages-contractual-documents-european-perspective |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=www.acc.com}}</ref>
-{{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofis-bzh.org |title=Ofis ar Brezhoneg |publisher=Ofis-bzh.org |access-date=2010-10-03}}</ref> It helped to create the {{lang|br|[[Ya d'ar brezhoneg]]}} campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.<ref>{{cite web |title=La charte "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" / Ar garta "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" {{!}} KLEG INFOS |url=https://cleguerec.fr/la-charte-ya-dar-brezhoneg-ar-garta-ya-dar-brezhoneg/ |language=fr-FR}}</ref>
+{{lang|br|[[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]]}}, the Breton-language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the daily use of Breton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofis-bzh.org |title=Ofis ar Brezhoneg |publisher=Ofis-bzh.org |access-date=2010-10-03}}</ref> It helped to create the {{lang|br|[[Ya d'ar brezhoneg]]}} campaign, to encourage enterprises, organisations and communes to promote the use of Breton, for example by installing bilingual signage or translating their websites into Breton.<ref>{{cite web |title=La charte "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" / Ar garta "Ya d'ar Brezhoneg" {{!}} KLEG INFOS |url=https://cleguerec.fr/la-charte-ya-dar-brezhoneg-ar-garta-ya-dar-brezhoneg/ |language=fr-FR}}</ref>
 ==Education==
 [[File:Breton school sign in Rennes.jpg|thumb|Sign in French and partly in Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes]]
 In the late 20th century, the French government considered incorporating the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called {{lang|br|[[Diwan (school)|Diwan]]}}) into the state education system. This action was blocked by the French [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]] based on the 1994 amendment to the Constitution that establishes French as the language of the republic. Therefore, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The [[Toubon Law]] implemented the amendment, asserting that French is the language of public education.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Devine |first=Mary Catherine |title=La Loi Toubon: Language Policy and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in France |date=2017 |degree=Thesis |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University |url=https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/pstorage-cmu-348901238291901/14491631/Devine.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/pstorage-cmu-348901238291901/14491631/Devine.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-The [[Diwan (school)|Diwan schools]] were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by [[Language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.diwanbreizh.org/sections.php4?op=viewarticle&artid=6 Diwan FAQ, #6].</ref> Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol8/Feb2005_guest_diwan.html|title=The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA):Articulation of Language Instruction|website=carla.umn.edu|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>
+The Diwan schools were founded in Brittany in 1977 to teach Breton by [[Language immersion|immersion]]. Since their establishment, Diwan schools have provided fully immersive primary school and partially immersive secondary school instruction in Breton for thousands of students across Brittany. This has directly contributed to the growing numbers of school-age speakers of Breton. The schools have also gained fame from their high level of results in school exams, including those on French language and literature.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.diwanbreizh.org/sections.php4?op=viewarticle&artid=6 Diwan FAQ, #6].</ref> Breton-language schools do not receive funding from the national government, though the Brittany Region may fund them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://carla.umn.edu/immersion/acie/vol8/Feb2005_guest_diwan.html|title=The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA):Articulation of Language Instruction|website=carla.umn.edu|access-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>
 Another teaching method is a bilingual approach by {{lang|br|Div Yezh}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://div-yezh.org/|title=Actualités|first=Yannick /|last=Rostrenn|publisher=div-yezh.org|language=fr}}</ref> ("Two Languages") in the State schools, created in 1979. {{lang|br|Dihun}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dihun.com/|title=Dihun – Dihun Language|access-date=9 July 2008|archive-date=15 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615055340/http://www.dihun.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ("Awakening") was created in 1990 for bilingual education in the Catholic schools.
 ===Statistics===
-In 2018, 18,337<ref name="ofis-stats" /> pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended {{lang|br|Diwan}}, {{lang|br|Div Yezh}} and {{lang|br|Dihun}} schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of [[Jean-Yves Le Drian]] (president of the [[Regional Council of Brittany|Regional Council]]), who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010, and of "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless he describes being encouraged by the growth of the movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/fetch.php?id=11436|title=Interview with Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Region Council|publisher=angencebretagnepresse.com}}</ref>
+In 2018, 18,337<ref name="ofis-stats" /> pupils (about 2% of all students in Brittany) attended {{lang|br|Diwan}}, {{lang|br|Div Yezh}} and {{lang|br|Dihun}} schools, and their number has increased yearly. This was short of the goal of [[Jean-Yves Le Drian]], the president of the [[Regional Council of Brittany|Regional Council]], who aimed to have 20,000 students in bilingual schools by 2010 and "their recognition" for "their place in education, public schools, and public life"; nevertheless, he described being encouraged by the growth of the movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agencebretagnepresse.com/fetch.php?id=11436|title=Interview with Jean-Yves Le Drian, the president of the Region Council|publisher=angencebretagnepresse.com}}</ref>
 In 2007, some 4,500 to 5,000 adults followed an evening or correspondence one Breton-language course.{{Vague|reason = A course distributed by mail? Student writing as unmonitored practice? Perhaps with consistent feedback? With feedback based in formal standards?...from screened speakers? etc.|date=January 2020}} The transmission{{vague| reason = within families?|date=June 2020}} of Breton in 1999 was estimated to be 3 percent.<ref name="ofis-stats" />
@@ Line 217: / Line 211: @@
 | 2007 || 11,732 || 1.38%
 |-
-| 2008 || 12,333 || ± 1.4%
+| 2008 || 12,333 || 1.4%
 |-
 | 2009 || 13,077 || 1.45%
@@ Line 243: / Line 237: @@
 | 2020 || 19,165 || 2.00%
 |-
-| 2021 || 19,336 || ± 2.2%
+| 2021 || 19,336 || 2.2%
 |-
-| 2022 || 19,765 || ± 2.3%
+| 2022 || 19,765 || 2.3%
 |-
-| 2024 || 20,280 || ± 2.5%
+| 2024 || 20,280 || 2.5%
 |}
 |valign="top"|
@@ Line 273: / Line 267: @@
 ! Commune !! Percentage<br>(2023)<ref name="ofis-education" /> !! Population<br>(2007)<ref name="insee">{{Cite web |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119892?sommaire=2119897 |title=Populations légales 2007 |website=Insee |language=fr}}</ref>
 |-
-| [[Saint-Rivoal]] (Finistère) || 100% || 177
+| [[Saint-Rivoal|Sant-Riwal]] (Finistère) || 100% || 177
 |-
-| [[Bulat-Pestivien]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 412
+| [[Bulat-Pestivien|Bulad-Pestivien]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 412
 |-
-| [[Lanrivain]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 457
+| [[Lanrivain|Larruen]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 100% || 457
 |-
-| [[Plounévez-Moëdec]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 68.2% || 1,467
+| [[Plounévez-Moëdec|Plounevez-Moedeg]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 68.2% || 1,467
 |-
-| [[Langonnet]] (Morbihan) || 43.6% || 1771
+| [[Langonnet|Langoned]] (Morbihan) || 43.6% || 1771
 |-
-| [[Cavan, Côtes-d'Armor|Cavan]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 42.9% || 1528
+| [[Cavan, Côtes-d'Armor|Kawan]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 42.9% || 1528
 |-
-| [[Commana]] (Finistère) || 42.1% || 995
+| [[Commana|Kommanna]] (Finistère) || 42.1% || 995
 |-
-| [[Maël-Carhaix]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 40.9% || 1463
+| [[Maël-Carhaix|Mêl-Karaez]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 40.9% || 1463
 |-
-| [[Ploëzal]] / [[Runan ]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 39.4% || 1466
+| [[Ploëzal|Pleuzal]] / [[Runan]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 39.4% || 1466
 |-
-| [[Melrand]] (Morbihan) || 38.8% || 1519
+| [[Melrand|Mêlrant]] (Morbihan) || 38.8% || 1519
 |}
@@ Line 300: / Line 294: @@
 ! Commune !! Percentage<br>(2008)<ref name="ofis-education" /> !! Population<br>(2007)<ref name="insee" />
 |-
-| [[Nantes]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 1.4% || 290,943
+| [[Nantes|Naoned]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 1.4% || 290,943
 |-
-| [[Rennes]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 2.87% || 213,096
+| [[Rennes|Roazhon]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 2.87% || 213,096
 |-
 | [[Brest, France|Brest]] (Finistère) || 1.94% || 146,519
 |-
-| [[Saint-Nazaire]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 0.41% || 71,046
+| [[Saint-Nazaire|Señ Neñseir]] (Loire-Atlantique) || 0.41% || 71,046
 |-
-| [[Quimper, Finistère|Quimper]] (Finistère) || 3.17% || 67,255
+| [[Quimper, Finistère|Kemper]] (Finistère) || 3.17% || 67,255
 |-
-| [[Lorient]] (Morbihan) || 2.71% || 59,805
+| [[Lorient|An Oriant]] (Morbihan) || 2.71% || 59,805
 |-
-| [[Vannes]] (Morbihan) || 7.71% || 55,383
+| [[Vannes|Gwened]] (Morbihan) || 7.71% || 55,383
 |-
-| [[Saint-Malo]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 0.55% || 50,206
+| [[Saint-Malo|Sant-Maloù]] (Ille-et-Vilaine) || 0.55% || 50,206
 |-
-| [[Saint-Brieuc]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 3.98% || 48,178
+| [[Saint-Brieuc|Sant-Brieg]] (Côtes-d'Armor) || 3.98% || 48,178
 |-
-| [[Saint-Herblain]] (Loire-Atlantique) || ? || 44,364
+| [[Saint-Herblain|Sant-Ervlan]] (Loire-Atlantique) || ? || 44,364
 |}
 |}
 ===Other forms of education===
-In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education) the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. These "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week, and consist of songs and games.
+In addition to bilingual education (including Breton-medium education), the region has introduced the Breton language in primary education, mainly in the department of Finistère. The "initiation" sessions are generally one to three hours per week and consist of songs and games.
-Schools in secondary education ({{lang|fr|[[collège]]s}} and {{lang|br|[[lycée]]s}}) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://studi.canalblog.com/archives/2010/06/20/18372084.html |title=L'option de breton: que faire?|date=2010-06-20 |website=Studi: enseigner le breton et en breton}}</ref> Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton language department offering courses in the language along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.
+Schools in secondary education ({{lang|fr|[[collège]]s}} and {{lang|br|[[lycée]]s}}) offer some courses in Breton. In 2010, nearly 5,000 students in Brittany were reported to be taking this option.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://studi.canalblog.com/archives/2010/06/20/18372084.html |title=L'option de breton: que faire?|date=2010-06-20 |website=Studi: enseigner le breton et en breton}}</ref> Additionally, the University of Rennes 2 has a Breton-language department, which offers courses in the language, along with a master's degree in Breton and Celtic Studies.
 ==Phonology==
 ===Vowels===
-Vowels in Breton may be [[vowel length|short or long]]. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long (vowel lengths are not noted in usual orthographies as they are implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long). An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position, among different dialects.
+Vowels in Breton may be [[vowel length|short or long]]. All unstressed vowels are short; stressed vowels can be short or long. (Vowel length is not noted in usual orthographies, as it is implicit in the phonology of particular dialects, and not all dialects pronounce stressed vowels as long. An emergence of a schwa sound occurs as a result of vowel neutralization in post-tonic position in different dialects.
-All vowels can also be [[nasalization|nasalized]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemon |first1=Roparz |author-link1=Roparz Hemon |last2=Everson |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Everson |title=Breton Grammar |edition=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Evertype/Al Liamm |isbn=978-1-904808-11-4}}</ref> which is noted by appending an 'n' letter after the base vowel, or by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for ''a'' and ''o'' due to the [[Portuguese orthography|Portuguese letters]]), or more commonly by non-ambiguously appending an {{Angle bracket|ñ}} letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).
+All vowels can also be [[nasalization|nasalized]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemon |first1=Roparz |author-link1=Roparz Hemon |last2=Everson |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Everson |title=Breton Grammar |edition=2 |year=2007 |publisher=Evertype/Al Liamm |isbn=978-1-904808-11-4}}</ref> which is noted by appending an {{angbr|n}} letter after the base vowel, by adding a combining tilde above the vowel (most commonly and easily done for ''a'' and ''o'' because they are used in [[Portuguese orthography]]) or most commonly by non-ambiguously appending an {{Angle bracket|ñ}} letter after the base vowel (this depends on the orthographic variant).
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
@@ Line 455: / Line 448: @@
 |-
 ! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
-! {{small|[[Central consonant|central]]}}
+! {{small|[[median consonant|median]]}}
 |
 |
@@ Line 479: / Line 472: @@
 |
 |}
-* The pronunciation of the letter {{angbr|r}} varies nowadays: {{IPA|[ʁ]}} is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille) whereas {{IPA|[r]}} is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), though in rapid speech mostly a tapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}} occurs. In the other regions of Trégor {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or even {{IPA|[ɹ]}} may be found.
+* The pronunciation of the letter {{angbr|r}} now varies: {{IPA|[ʁ]}} is used in the French-influenced standard language and, generally speaking, in the central parts of Lower Brittany (including the south of Trégor, the west of Vannetais and virtually all parts of Cornouaille), whereas {{IPA|[r]}} is the common realisation in Léon and often in the Haut-Vannetais dialect of central Morbihan (in and around the city of Vannes and the Pays de Pontivy), but in rapid speech, mostly a tapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}} occurs. In the other regions of Trégor, {{IPA|[ɾ]}} or even {{IPA|[ɹ]}} may be found.
-* The voiced dental fricative ({{IPAslink|ð}}) is a conservative realisation of the [[lenition]] (or the "spirant mutation" in cases where the phenomenon originates from the mutation of {{IPA|/t~θ/}}, respectively) of the consonants {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and thus it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The ''Peurunvan'', for instance, uses {{angbr|z}} for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are employed for representing the dental fricative, depending on the scripture's historical period. There once was a time when {{angbr|d}} was used to transcribe the sound, but today mostly the regular {{angbr|z}} is instead used, and this practice can be traced back to at least the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christmas Hymns in the Vannes Dialect of Breton|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1956|editor-last=Hemon|editor-first=Roparz|location=Dublin|pages=x, xxvi}}</ref> The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of [[Pontivy]] and [[Baud, Morbihan|Baud]] and surrounding smaller villages like [[Cléguérec]], [[Noyal-Pontivy]], [[Pluméliau]], [[Saint-Allouestre|St. Allouestre]], [[Saint-Barthélemy, Morbihan|St. Barthélemy]], [[Pluvigner]] and also parts of [[Belle Île|Belle-Île]]. The only known place where the mutation occurs outside of the Vannes country is the [[Île de Sein]], an island located off [[Finistère]]'s coast. Some scholars also used {{IPA|[ẓ]}} as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol {{IPA|/ð/}} is usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of [[Sauzon]] in Belle-Île) or due to the fact that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions were not in need of a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation as it was a clearly distinguishable phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Historical Phonology of Breton|last=Jackson|first=Kenneth H.|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1968|location=Dublin|pages=661 ff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last = Hemon|first = Roparz|publisher = Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year = 1975|isbn = 978-0901282637|location = Dublin|pages = 5}}</ref>
+* The voiced dental fricative ({{IPAslink|ð}}) is a conservative realisation of the [[lenition]] (or the "spirant mutation" in cases that the phenomenon originates from the mutation of {{IPA|/t~θ/}}, respectively) of the consonants {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} which is to be found in certain varieties of Haut-Vannetais. Most of the Breton dialects do not inherit the sound and so it is mostly not orthographically fixed. The ''Peurunvan'', for instance, uses {{angbr|z}} for both mutations, which are regularly and more prominently pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} in Léonais, Cornouaillais, Trégorrois and Bas-Vannetais. In traditional literature written in the Vannetais dialect, two different graphemes are used to represent the dental fricative depending on the scripture's historical period. There was a time that {{angbr|d}} was used for the sound, but it is today mostly replaced by the regular {{angbr|z}}, a practice that can be traced back to at least the late 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christmas Hymns in the Vannes Dialect of Breton|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1956|editor-last=Hemon|editor-first=Roparz|location=Dublin|pages=x, xxvi}}</ref> The area this phenomenon has been found to be evident in encompasses the towns of [[Pontivy]] and [[Baud, Morbihan|Baud]] and surrounding smaller villages like [[Cléguérec]], [[Noyal-Pontivy]], [[Pluméliau]], [[Saint-Allouestre|St. Allouestre]], [[Saint-Barthélemy, Morbihan|St. Barthélemy]], [[Pluvigner]] and parts of [[Belle Île|Belle-Île]]. The only known place to have the mutation occur outside the Vannes country is the [[Île de Sein]], an island located off [[Finistère]]'s coast. Some scholars also used {{IPA|[ẓ]}} as the symbol for the sound to indicate that it was rather an "infra-dental" consonant, than a clear interdental, which is the sound the symbol {{IPA|/ð/}} usually describes. Other linguists, however, did not draw that distinction, either because they identified the sound to actually be an interdental fricative (such as Roparz Hemon in his phonetic transcription of the dialect used in Pluméliau or Joseph Loth in his material about the dialect of [[Sauzon]] in Belle-Île) or because that they attached no importance to it and ascertained that their descriptions did not need a further clarification of the sound's phonetic realisation, as it was a clearly-distinguishable phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Historical Phonology of Breton|last=Jackson|first=Kenneth H.|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1968|location=Dublin|pages=661 ff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last = Hemon|first = Roparz|publisher = Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year = 1975|isbn = 978-0901282637|location = Dublin|pages = 5}}</ref>
-* The digraph ''zh'' represents a variable sound that may exhibit as {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, or {{IPA|/h/}}, and descends from a now-extinct sound {{IPA|/θ/}}, which is still extant in Welsh as ''th''.
-* Finally, '''C''' (as a single letter), '''Q''' and '''X''' occurs mainly in loanwords.
-==Grammar==
-{{main|Breton grammar}}
-<!-- Description of the grammar of the language. -->
-===Nouns===
-Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton gender is fairly typical of gender systems across western Europe (with the exception of Basque and modern English), Breton number markers demonstrate rarer behaviors.
-====Gender====
-Breton has two genders: masculine ({{lang|br|gourel}}) and feminine ({{lang|br|gwregel}}), having largely lost its historic neuter ({{lang|br|nepreizh}}) as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages as well as across the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj,<ref name=BallGender/> -(a)dur,<ref name=BallGender/> -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va''<ref name="Stephens"/>) are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.<ref name="Stephens">{{Cite book|last=Stephens|first=Janig|title=The Celtic Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=041528080X|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions|location=London|pages=379|chapter=Breton|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}</ref> The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.<ref name=BallGender/>
-There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for {{lang|br|eur}} "hour", {{lang|br|noz}} "night" and {{lang|br|sizhun}} "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.<ref name=BallGender>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|page=364|year=1993}}</ref>
-However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.<ref name=BallGender/>
-====Number====
-Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.<ref name=BallNumber>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|pages=365–369|year=1993}}</ref> However, the system is full of complexities<ref name=Fortson/> in how this distinction is realized.
-Although modern Breton has lost its ancestral dual number marker, relics of its use are preserved in various nouns pertaining to body parts, including the words for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs, and wings. This is seen in a prefix (formed in {{lang|br|daou}}, {{lang|br|di}} or {{lang|br|div}}) that is etymologically derived from the prefixation of the number two.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Fortson/> The dual is no longer productive, and has merely been lexicalized in these cases rather than remaining a part of Breton grammar. The (etymologically) already dual words for eyes ({{lang|br|daoulagad}}) and ears ({{lang|br|divskouarn}}) can be pluralized "again" to form {{lang|br|daoulagad'''où'''}} and {{lang|br|diskouarn'''où'''}}.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Stephens/>
-Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a [[singulative]] suffix that is used to form singulars out of [[collective nouns]], for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective {{lang|br|logod}} "mice" is {{lang|br|logod'''enn'''}} "mouse".<ref name=BallNumber/> However, Breton goes beyond Welsh in the complications of this system. Collectives can be pluralized to make forms which are different in meaning from the normal collective-- {{lang|br|pesk}} "fish" (singular) is pluralized to {{lang|br|pesked}}, singulativized to {{lang|br|peskedenn}}, referring to a single fish out of a school of fish, and this singulative of the plural can then be pluralized again to make {{lang|br|peskedennoù}} "fishes".<ref name=Fortson/>
-On top of this, the formation of plurals is complicated by two different pluralizing functions. The "default" plural formation is contrasted with another formation which is said to "emphasize variety or diversity" – thus two semantically different plurals can be formed out of {{lang|br|park}}: {{lang|br|parkoù}} "parks" and {{lang|br|parkeier}} "various different parks".<ref name=Fortson/> Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.<ref name=BallNumber/> Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: {{lang|br|dour}} "water" pluralized forms {{lang|br|dourioù}} which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while {{lang|br|doureier}} now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: {{lang|br|keloù}} means "news" and {{lang|br|*kel}} is not used, while {{lang|br|keleier}} has become the regular plural,<ref name=BallNumber/> 'different news items'.
-Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – {{lang|br|bugel}} "child" is pluralized once into {{lang|br|bugale}} "children" and then pluralized a second time to make {{lang|br|bugaleoù}} "groups of children".<ref name=Fortson/>
-The diminutive suffix {{lang|br|-ig}} also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: {{lang|br|bugelig}} means "little child", but the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bug'''ale'''ig'''où'''}} means "little children"; {{lang|br|bag}} boat has a singular diminutive {{lang|br|bagig}} and a simple plural {{lang|br|bagoù}}, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bag'''où'''ig'''où'''}}.<ref name=Fortson/><ref name=BallNumber/>
-As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be hard to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.
-The most common plural marker is {{lang|br|-où}}, with its variant {{lang|br|-ioù}};<ref name=BallNumber/> most nouns that use this marker are inanimates but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.<ref name=BallNumber/>
-Most animate nouns, including trees, take a plural in {{lang|br|-ed}}.<ref name=BallNumber/> However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations as well as the word {{lang|br|Saoz}} ("Englishman", plural {{lang|br|Saozon}}) take the suffix {{lang|br|-ien}}, with a range of variants including {{lang|br|-on}}, {{lang|br|-ion}}, {{lang|br|-an}} and {{lang|br|-ian}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>
-The rare pluralizing suffixes {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} and {{lang|br|-i}} are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: {{lang|br|-i}} triggers a [[vowel harmony]] effect whereby some or all preceding vowels are changed to {{lang|br|i}} ({{lang|br|kenderv}} "cousin" → {{lang|br|kindirvi}} "cousins"; {{lang|br|bran}} "crow" → {{lang|br|brini}} "crows"; {{lang|br|klujur}} "partridge" → {{lang|br|klujiri}} "partridges"); the changes associated with {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} are less predictable.<ref name=BallNumber/>
-Various nouns instead form their plural merely with [[ablaut]]: {{lang|br|a}} or {{lang|br|o}} in the [[Word stem|stem]] being changed to {{lang|br|e}}: {{lang|br|askell}} "wing" → {{lang|br|eskell}} "wings"; {{lang|br|dant}} "tooth" → {{lang|br|dent}} "teeth"; {{lang|br|kordenn}} "rope" → {{lang|br|kerdenn}} "ropes".<ref name=BallNumber/>
-Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include {{lang|br|placʼh}} "girl" → {{lang|br|mercʼhed}}, {{lang|br|porcʼhell}} "pig" → {{lang|br|mocʼh}}, {{lang|br|buocʼh}} "cow" → {{lang|br|saout}}, and {{lang|br|ki}} "dog" → {{lang|br|chas}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>
-In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.<ref name=BallNumber/>
-===Verbal aspect===
-As in other Celtic languages as well as [[English language|English]], a variety of verbal constructions is available to express [[grammatical aspect]], for example: showing a distinction between [[progressive tense|progressive]] and habitual actions:
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
-! Breton
-! Cornish
-! Irish
-! English
-|-
-| {{lang|br|Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg}}
-| {{lang|kw|'''Yth eso'vy ow kewsel''' orth ow hentrevek}}
-| {{lang|ga|'''Táim ag labhairt''' le mo chomharsa}}
-| I '''am talking''' to my neighbour
-|-
-| {{lang|br|Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)}}
-| {{lang|kw|My '''a gews''' orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)}}
-| {{lang|ga|'''Labhraím''' le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)}}
-| I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)
-|}
-===Inflected prepositions===
-As in other modern [[Celtic languages]], Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of [[inflected preposition]]. Below are some examples in Breton, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]], along with English translations.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
-! Breton
-! Cornish
-! Welsh
-! Irish
-! Scottish Gaelic
-! Manx
-! English
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|ul levr zo '''ganin'''|a book is '''with-me'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma lyver '''genev'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae llyfr '''gennyf'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá leabhar '''agam'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha leabhar '''agam'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta lioar '''aym'''}}
-| I have a book
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|un died zo '''ganit'''|a drink is '''with-you.SG'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma diwes '''genes'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae diod '''gennyt'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá deoch '''agat'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha deoch '''agad'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta jough '''ayd'''}}
-| you have a drink
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''|a computer is '''with-him'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma jynn-amontya '''ganso'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae cyfrifiadur '''ganddo'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha coimpiutair '''aige'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta co-earrooder '''echey'''}}
-| he has a computer
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''|a child is '''with-her'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma flogh '''gensi'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae plentyn '''ganddi'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá leanbh '''aici'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha leanabh '''aice'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta lhiannoo '''eck'''}}
-| she has a child
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur cʼharr zo '''ganimp'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|ganeomp}}')|a car is '''with-us'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma karr '''genen'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae car '''gennym'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá gluaisteán / carr '''againn'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha càr '''againn'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta gleashtan / carr '''ain'''}}
-| we have a car
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|un ti zo '''ganeocʼh'''|a house is '''with-you.PL'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma chi '''genowgh'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae tŷ '''gennych'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá teach '''agaibh'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha taigh '''agaibh'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta thie '''eu'''}}
-| you have a house
-|-
-| {{interlinear|lang=br|arcʼhant zo '''ganto'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|gante}}')|money is '''with-them'''|}}
-| {{lang|kw|yma mona '''gansa'''}}
-| {{lang|cy|mae arian '''ganddynt'''}}
-| {{lang|ga|tá airgead '''acu'''}}
-| {{lang|gd|tha airgead '''aca'''}}
-| {{lang|gv|ta argid '''oc'''}}
-| they have money
-|}
-In the examples above the [[Goidelic languages]] (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, whereas the [[Brittonic languages]] use ''with''. The Goidelic languages, however, do use the preposition ''with'' to express "belong to" (Irish {{lang|ga|is liom an leabhar}}, Scottish {{lang|gd|is leam an leabhar}}, Manx {{lang|gv|s'lhiams yn lioar}}, The book belongs to me).
-The Welsh examples are in [[literary Welsh morphology#Prepositions|literary Welsh]]. The order and preposition may differ slightly in [[colloquial Welsh morphology#Prepositions|colloquial Welsh]] (Formal {{lang|cy|mae car gennym}}, North Wales {{lang|cy|mae gynnon ni gar}}, South Wales {{lang|cy|mae car gyda ni}}).
+== Orthography ==
+The first extant Breton texts, contained in the [[Leyden Manuscript|Leyden manuscript]], were written at the end of the 8th century, 50 years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], which are considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. Like many medieval [[Orthography|orthographies]], Old and Middle Breton had an orthography that was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at the author's discretion. In 1499, however, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the ''Catholicon'' was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|qu}}, which was a remnant of the sound change {{IPA|/kʷ/}} > {{IPA|/k/}} in Latin, and the Brittonic {{vr|cou-}} or {{vr|cu-}} to represent {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels.
-===Initial consonant mutations===
+As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the [[Bro Gwened|Vannes country]], began to devise their own orthographies. Many of those orthographies were more closely related to the French model albeit with some modifications. Examples of modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -{{vr|z}} with -{{vr|h}} to denote word-final {{IPA|/x~h/}} (an evolution of Old Breton {{IPA|/θ/}} in the Vannes dialect) and the use of -{{vr|h}} to denote the initial mutation of {{IPA|/k/}} (today, this mutation is written {{vr|cʼh}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last=Hemon|first=Roparz|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1975|location=Dublin|pages=5}}</ref>
-{{Main|Breton mutations}}
-Breton has four initial [[consonant mutation]]s: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+In the 1830s, [[Jean-François Le Gonidec]] created a modern phonetic system for the language.
-|+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton
-|-
-! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Unmutated<br /> consonant
-! scope="col" colspan="4" | Mutations
-|-
-! scope="col"| Hard
-! scope="col"| Mixed
-! scope="col"| Soft
-! scope="col"| Aspirant
-|-
-! scope="row"| ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}
-| &nbsp; || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
-|-
-! scope="row"| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}
-| ''p'' {{IPA|[p̎]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
-|-
-! scope="row"| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}
-| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''b'' {{IPA|[b̥]}} || ''f'' {{IPA|[v̥]}}
-|-
-! scope="row"| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
-| ''k'' {{IPA|[k͈]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || &nbsp;
-|-
-! scope="row"| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}
-| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[x]}}
-|-
-!''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}
-|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
-|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
-|''z'' {{IPA|[z]}}
-|&nbsp;
-|-
-!''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}
-|&nbsp;
-|&nbsp;
-|''d'' {{IPA|[d̥]}}
-|''z'' {{IPA|[h]}}
-|-
-!''gw'' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
-|''kw'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
-|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
-|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
-|&nbsp;
-|}
-===Word order===
-{{expand section|V2 word order|date=May 2022}}
-Normal word order, like the other [[Insular Celtic languages]], is at its core [[verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in [[main clause]]s are additionally subject to [[V2 word order]] in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.<ref name="V2">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=Non-Negative Word Order in Breton: Maintaining Verb-Second | journal=Transactions of the Philological Society | publisher=Wiley | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=12 January 2018 | issn=0079-1636 | doi=10.1111/1467-968x.12119 | pages=153–178| s2cid=148910543 | url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9131b11a-3eff-43b1-9055-b6c9f19b413b}}</ref> That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):
-*the first places the verbal [[infinitive]] in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] {{lang|br|ober}} 'to do'.
-*the second places the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}} 'to be' in initial position (as in (2)), followed the Subject, and the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive''. At the end comes the Object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
-*the third places the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the Auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}}, the Subject, and the Object.
-*the fourth option places the Object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Subject.
-*the fifth, and originally least common, places the Subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the Object, just like in English (SVO).
-{{interlinear|number=(1)
-| Lenn a ra brezhoneg
-| read PRT do.3SG Breton
-| 'He/she reads Breton.'}}
-{{interlinear|number=(2)
+During the early 20th century, a group of writers known as {{lang|br|Emglev ar Skrivanerien}} elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], Leon and Trégor (known as from {{lang|br|Kernev}}, {{lang|br|Leon}} and {{lang|br|Treger}} in Breton). This '''KLT''' orthography was established in 1911. At the same time, writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system, which was also based on that of Le Gonidec.
-| Ema Yann {o lenn} brezhoneg
-| be.3SG Yann reading Breton
-| 'Yann is reading Breton.'}}
-{{interlinear|number=(3)
+Following proposals that had been made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This {{lang|br|Peurunvan}} ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph {{vr|zh}}, which represents a {{IPA|/h/}} in Vannetais and corresponds to a {{IPA|/z/}} in the KLT dialects.
-| {O lenn} ema Yann brezhoneg
-| reading be.3SG Yann Breton
-| 'Yann is reading Breton.'}}
-{{interlinear|number=(4)
+In 1955, [[François Falcʼhun]] and the group {{ill|Emgleo Breiz|fr|Emgleo Breiz|br|Emgleo Breiz}} proposed a new orthography, which was designed to use a set of [[graphemes]] closer to the conventions of French. This {{lang|fr|Orthographe universitaire}} ("University Orthography", known in Breton as {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education". It was opposed in the region and was only by the magazine {{lang|br|Brud Nevez}} and the publishing house Emgleo Breiz, which disappeared in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Guérin|first=Yannick|title=Les Éditions Emgleo Breiz en liquidation|url=https://www.ouest-france.fr/bretagne/les-editions-emgleo-breiz-en-liquidation-3822711}}</ref>
-| Mad eo an istor
-| good be.3SG the story
-| 'The story is good.'}}
-{{interlinear|number=(5)
+In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised: the {{lang|br|etrerannyezhel}} or {{lang|fr|interdialectale}}. This system is based on the derivation of the words.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hewitt|first=Steve|title=Background information on Breton|url=https://www.academia.edu/2157237}}</ref>
-| An istor zo mad
-| the story be.3SG good
-| 'The story is good.'}}
-==Vocabulary==
+Today, most writers continue to use the ''Peurunvan orthography'', and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.
-<!-- This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different set of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc. -->
-Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loans from French.<ref name=Fortson>Fortson, Benjamin W. 2005. ''Indo-European Language and Culture''. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".</ref>
-==Orthography==
-The first extant Breton texts, contained in the Leyde manuscript, were written at the end of the 8th century: 50 years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. Like many medieval [[Orthography|orthographies]], Old- and Middle Breton orthography was at first not standardised, and the spelling of a particular word varied at authors' discretion. In 1499, however, the ''[[Catholicon (trilingual dictionary)|Catholicon]]'', was published; as the first dictionary written for both French and Breton, it became a point of reference on how to transcribe the language. The orthography presented in the ''Catholicon'' was largely similar to that of French, in particular with respect to the representation of vowels, as well as the use of both the Latinate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|qu}}—a remnant of the sound change {{IPA|/kʷ/}} > {{IPA|/k/}} in Latin—and Brittonic {{vr|cou-}} or {{vr|cu-}} to represent {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels.
-As phonetic and phonological differences between the dialects began to magnify, many regions, particularly the Vannes country, began to devise their own orthographies. Many of these orthographies were more closely related to the French model, albeit with some modifications. Examples of these modifications include the replacement of Old Breton -{{vr|z}} with -{{vr|h}} to denote word-final {{IPA|/x~h/}} (an evolution of Old Breton {{IPA|/θ/}} in the Vannes dialect) and use of -{{vr|h}} to denote the initial mutation of {{IPA|/k/}} (today this mutation is written {{vr|cʼh}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton|last=Hemon|first=Roparz|publisher=Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|year=1975|location=Dublin|pages=5}}</ref> and thus needed another transcription.
-In the 1830s [[Jean-François Le Gonidec]] created a modern phonetic system for the language.
-During the early years of the 20th century, a group of writers known as {{lang|br|Emglev ar Skrivanerien}} elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system. They made it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], Leon and Trégor (known as from {{lang|br|Kernev}}, {{lang|br|Leon}} and {{lang|br|Treger}} in Breton). This '''KLT''' orthography was established in 1911. At the same time writers of the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a phonetic system also based on that of Le Gonidec.
-Following proposals made during the 1920s, the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in 1941 to create an orthographic system to represent all four dialects. This {{lang|br|Peurunvan}} ("wholly unified") orthography was significant for the inclusion of the digraph {{vr|zh}}, which represents a {{IPA|/h/}} in Vannetais and corresponds to a {{IPA|/z/}} in the KLT dialects.
-In 1955 [[François Falcʼhun]] and the group {{ill|Emgleo Breiz|fr|Emgleo Breiz|br|Emgleo Breiz}} proposed a new orthography. It was designed to use a set of [[graphemes]] closer to the conventions of French. This {{lang|fr|Orthographe universitaire}} ("University Orthography", known in Breton as {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}) was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education." It was opposed in the region and today is used only by the magazine {{lang|br|Brud Nevez}} and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.
-In the 1970s, a new standard orthography was devised – the {{lang|br|etrerannyezhel}} or {{lang|fr|interdialectale}}. This system is based on the derivation of the words.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hewitt|first=Steve|title=Background information on Breton|url=https://www.academia.edu/2157237}}</ref>
-Today the majority of writers continue to use the ''Peurunvan orthography'', and it is the version taught in most Breton-language schools.
 ===Alphabet===
@@ Line 728: / Line 497: @@
 : a, b, ch, cʼh, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, v, w, y, z
-The [[circumflex]], [[grave accent]], [[trema (diacritic)|trema]] and [[tilde]] appear on some letters. These [[diacritic]]s are used in the following way:
+The [[circumflex]], [[grave accent]], [[trema (diacritic)|trema]] and [[tilde]] appear on some letters. The [[diacritics]] are used in the following way:
 : â, ê, î, ô, û, ù, ü, ñ
 ===Differences between {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}} and {{lang|br|Peurunvan}}===
-Both orthographies use the above alphabet, although {{vr|é}} is used only in {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}.
+Both orthographies use the above alphabet although {{vr|é}} is used only in {{lang|br|Skolveurieg}}.
-Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final [[obstruent]]s, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before voiced sounds, are represented by a grapheme that indicates a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: {{lang|br|braz}} "big", {{lang|br|brasocʼh}} "bigger".
+Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan, final [[obstruent]]s, which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced sounds]], are represented by a grapheme that indicates a [[Voicelessness|voiceless sound]]. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: {{lang|br|braz}} "big", {{lang|br|brasocʼh}} "bigger".
-In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation, e.g. {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} "Breton language" vs. {{lang|br|brezhonek}} "Breton (adj)".
+In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention, which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs by nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one. No distinction is made in pronunciation. {{abbr|e.g.|for example}}, {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} {{gloss|Breton language}} vs. {{lang|br|brezhonek}} {{gloss|Breton ({{abbr|adj|adjective}})}}.
 {| class="wikitable"
@@ Line 773: / Line 542: @@
 ===Pronunciation of the Breton alphabet===
+'''C''' (as a single letter), '''Q''' and '''X''' appear mainly in loanwords. ⟨ks⟩ or ⟨gz⟩ may be used to represent /ks/ or /ɡz/. The digraph {{angbr|zh}} represents a variable sound that may exhibit as {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, or {{IPA|/h/}}, and descends from a now-extinct sound {{IPA|/θ/}}, which is still extant in Welsh as {{angbr|th}}.
 {| class="wikitable sortable"
-! Letter !! Revised!! Kerneveg !! Leoneg !! Tregiereg !! Gwenedeg
+! Letter !! Kerneveg !! Leoneg !! Tregiereg !! Gwenedeg
 |-
-| '''A a'''
 | '''A a'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ä, a, ɑː]}}
 |-
-| â
 | â
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑː]}}{{Ref|Pron-1}}
 |-
-| ae
 | ae
 | {{IPA|[ae̯~aj]}}
@@ Line 792: / Line 559: @@
 |-
 | an
-| agn
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑ̃n]}}
 |-
 | añ
-| ag
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɑ̃]}}
 |-
 | ao
-| aw
 | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ao̯~aw]}}
 | {{IPA|[ɔː]}}
@@ Line 806: / Line 570: @@
 |-
 | aou
-| aow
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔʊ̯~ɔw]}}
 |-
-| '''B b'''
 | '''B b'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[b], [p]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}
 |-
 | '''Ch ch'''
-| '''Sh sh'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʃ], [ʒ]}}{{Ref|Pron-4}}
 |-
 | '''Cʼh cʼh'''
-| '''Ch ch'''
 | {{IPA|[h]}},{{Ref|Pron-2}} {{IPA|[x]}}
 | {{IPA|[h]}},{{Ref|Pron-2}} {{IPA|[ɣ~ɦ]}},{{Ref|Pron-19}} {{IPA|[x]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}
@@ Line 825: / Line 585: @@
 |-
 | cʼhw
-| chw
 | {{IPA|[xw~f]}}
 | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[xw]}}
 | {{IPA|[hw~(hɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}
 |-
-| '''D d'''
 | '''D d'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[d], [t]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}
 |-
-| '''E e'''
 | '''E e'''
 | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}
 | colspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛ, ɛ̞, e, eː]}},{{Ref|Pron-5}} {{IPA|[ə]}}{{Ref|Pron-22}}
 |-
-| ê
 | ê
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛː]}}{{Ref|Pron-17}}
 |-
-| ei
 | ei
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛi̯~ɛj]}}
 |-
 | eeu
-| ey
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[eø̯~ew]}}
 |-
-| eo
 | eo
 | {{IPA|[eː]}}
@@ Line 859: / Line 612: @@
 |-
 | eu
-| y
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[œ, œ̞, ø, øː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}
 |-
 | eü
-| eu
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɛɥ, e(v)y]}}
 |-
 | eue
-| ye
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ø̯e~ɥe]}}
 |-
-| '''F f'''
 | '''F f'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[f], [v]}}{{Ref|Pron-4}}
 |-
 | 'f
-| ff
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[v~ɸ]}}
 |-
 | '''G g'''
-| '''Q q'''
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɡ, k]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}
 | {{IPA|[ɡ~(ɟ), k~(c)]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}
 |-
 | gn
-| nh
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɲ]}}{{Ref|Pron-7}}
 |-
 | gw
-| qw
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɡw]}}{{Ref|Pron-27}}
 | {{IPA|[ɡw~(ɟɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}
 |-
-| '''H h'''
 | '''H h'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[h]}}{{Ref|Pron-8}}
 |-
-| '''I i'''
 | '''I i'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[i, iː, j]}}{{Ref|Pron-9}}
 |-
-| ilh
 | ilh
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[(i)ʎ]}}{{Ref|Pron-10}}
 |-
-| '''J j'''
 | '''J j'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʒ], [ʃ]}}{{Ref|Pron-3}}
 |-
 | '''K k'''
-| '''C c'''
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[k]}}
 | {{IPA|[k~(c)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}
 |-
-| '''L l'''
 | '''L l'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[l]}},{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[ɬ]}}{{Ref|Pron-11}}
 |-
-| '''M m'''
 | '''M m'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[m]}}
 |-
-| '''N n'''
 | '''N n'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[n]}},{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[ŋ]}}{{Ref|Pron-12}}
 |-
 | ñ
-| g
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[◌̃]}}
 |-
 | ñv
-| gmf
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[◌̃v]}}
 |-
-| '''O o'''
 | '''O o'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ, ɔ̞, o, oː]}}{{Ref|Pron-5}}{{Ref|Pron-24}}
 |-
-| oa
 | oa
 | {{IPA|[ɔ̯a~wa, ɔ̯ɑː~wɑː]}}
@@ Line 944: / Line 677: @@
 | {{IPA|[ɔ̯ɛ~wɛ, ɔ̯eː~weː]}}
 |-
-| ôa
 | ôa
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[oːa]}}{{Ref|Pron-18}}
 |-
-| oe
 | oe
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̯ɛ(ː)~wɛ(ː)]}}
 |-
 | on
-| ogn
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̃n]}}
 |-
 | oñ
-| og
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}
 |-
 | ou
-| w
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[u, uː, w]}}
 | {{IPA|[u, uː, w~(ɥ)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}{{Ref|Pron-13}}
 |-
 | où{{Ref|Pron-14}}
-| ow
 | colspan="2" |{{IPA|[u]}}
 | {{IPA|[o]}}
@@ Line 972: / Line 699: @@
 |-
 | oü
-| oy
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[oy̆, oːy]}}
 |-
-| '''P p'''
 | '''P p'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[p]}}
 |-
-| '''R r'''
 | '''R r'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ʀ~ʁ~r~ɾ~ɹ]}},{{Ref|Pron-21}}{{Ref|Pron-23}} {{IPA|[χ~r̥~ɾ̥~ɹ̥]}}{{Ref|Pron-11}}
 |-
-| '''S s'''
 | '''S s'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[s, z]}}
 |-
 | sh
-| ss
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[s]}}
 | {{IPA|[h]}}
 |-
 | sk
-| sc
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[sk]}}
 | {{IPA|[sk~(sc~ʃc)]}}{{Ref|Pron-6}}
 |-
-| st
 | st
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[st]}}
 | {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
 |-
-| '''T t'''
 | '''T t'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[t]}}
 |-
-| '''U u'''
 | '''U u'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[y, yː, ɥ]}}{{Ref|Pron-28}}
 |-
-| ui
 | ui
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[ɥi, ɥiː]}}
 |-
 | ul, un, ur{{Ref|Pron-29}}
-| yl, yn, yr{{Ref|Pron-29}}
 | {{IPA|[ɔl, ɔn, ɔʀ]}}
 | {{IPA|[œl, œn, œr]}}
@@ Line 1,021: / Line 737: @@
 | {{IPA|[yl, yn, yʁ]}}
 |-
-| '''V v'''
 | '''V v'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[v]}}{{Ref|Pron-15}}
 |-
 | vh
-| ph
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[f]}}
 |-
-| '''W w'''
 | '''W w'''
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[w]}}{{Ref|Pron-25}}
@@ Line 1,035: / Line 748: @@
 |-
 | '''Y y'''
-| '''I i'''
 | colspan="4" | {{IPA|[j]}}
 |-
-| '''Z z'''
 | '''Z z'''
 | {{IPA|[z]}}, Ø,{{Ref|Pron-16}} {{IPA|[s]}}{{Ref|Pron-20}}
@@ Line 1,046: / Line 757: @@
 |-
 | zh
-| th
 | colspan="3" | {{IPA|[z]}}{{Ref|Pron-16}}
 | {{IPA|[h]}}{{Ref|Pron-16}}
@@ Line 1,052: / Line 762: @@
 '''Notes:'''
-# {{Note|Pron-1}} Vocative particle: {{lang|br|â Vreizh}} / {{lang|br|â Vreith}} "O Brittany".
+# {{Note|Pron-1}} Vocative particle: {{lang|br|â Vreizh}} "O Brittany".
 # {{Note|Pron-2}} Word-initially.
 # {{Note|Pron-3}} Word-finally.
@@ Line 1,083: / Line 793: @@
 # {{Note|Pron-30}} A conservative realisation of the initial mutation of {{vr|d}} and {{vr|t}}, used in certain parts of the Vannes country.
-==Sample texts==
+==Grammar==
+{{main|Breton grammar}}
+<!-- Description of the grammar of the language. -->
+===Nouns===
+Breton nouns are marked for gender and number. While Breton has a fairly typical gender system for Western Europe, Breton has number markers that demonstrate rarer behaviors.
+====Gender====
+Breton has two genders: masculine ({{lang|br|gourel}}) and feminine ({{lang|br|gwregel}}). It has largely lost its historic neuter ({{lang|br|nepreizh}}), as has also occurred in the other Celtic languages and in the Romance languages. Certain suffixes (''-ach/-aj,<ref name=BallGender/> -(a)dur,<ref name=BallGender/> -er, -lecʼh, -our, -ti, -va''<ref name="Stephens"/>) are masculine, while others (''-enti, -er, -ez, -ezh, -ezon, -i'', ''-eg'', ''-ell'', and the singulative ''-enn'') are feminine.<ref name="Stephens">{{Cite book|last=Stephens|first=Janig|title=The Celtic Languages|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=041528080X|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions|location=London|pages=379|chapter=Breton|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}</ref> The suffix ''-eg'' can be masculine or feminine.<ref name=BallGender/>
+There are certain non-determinant factors that influence gender assignment. Biological sex is applied for animate referents. Metals, time divisions (except for {{lang|br|eur}} "hour", {{lang|br|noz}} "night" and {{lang|br|sizhun}} "week") and mountains tend to be masculine, while rivers, cities and countries tend to be feminine.<ref name=BallGender>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|page=364|year=1993}}</ref>
+However, gender assignment to certain words often varies between dialects.<ref name=BallGender/>
+====Number====
+Number in Breton is primarily based on an opposition between singular and plural.<ref name=BallNumber>{{cite book|author=Martin J. Ball|title=The Celtic Languages|pages=365–369|year=1993}}</ref> However, the system is full of complexities<ref name=Fortson/> in how the distinction is realized.
+Although modern Breton has lost the dual number as a productive grammatical category, remnants of its use are preserved in certain nouns referring to paired body parts such as for eyes, ears, cheeks, legs, armpits, arms, hands, knees, thighs and wings. Those forms typically feature a prefix (''daou-'', ''di-'' or ''div-''), which is etymologically derived from the numeral two.<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Fortson/> The dual number is no longer a productive feature of Breton grammar and survives only in a lexicalized form. Certain words such as ''daoulagad'' ('eyes') and ''divskouarn'' ('ears') are historically dual in origin. These forms can nevertheless undergo pluralization once more to yield ''daoulagadoù'' ('pairs of eyes') and ''diskouarnoù'' ('pairs of ears').<ref name=BallNumber/><ref name=Stephens/>
+Like other Brythonic languages, Breton has a [[singulative]] suffix, which forms singulars out of [[collective nouns]] for which the morphologically less complex form is the plural. Thus, the singulative of the collective {{lang|br|logod}} "mice" is {{lang|br|logod'''enn'''}} "mouse".<ref name=BallNumber/> "Breton exhibits a more complex system than Welsh in this respect. Collective nouns can undergo pluralization, yielding forms with meanings distinct from the base collective. For example, ''pesk'' ('fish', singular) forms the collective plural ''pesked'' ('fish'), which may then be singulativized as ''peskedenn'' to denote an individual fish from a group. This singulative of the plural can in turn be pluralized once more, producing ''peskedennoù'' ('fishes')."<ref name=Fortson/>
+"In addition, the Breton plural system is complicated by the existence of two distinct pluralizing functions. Alongside the 'default' plural, there is a second formation used to convey a sense of variety or diversity. As a result, a single noun may yield two semantically different plurals; for example, ''park'' ('park') forms ''parkoù'' ('parks') and ''parkeier'' ('various different parks')."<ref name=Fortson/> Ball reports that the latter pluralizer is used only for inanimate nouns.<ref name=BallNumber/> Certain formations have been lexicalized to have meanings other than that which might be predicted solely from the morphology: {{lang|br|dour}} "water" pluralized forms {{lang|br|dourioù}} which means not "waters" but instead "rivers", while {{lang|br|doureier}} now has come to mean "running waters after a storm". Certain forms have lost the singular from their paradigm: {{lang|br|keloù}} means "news" and {{lang|br|*kel}} is not used, while {{lang|br|keleier}} has become the regular plural,<ref name=BallNumber/> 'different news items'.
+Meanwhile, certain nouns can form doubly marked plurals with lexicalized meanings – {{lang|br|bugel}} "child" is pluralized once into {{lang|br|bugale}} "children" and then pluralized a second time to make {{lang|br|bugaleoù}} "groups of children".<ref name=Fortson/>
+The diminutive suffix {{lang|br|-ig}} also has the somewhat unusual property of triggering double marking of the plural: {{lang|br|bugelig}} means "little child", but the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bug'''ale'''ig'''où'''}} means "little children"; {{lang|br|bag}} boat has a singular diminutive {{lang|br|bagig}} and a simple plural {{lang|br|bagoù}}, thus its diminutive plural is the doubly pluralized {{lang|br|bag'''où'''ig'''où'''}}.<ref name=Fortson/><ref name=BallNumber/>
+As seen elsewhere in many Celtic languages, the formation of the plural can be difficult to predict, being determined by a mix of semantic, morphological and lexical factors.
+The most common plural marker is {{lang|br|-où}}, with its variant {{lang|br|-ioù}};<ref name=BallNumber/> most nouns that use that marker are inanimates, but collectives of both inanimate and animate nouns always use it as well.<ref name=BallNumber/>
+Most animate nouns, including trees, have a plural in {{lang|br|-ed}}.<ref name=BallNumber/> However, in some dialects the use of this affix has become rare. Various masculine nouns including occupations, as well as the word {{lang|br|Saoz}} ("Englishman", plural {{lang|br|Saozon}}), take the suffix {{lang|br|-ien}}, with a range of variants including {{lang|br|-on}}, {{lang|br|-ion}}, {{lang|br|-an}} and {{lang|br|-ian}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>
+The rare pluralizing suffixes {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} and {{lang|br|-i}} are used for a few nouns. When they are appended, they also trigger a change in the vowel of the root: {{lang|br|-i}} triggers a [[vowel harmony]] effect in which some or all preceding vowels are changed to {{lang|br|i}} ({{lang|br|kenderv}} "cousin" → {{lang|br|kindirvi}} "cousins"; {{lang|br|bran}} "crow" → {{lang|br|brini}} "crows"; {{lang|br|klujur}} "partridge" → {{lang|br|klujiri}} "partridges"); the changes associated with {{lang|br|-er}}/{{lang|br|-ier}} are less predictable.<ref name=BallNumber/>
+Various nouns instead form their plural merely with [[ablaut]]: {{lang|br|a}} or {{lang|br|o}} in the [[word stem|stem]] is changed to {{lang|br|e}}: {{lang|br|askell}} "wing" → {{lang|br|eskell}} "wings"; {{lang|br|dant}} "tooth" → {{lang|br|dent}} "teeth"; {{lang|br|kordenn}} "rope" → {{lang|br|kerdenn}} "ropes".<ref name=BallNumber/>
+Another set of nouns have lexicalized plurals that bear little if any resemblance to their singulars. These include {{lang|br|placʼh}} "girl" → {{lang|br|mercʼhed}}, {{lang|br|porcʼhell}} "pig" → {{lang|br|mocʼh}}, {{lang|br|buocʼh}} "cow" → {{lang|br|saout}}, and {{lang|br|ki}} "dog" → {{lang|br|chas}}.<ref name=BallNumber/>
+In compound nouns, the head noun, which usually comes first, is pluralized.<ref name=BallNumber/>
+===Verbal aspect===
+Like in other Celtic languages, as well as in [[English language|English]], a variety of verbal constructions can be used to express [[grammatical aspect]] such as to show a distinction between [[progressive tense|progressive]] and habitual actions:
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+! Breton
+! Cornish
+! Irish
+! English
+|-
+| {{lang|br|Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg}}
+| {{lang|kw|'''Yth eso'vy ow kewsel''' orth ow hentrevek}}
+| {{lang|ga|'''Táim ag labhairt''' le mo chomharsa}}
+| I '''am talking''' to my neighbour
+|-
+| {{lang|br|Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg (bep mintin)}}
+| {{lang|kw|My '''a gews''' orth ow hentrevek (pub myttin)}}
+| {{lang|ga|'''Labhraím''' le mo chomharsa (gach maidin)}}
+| I '''talk''' to my neighbour (every morning)
+|}
+===Inflected prepositions===
+Like in other modern Celtic languages, Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of [[inflected preposition]]. Here are some examples in Breton, [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]], along with English translationsL
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+! Breton
+! Cornish
+! Welsh
+! Irish
+! Scottish Gaelic
+! Manx
+! English
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|ul levr zo '''ganin'''|a book is '''with-me'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma lyver '''genev'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae llyfr '''gennyf'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá leabhar '''agam'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha leabhar '''agam'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta lioar '''aym'''}}
+| I have a book
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|un died zo '''ganit'''|a drink is '''with-you.SG'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma diwes '''genes'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae diod '''gennyt'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá deoch '''agat'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha deoch '''agad'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta jough '''ayd'''}}
+| you have a drink
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''|a computer is '''with-him'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma jynn-amontya '''ganso'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae cyfrifiadur '''ganddo'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha coimpiutair '''aige'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta co-earrooder '''echey'''}}
+| he has a computer
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''|a child is '''with-her'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma flogh '''gensi'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae plentyn '''ganddi'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá leanbh '''aici'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha leanabh '''aice'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta lhiannoo '''eck'''}}
+| she has a child
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|ur cʼharr zo '''ganimp'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|ganeomp}}')|a car is '''with-us'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma karr '''genen'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae car '''gennym'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá gluaisteán / carr '''againn'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha càr '''againn'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta gleashtan / carr '''ain'''}}
+| we have a car
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|un ti zo '''ganeocʼh'''|a house is '''with-you.PL'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma chi '''genowgh'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae tŷ '''gennych'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá teach '''agaibh'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha taigh '''agaibh'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta thie '''eu'''}}
+| you have a house
+|-
+| {{interlinear|lang=br|arcʼhant zo '''ganto'''|c1=(or '{{lang|br|gante}}')|money is '''with-them'''|}}
+| {{lang|kw|yma mona '''gansa'''}}
+| {{lang|cy|mae arian '''ganddynt'''}}
+| {{lang|ga|tá airgead '''acu'''}}
+| {{lang|gd|tha airgead '''aca'''}}
+| {{lang|gv|ta argid '''oc'''}}
+| they have money
+|}
+In the examples above, the [[Goidelic languages]] (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) use the preposition meaning ''at'' to show possession, and the [[Brittonic languages]] use the one meaning ''with''. The Goidelic languages, however, use the preposition ''with'' to express "belong to" (Irish {{lang|ga|is liom an leabhar}}, Scottish {{lang|gd|is leam an leabhar}}, Manx {{lang|gv|s'lhiams yn lioar}}, The book belongs to me).
+The Welsh examples are in [[literary Welsh morphology#Prepositions|literary Welsh]]. The order and the preposition may differ slightly in [[Colloquial Welsh morphology#Prepositions|Colloquial Welsh]] (Formal {{lang|cy|mae car gennym}}, North Wales {{lang|cy|mae gynnon ni gar}}, South Wales {{lang|cy|mae car gyda ni}}).
+===Initial consonant mutations===
+{{Main|Breton mutations}}
+Breton has four initial [[consonant mutations]]. Though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (but for rare words such the word "door": "dor" "an nor"), it also has a "hard" mutation, which has voiced stops become voiceless, and a "mixed" mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
-'''Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'''
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
-{|
+|+ Initial consonant mutations in Breton
 |-
-|| '''Breton''': <br>{{lang|br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/breton }}</ref>
+! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Unmutated<br /> consonant
-|style="padding-left: 1em"| '''English''': <br> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[United Nations]] }}</ref>
+! scope="col" colspan="4" | Mutations
+|-
+! scope="col"| Hard
+! scope="col"| Mixed
+! scope="col"| Soft
+! scope="col"| Aspirant
+|-
+! scope="row"| ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}
+| &nbsp; || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
+|-
+! scope="row"| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}
+| ''p'' {{IPA|[p̎]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || ''v'' {{IPA|[v]}} || &nbsp;
+|-
+! scope="row"| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}
+| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''b'' {{IPA|[b̥]}} || ''f'' {{IPA|[v̥]}}
+|-
+! scope="row"| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
+| ''k'' {{IPA|[k͈]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}} || &nbsp;
+|-
+! scope="row"| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}
+| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ''g'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊]}} || ''cʼh'' {{IPA|[x]}}
+|-
+!''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}
+|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
+|''t'' {{IPA|[t͈]}}
+|''z'' {{IPA|[z]}}
+|&nbsp;
+|-
+!''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}
+|&nbsp;
+|&nbsp;
+|''d'' {{IPA|[d̥]}}
+|''z'' {{IPA|[h]}}
+|-
+!''gw'' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
+|''kw'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
+|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
+|''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
+|&nbsp;
 |}
-===Lord's Prayer===
+===Word order===
+{{expand section|V2 word order|date=May 2022}}
+Normal word order, like the other [[Insular Celtic languages]], is at its core [[verb–subject–object word order|VSO]] (verb-subject-object), which is most apparent in embedded clauses. However, Breton finite verbs in [[main clauses]] are additionally subject to [[V2 word order]] in which the finite main clause verb is typically the second element in the sentence.<ref name="V2">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=Non-Negative Word Order in Breton: Maintaining Verb-Second | journal=Transactions of the Philological Society | publisher=Wiley | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=12 January 2018 | issn=0079-1636 | doi=10.1111/1467-968x.12119 | pages=153–178| s2cid=148910543 | url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9131b11a-3eff-43b1-9055-b6c9f19b413b}}</ref> In fact, starting a sentence with a finite verb is generally ungrammatical in Breton.
+Noun phrases, adverbial phrases, verbal nouns and the negative particle ''ne'' may stand in sentence-initial position to satisfy the V2 requirement.<ref name="V2 neg">{{cite journal | last=Kennard | first=Holly J. | title=The persistence of verb second in negative utterances in Breton | journal=Journal of Historical Linguistics | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=May 22, 2014 | issn=2210-2116 | doi=10.1075/jhl.4.1.01ken | pages=1–39}}</ref> That makes it perfectly possible to put the subject or the object at the beginning of the sentence, largely depending on the focus of the speaker. The following options are possible (all with a little difference in meaning):
+*the first places the verbal [[infinitive]] in initial position (as in (1)), followed by the [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] {{lang|br|ober}} {{gloss|to do}}.
+*the second places the auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}} {{gloss|to be}} in initial position (as in (2)), followed by the subject and the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive''. At the end comes the object. This construction is an exception to verb-second.
+*the third places the construction {{lang|br|o(cʼh)}} ''+ infinitive'' in the initial position (as in (3)), followed by the auxiliary verb {{lang|br|bezañ}}, the subject and the object.
+*the fourth option places the object in initial position (as in (4)), followed by an inflected verb and then by the subject.
+*the fifth, and originally least common, places the subject in initial position (as in (5)), followed by an inflected verb, followed by the object, just like in English (SVO).
+{{interlinear
+| number = (1)|Lenn a ra brezhoneg|read PRT do.3SG Breton|'He/she reads Breton.'
+}}
+{{interlinear
+| number = (2)|Emañ Yann {o lenn} brezhoneg|be.3SG Yann reading Breton|'Yann is reading Breton.'
+}}
+{{interlinear
+| number = (3)|{O lenn} emañ Yann brezhoneg|reading be.3SG Yann Breton|'Yann is reading Breton.'
+}}
+{{interlinear
+| number = (4)|Mat eo an istor|good be.3SG the story|'The story is good.'
+}}
+{{interlinear
+| number = (5)|An istor zo mat|the story be.3SG good|'The story is good.'
+}}
+== Vocabulary ==
+{{expand section|date=December 2025}}
-: ''Hon Tad,''
+<!-- This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language such as if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different set of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc. -->
-: ''cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,''
-: ''ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.''
-: ''Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.''
-: ''Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.''
-: ''Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.''
-: ''Distaolit dimp hon dleoù''
-: ''evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.''
-: ''Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,''
-: ''met hon dieubit eus an Droug.''
-===Words and phrases in Breton===
+Breton uses much more borrowed vocabulary than its relatives further north; by some estimates a full 40% of its core vocabulary consists of loanwords from French.<ref name=Fortson>Fortson, Benjamin W. 2005. ''Indo-European Language and Culture''. Page 295: "Breton has also borrowed much more heavily from French throughout its history than any of the other British Celtic languages ever have from English, to the extent that two-fifths of the ordinary vocabulary is of French origin, according to some extents".</ref>
-[[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper/Kemper]]. Note the use of the word ''ti'' in the Breton for ''police station'' and ''tourist office'', plus {{lang|br|da bep lecʼh}} for ''all directions''.]]
+=== Words and phrases ===
+[[File:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper/Kemper]]. Note the use of the word {{lang|br|ti}} in the Breton for 'police station' and 'tourist office', plus {{lang|br|da bep lecʼh}} for ''all directions''.]]
 <!--
 Some short examples of the language in the writing system(s) used to write the language. You might also include sound samples of the language being spoken.
@@ Line 1,124: / Line 1,033: @@
 | {{lang|br|brezhoneg}} || Breton ''(language)''
 |-
-| {{lang|br|ti}}, "ty" || house
+| {{lang|br|ti}}, {{lang|br|ty}} || house
 |-
 | {{lang|br|ti-kêr}} || town hall
@@ Line 1,143: / Line 1,052: @@
 | {{lang|br|kenavo}} || goodbye
 |-
-| {{lang|br|krampouezh}} || pancakes (''a'' pancake = {{lang|br|ur grampouezh'''enn'''}})
+| {{lang|br|krampouezh}} || pancakes (''a'' pancake = {{lang|br|ur grampouezh'''enn'''}}, see [[singulative number|singulative]])
 |-
 | {{lang|br|sistr}} || cider
@@ Line 1,153: / Line 1,062: @@
 | {{lang|br|war vor atav}} || always at sea
 |-
-| {{lang|br|[[kouign amann]] }}|| rich butter and sugar cake
+| {{lang|br|[[kouign amann]]}} || rich butter and sugar cake
+|}
+=== Borrowing from Breton by other languages ===
+{{More citations needed section|date=July 2025}}
+The English words {{lang|en|dolmen}} and {{lang|en|[[menhir]]}} have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, {{lang|en|menhir}} is {{lang|br|peulvan}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} ("long stone"), {{lang|br|maen sav}} ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. ''Dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be {{lang|br|taol-'''v'''aen}}). Some studies state<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strang|first=Barbara M. H|title=A History of English|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317421917|pages=94}}</ref> that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. {{lang|cy|Maen hir}} can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a {{lang|en|menhir}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish {{lang|kw|men}} {{lang|kw|hyr}} ("long stone"), as does {{lang|kw|Tremenheere}} "settlement by the long stone".
+The French word {{lang|fr|baragouiner}} ("to jabber in a foreign language or an unintelligible manner") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|bara}} ("bread") and {{lang|br|gwin}} ("wine"). The French word {{lang|fr|goéland}} ("large seagull") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|gwelan}}, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh {{lang|cy|gwylan}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|goelann}}).
+==Sample texts==
+{|
+|+ Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]
+|| '''Breton''': <br>{{lang|br|Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/breton }}</ref>
+|style="padding-left: 1em"| '''English''': <br> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[United Nations]] }}</ref>
 |}
-==Language comparison==
+===Lord's Prayer===
+<poem lang="br" style="font-style:italic;">
+Hon Tad,
+cʼhwi hag a zo en Neñv,
+ra vo santelaet hocʼh anv.
+Ra zeuio ho Rouantelezh.
+Ra vo graet ho youl war an douar evel en neñv.
+Roit dimp hiziv bara hor bevañs.
+Distaolit dimp hon dleoù
+evel m'hor bo ivez distaolet d'hon dleourion.
+Ha n'hon lezit ket da vont gant an temptadur,
+met hon dieubit eus an Droug.
+</poem>
+== Language comparison ==
+{{unreferenced section|date=December 2025}}
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! English !! French !! Breton !! Cornish !! Welsh !! Scottish Gaelic !! Irish
@@ Line 1,236: / Line 1,174: @@
 | winter || {{lang|fr|hiver}} || {{lang|br|goañv}} || {{lang|kw|gwav}} || {{lang|cy|gaeaf}} || {{lang|gd|geamhradh}} || {{lang|ga|geimhreadh}}
 |}
-==Borrowing from Breton by other languages==
-{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2025}}
-The English words {{lang|en|dolmen}} and {{lang|en|[[menhir]]}} have been borrowed from French, which took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, {{lang|en|menhir}} is {{lang|br|peulvan}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} ("long stone"), {{lang|br|maen sav}} ("straight stone") (two words: noun + adjective) in Breton. ''Dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be {{lang|br|taol-'''v'''aen}}). Some studies state<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strang|first=Barbara M. H|title=A History of English|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317421917|pages=94}}</ref> that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. {{lang|cy|Maen hir}} can be directly translated from Welsh as "long stone" (which is exactly what a {{lang|en|menhir}} or {{lang|br|maen hir}} is). The Cornish surnames Mennear, Minear and Manhire all derive from the Cornish {{lang|kw|men}} {{lang|kw|hyr}} ("long stone"), as does {{lang|kw|Tremenheere}} "settlement by the long stone".
-The French word {{lang|fr|baragouiner}} ("to jabber in a foreign language") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|bara}} ("bread") and {{lang|br|gwin}} ("wine"). The French word {{lang|fr|goéland}} ("large seagull") is derived from Breton {{lang|br|gwelan}}, which shares the same root as English "gull" (Welsh {{lang|cy|gwylan}}, Cornish {{lang|kw|goelann}}).
 ==.bzh==
@@ Line 1,248: / Line 1,180: @@
 ==See also==
 * [[Armoricani]]
-* [[Gaelic revival]], Irish language revival
+* [[Gaelic revival]], Irish-language revival
-* [[Julian Maunoir]], 17th-century Breton language orthographer
+* [[Julian Maunoir]], 17th-century Breton-language orthographer
 * [[List of Celtic-language media]]
 * {{lang|br|[[Stourm ar Brezhoneg]]}}, an association promoting the language
+==Notes==
+{{notelist}}
 ==References==
-'''Notes'''
 {{reflist}}
-'''Further reading'''
+===Further reading===
-;Overviews
+'''Overviews'''
 * {{Cite book|title=The Celtic languages, 2nd Edition|last=Press|first=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2010|location=Abingdon; New York|pages=427–487|chapter=Breton|editor-last=Ball|editor-first=Martin J.|editor-last2=Fife|editor-first2=James}}
 *{{Cite book|title = The Celtic languages|last = Stephens|first = Janig|publisher = Routledge|year = 1993|isbn = 978-0415280808|location = Abingdon; New York|pages = 349–409|chapter = Breton|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BP9QCJ2FQzYC&q=%22the%20celtic%20languages%22&pg=PA349|editor-last = Ball|editor-first = Martin J.|editor-last2 = Fife|editor-first2 = James|series = Routledge language family descriptions}}
 * {{Cite book|title = The Celtic languages|last = Ternes|first = Elmar|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1992|isbn = 978-0521231275|location = Cambridge; New York; Oakleigh|pages = 371–452|chapter = The Breton language|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=y3kIq1DYAkMC&q=%22the%20celtic%20languages%22&pg=PA371|editor-last = MacAulay|editor-first = Donald|series = Cambridge language surveys}}
-;Historical development
+'''Historical development'''
 * Hemon, Roparz. ''A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton''. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1975.
 * {{Cite book|title = A historical phonology of Breton|last = Jackson|first = Kenneth H.|publisher = [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies]]|year = 1967|isbn = 978-0-901282-53-8|location = Dublin}}
@@ Line 1,287: / Line 1,222: @@
 |text=[[v:Topic:Breton|Wikiversity offers lessons in the Breton language]]}}
 {{Wiktionary category|type=Breton|category=Breton language}}
-* [[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]] [http://www.ofis-bzh.org/ official website].
+* [[Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg]] [https://www.brezhoneg.bzh/ official website].
 * {{Citation | url = http://www.france3breizh.fr/ | title = France 3 breizh}}, the public Breton TV channel.
 * {{Citation | url = http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/endangered.htm | title = Endangered | publisher = Breizh net}}: an essay about the situation of the Breton language.
@@ Line 1,302: / Line 1,237: @@
 '''Learning'''
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140704082247/http://www.kervarker.org/index.php?newlang=english%2F Breton site including online lessons]
-* [http://www.linguashop.com/breton-language/ Audio CD, workbooks, software in English to learn Breton]
-* Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)
 * Jouitteau, M. ''[http://arbres.iker.cnrs.fr/index.php/Grammaire_du_breton Grammaire du breton]'', (extensive Breton grammar in French, with glossed examples and typological comparisons), IKER, CNRS, 2009 > 2017].
@@ Line 1,323: / Line 1,256: @@
 [[Category:Languages of France]]
 [[Category:Verb–subject–object languages]]
+[[Category:Verb-second languages]]
 [[Category:Severely endangered languages]]

Breton language: Difference between revisions

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