Cooking: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:06, 28 May 2026

A man cooking in a restaurant kitchen, Morocco

Cooking, also known as cookery, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open fire, to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, to boiling and blanching in water, reflecting local conditions, techniques and traditions. Cooking is an aspect of all human societies and a cultural universal.

Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the cooks. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. The term "culinary arts" usually refers to cooking that primarily focuses on the aesthetic presentation and taste of food.

Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. Archaeological evidence of cooking fires dates to at least 300,000 years ago, but some estimate that humans started cooking as early as 2 million years ago.^[1]^[2]

The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling of water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to enhance further the flavor of the dish served.^[3]

History

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File:Cooking in Villages.jpg

Pots being heated with a wood-burning fire in South India

Phylogenetic analysis suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1–2 million years ago.^[4] Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa has provided evidence supporting control of fire by early humans 1 million years ago.^[5] In his seminal work Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, Richard Wrangham suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early Homo habilis regularly cooked food.^[6]^[7] However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, much later than the period species like Homo erectus are thought to have lived.^[8]^[9]^[10] Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago,^[11] in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago.^[12]^[13] Anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when hearths first appeared.^[14]

Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.^[15]

Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Columbian Exchange influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as potatoes, tomatoes, maize, beans, bell pepper, chili pepper, vanilla, pumpkin, cassava, avocado, peanut, pecan, cashew, pineapple, blueberry, sunflower, chocolate, gourds, green beans, and squash, had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, oats, barley, rice, apples, pears, peas, chickpeas, mustard, and carrots, similarly changed New World cooking.^[16]

In the 17th and 18th centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the 19th-century "Age of Nationalism", cuisine became a defining symbol of national identity.^[17]

Ilaria Porciani notes that the consequences of industrial food manufacturing, such as McDonald's and other fast-food places, created a desire for authentic cuisine. She argues that food becomes entangled with nostalgia and is imagined in terms of authenticity and tradition, thereby representing continuity with past generations. In this way, food undergoes heritagization. In the 19th and 20th centuries, food became part of a larger process of defining national identity, which can be seen as an informal 'contract' between those who assign heritage status and the people. National intellectuals and folklorists shaped this process by researching national traditions and fostering a sense of national unity. Governments, public institutions, cooks, and gourmets also participated in this informal contract of building a culinary identity for the nation.^[18]

The Industrial Revolution brought mass production, mass marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast.^[19] In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias, and fast food restaurants emerged.

Ingredients

Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains, and nuts, as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi. Cooks also use water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine or spirits.

Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called proteins, carbohydrates and fats. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves manipulating the chemical properties of these molecules.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato.^[20]

The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more digestible simpler sugars.^[21] If the sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, caramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins causes the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.^[22]

An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, thicken the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids, such as stews and sauces.^[23] In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous saccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will, however, break down under additional heat.

Fats

File:Frying doughnuts.jpg

Doughnuts frying in oil

Types of fat include vegetable oils, animal products such as butter and lard, as well as fats from grains, including maize and flax oils. Fats are used in many ways in cooking and baking. To prepare stir-fries, grilled cheese, or pancakes, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as cookies, cakes, and pies. Fats can reach temperatures above the boiling point of water and are often used to transfer high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep-frying, or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans, and create a desirable texture.

Fats are one of the three main macronutrient groups in human diet, along with carbohydrates and proteins,^[24]^[25] and the main components of common food products like milk, butter, tallow, lard, salt pork, and cooking oils. They are a major and dense source of food energy for many animals and play important structural and metabolic functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and thermal insulation.^[26] The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few essential fatty acids that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some flavor and aroma ingredients and vitamins that are not water-soluble.^[27]

Proteins

Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk, eggs and egg whites, contains substantial amounts of protein.^[28]^[29]^[30] Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.^[31] Mushrooms have high protein content.^[32]^[33] Any of these may be sources of essential amino acids.^[34] When proteins are heated they become denatured (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the material to become softer or more friable – meat becomes cooked and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid yet flexible matrix from egg white is an important component in baking cakes and underpins many desserts based on meringue.

File:Cuisson des pates.jpg

Water is often used to cook foods such as noodles.

Water

Cooking often involves water and water-based liquids. These can be added to immerse the ingredients being cooked (typically water, stock, or wine). Alternatively, the foods themselves can release water. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other recipes. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising, and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients; this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making.

Vitamins and minerals

File:November 15, 2012, The Right Cut (8223639251).jpg

Vegetables contain important vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism; and what the body cannot manufacture itself must come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities, including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride, and sulfur; and in very small quantities, copper, zinc, and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins^[35] in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be destroyed by protracted cooking.^[36]^{[failed verification]} The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.^[37] Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.^[38]

Methods

There are many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming, and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving.^[39] Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the result. Some major hot cooking techniques include:

File:Sautee onions and peppers.jpg

A cook sautees onions and green peppers in a skillet.

Roasting: Roasting – Barbecuing – Grilling/Broiling – Rotisserie – Searing
Baking: Baking – Blind-baking
Boiling: Boiling – Blanching – Braising – Coddling – Double steaming – Infusion – Poaching – Pressure cooking – Simmering – Smothering – Steaming – Steeping – Stewing – Stone boiling – Vacuum flask cooking
Frying: Frying – Air frying — Deep frying – Gentle frying – Hot salt frying – Hot sand frying – Pan frying – Pressure frying – Sautéing – Shallow frying – Stir frying – Vacuum frying
Steaming: Steaming works by continuously boiling water, which vaporizes into steam; the steam then transfers heat to the food, cooking it. Many consider it a healthy form of cooking, as it helps retain nutrients in the vegetables or meat being cooked.^[40]; En papillote – The food is placed in a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam it.
Smoking: Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.
Sous vide: Sous vide is a method of cooking where the food is placed into a plastic pouch or glass jar which is then sealed (often in a vacuum) and cooked in a water bath at precise temperatures for longer than normal cooking times, sometimes up to days.

Health and safety

Indoor air pollution

As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook with open fires or inefficient stoves that use kerosene, biomass, and coal as fuel.^[41]^[42] These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution, causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from pneumonia, 27% from ischaemic heart disease, 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 18% from stroke, and 8% from lung cancer. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.^[43]

Security while cooking

Hazards while cooking can include:

Unseen slippery surfaces (such as from oil stains, water droplets, or items that have fallen on the floor)
Cuts; about a third of the US's estimated annual 400,000 knife injuries are kitchen-related.^[44]
Burns or fires

To prevent those injuries, safety measures include heat-resistant clothing, anti-slip shoes, a fire extinguisher, and more.

Food safety

Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if raw food is consumed. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and Toxoplasma gondii. Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Campylobacter, viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as Entamoeba histolytica. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water.^[45]

The sterilizing effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and the technique used. Some food spoilage bacteria, such as Clostridium botulinum or Bacillus cereus, can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then germinate and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.^[46]

Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods that are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw cereal grains are hard to digest, while kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at 100 °C (212 °F).^[47]

Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "Danger zone" temperature range from 40 to 140 °F (4 to 60 °C); therefore, food should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination,^[48] are good practices in food preparation.^[49] Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones.^[50]^[51] Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.^[51]

Effects on nutritional content of food

File:Rawtomatopasta1.jpg

A raw tomato sauce with olives, celery, spinach and walnuts on zucchini noodles.

Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of certain detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that when cooking vegetables and fruits rich in vitamin C, the vitamin leaches into the cooking water and is degraded by oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce vitamin C content, especially in potatoes, where most of the vitamin C is in the skin.^[52] However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids, a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.^[36]

Sulforaphane, a glucosinolate breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as broccoli, and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.^[53]^[54] Although there has been some basic research on how sulforaphane might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.

The United States Department of Agriculture has studied retention data for 16 vitamins, 8 minerals, and alcohol for approximately 290 foods across various cooking methods.^[55]

Carcinogens and AGEs

File:BBQ Food.jpg

Chicken, pork and bacon-wrapped corn cooking in a barbecue smoker. Studies show that barbecuing and smoking generate carcinogens.

In a human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981, diet was estimated to account for a large proportion of cancers.^[56] Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.^[57] Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.^[58]

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates heterocyclic amines (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one-third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.^[59] While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.^[59] Nitrosamines are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon is carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. Ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.^[58]^[60]

Baking, grilling, or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of acrylamide. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has, however, found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".^[61]

Cooking food at high temperatures may create advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in several diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in aging. AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via Maillard reaction. These compounds impart colors, tastes, and smells specific to these foods but may also be deleterious to health.^[62] Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or other moist heat, by reducing cooking times and temperatures, and by marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar beforehand.^[63]

Scientific aspects

The scientific study of cooking has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food science concerning the physical and chemical transformations that occur during cooking.^[64]

Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as Hervé This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist, author), Robert Wolke (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking" (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, Ferran Adria, Heston Blumenthal, Pierre Gagnaire (chef).^[65]

Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named Maillard reactions.^[66]^[67]

Cooking food with heat depends on many factors: the specific heat of an object, thermal conductivity, and (perhaps most significantly) the temperature difference between the two objects. Thermal diffusivity is the combination of specific heat, conductivity, and density that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature.^[68]

Home-cooking and commercial cooking

File:GER — BY – Oberbayern — München — Stadtbezirk 1 — Altstadt — Sparkassenstr. 6 — EG (Haxnbauer · Küche) — 2005-05-07 — Mattes.jpg

A restaurant kitchen in Munich, Germany (Haxnbauer restaurant)

Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a communal fire, and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility.^[69] Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. Bakeries were among the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and in the past, often offered cooking for pots of food that customers provided as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" as well as "ready-to-cook" foods being prepared and cooked in factories, and home cooks using a mixture of scratch made, and factory-made foods together to make a meal. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods is inferior to that of home-made foods.^[70] Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium on a per calorie basis while providing more fiber, calcium, and iron.^[71] The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing chronic disease.^[72] Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.^[73]

"Home-cooking" may be associated with comfort food,^[74] and some commercially produced foods and restaurant meals are presented through advertising or packaging as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. This trend began in the 1920s and is attributed to people in urban areas of the U.S. wanting homestyle food, even though their schedules and smaller kitchens made cooking harder.^[75]

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↑ "USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6" (PDF). USDA. USDA. December 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
↑ Doll, R.; Peto, R. (1981). "The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 66 (6): 1191–1308. doi:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192. PMID 7017215.
↑ Willett WC (1995). "Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer". Environ Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl 8): 165–170. Bibcode:1995EnvHP.103S.165W. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165. PMC 1518978. PMID 8741778.
↑ ^58.0 ^58.1 Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. National Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-309-05391-4.
↑ ^59.0 ^59.1 "Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats". National Cancer Institute. 2018.
↑ Scanlan RA. (1983). "Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food". Cancer Res. 43 (5 Suppl): 2435s–2440s. PMID 6831466.
↑ "Can eating burnt foods cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 15 October 2021. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
↑ Prasad, Chandan; Davis, Kathleen E; Imrhan, Victorine; et al. (May 2017). "Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification". Am J Lifestyle Med. 13 (4): 384–404. doi:10.1177/1559827617708991. PMC 6600625. PMID 31285723.
↑ Uribarri, Jaime; Woodruff, Sandra; Goodman, Susan; et al. (June 2010). "Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet". J Am Diet Assoc. 110 (6): 911–16.e12. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018. PMC 3704564. PMID 20497781.
↑ Molecular Gastronomy Archived 19 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine from Encyclopedia Britannica
↑ Guler, Ozan (2019). The Harmony of Science and Food: Molecular Gastronomy. Strategic Researchers Academy Publishing. ISBN 978-605-69709-1-7.
↑ "Food-Info.net: Maillard reactions". www.food-info.net. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
↑ Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021
↑ Barham, Peter. The Science of Cooking. p. 39.
↑ Jackson, Cecile (2013). Men at Work: Labour, Maculinities, Development. New York: Routledge. p. 225.
↑ Lin, Biing-Hwan; Guthrie, Joanne. "Nutritional Quality of Food Prepared at Home and Away From Home, 1977–2008". www.ers.usda.gov. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
↑ Reicks, Marla; Trofholz, Amanda C.; Stang, Jamie S.; Laska, Melissa N. (1 August 2014). "Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 46 (4): 259–276. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001. ISSN 1878-2620. PMC 4063875. PMID 24703245.
↑ Soliah, Lu Ann Laurice; Walter, Janelle Marshall; Jones, Sheila Ann (1 March 2012). "Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating: What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 6 (2): 152–158. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1026.8612. doi:10.1177/1559827611426394. ISSN 1559-8276. S2CID 71797396.
↑ Chen, Rosalind Chia-Yu; Lee, Meei-Shyuan; Chang, Yu-Hung; Wahlqvist, Mark L. (1 July 2012). "Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly" (PDF). Public Health Nutrition. 15 (7): 1142–1149. doi:10.1017/S136898001200136X. ISSN 1475-2727. PMID 22578892. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
↑ Jones, Michael Owen; Long, Lucy M. (2017). Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-1086-1.
↑ Barbas, Samantha (Fall 2002). "Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant". Gastronomica. 2 (4): 43–52. doi:10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43. JSTOR 10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43.^{[permanent dead link]}

External links

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cookery" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–76.
Florence Nightingale (1861), Directions for Cooking by Troops, in Camp and Hospital

Template:Cooking Techniques Template:Cuisine Template:Meals wide Template:Prehistoric technology

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[4] Organ, Chris (22 August 2011). "Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo". PNAS. 108 (35): 14555–14559. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10814555O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107806108. PMC 3167533. PMID 21873223.

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[56] Doll, R.; Peto, R. (1981). "The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 66 (6): 1191–1308. doi:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192. PMID 7017215.

[57] Willett WC (1995). "Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer". Environ Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl 8): 165–170. Bibcode:1995EnvHP.103S.165W. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165. PMC 1518978. PMID 8741778.

[carcinogens_and_anticarcinogens-58] 58.0 ^58.1 Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. National Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-309-05391-4.

[amines-59] 59.0 ^59.1 "Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats". National Cancer Institute. 2018.

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[61] "Can eating burnt foods cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 15 October 2021. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.

[62] Prasad, Chandan; Davis, Kathleen E; Imrhan, Victorine; et al. (May 2017). "Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification". Am J Lifestyle Med. 13 (4): 384–404. doi:10.1177/1559827617708991. PMC 6600625. PMID 31285723.

[63] Uribarri, Jaime; Woodruff, Sandra; Goodman, Susan; et al. (June 2010). "Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet". J Am Diet Assoc. 110 (6): 911–16.e12. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018. PMC 3704564. PMID 20497781.

[64] Molecular Gastronomy Archived 19 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine from Encyclopedia Britannica

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[66] "Food-Info.net: Maillard reactions". www.food-info.net. Retrieved 29 March 2017.

[67] Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021

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[71] Reicks, Marla; Trofholz, Amanda C.; Stang, Jamie S.; Laska, Melissa N. (1 August 2014). "Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 46 (4): 259–276. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001. ISSN 1878-2620. PMC 4063875. PMID 24703245.

[72] Soliah, Lu Ann Laurice; Walter, Janelle Marshall; Jones, Sheila Ann (1 March 2012). "Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating: What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 6 (2): 152–158. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1026.8612. doi:10.1177/1559827611426394. ISSN 1559-8276. S2CID 71797396.

[73] Chen, Rosalind Chia-Yu; Lee, Meei-Shyuan; Chang, Yu-Hung; Wahlqvist, Mark L. (1 July 2012). "Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly" (PDF). Public Health Nutrition. 15 (7): 1142–1149. doi:10.1017/S136898001200136X. ISSN 1475-2727. PMID 22578892. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

[74] Jones, Michael Owen; Long, Lucy M. (2017). Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-1086-1.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Preparing food using heat}}
+{{hatnote group|
 {{About|the preparation of food specifically via heat|a general outline|Outline of food preparation|varied styles of international food|Cuisine}}
 {{Distinguish|Coking}}
-{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
+}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
 [[File:Agdz-rosino-05.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A man cooking in a [[restaurant]] kitchen, [[Morocco]]]]
-'''Cooking''', also known as '''cookery''' or professionally as the '''culinary arts''', is the art, [[science]] and craft of using [[heat]] to make [[food]] more [[palatable]], [[digestible]], [[nutritious]], or [[Food safety|safe]]. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open [[fire]], to using [[electric stove]]s, to [[baking]] in various types of [[oven]]s, to [[Boiling#In_cooking|boiling]]  and [[Blanching_(cooking)|blanching]] in [[water]], reflecting local conditions, techniques and traditions. Cooking is an aspect of all human societies and a [[cultural universal]].
+'''Cooking''', also known as '''cookery''', is the art, [[science]] and craft of using [[heat]] to make [[food]] more [[palatable]], [[digestible]], [[nutritious]], or [[Food safety|safe]]. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open [[fire]], to using [[electric stove]]s, to [[baking]] in various types of [[oven]]s, to [[Boiling#In cooking|boiling]] and [[Blanching (cooking)|blanching]] in [[water]], reflecting local conditions, techniques and traditions. Cooking is an aspect of all human societies and a [[cultural universal]].
-Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the [[Cook (profession)|cooks]]. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and [[chef]]s in [[restaurant]]s and other food establishments.
+Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the [[Cook (profession)|cooks]]. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and [[chef]]s in [[restaurant]]s and other food establishments. The term "[[culinary arts]]" usually refers to cooking that primarily focuses on the aesthetic presentation and taste of food.
-Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to [[human]]s. Archeological evidence of cooking fires from at least 300,000 years ago exists, but some estimate that humans started cooking up to 2 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325112804/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 March 2019|title=A Brief History of Cooking With Fire|last=Rupp|first=Rebecca|date=2015-09-02|website=National Geographic|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wrangham |first1=Richard |title=Catching Fire: How cooking made us human |date=2009}}</ref>
+Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to [[human]]s. Archaeological evidence of cooking fires dates to at least 300,000 years ago, but some estimate that humans started cooking as early as 2 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325112804/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 March 2019|title=A Brief History of Cooking With Fire|last=Rupp|first=Rebecca|date=2015-09-02|website=National Geographic|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wrangham |first1=Richard |title=Catching Fire: How cooking made us human |date=2009}}</ref>
-The expansion of [[agriculture]], [[commerce]], [[trade]], and [[transport]]ation between [[civilization]]s in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of [[pottery]] for holding and [[boiling]] of [[water]], expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced [[Scientific method|scientific]] techniques to food preparation to further enhance the [[Flavoring|flavor]] of the dish served.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Spin on Cooking |journal=Scientific American |volume=304 |issue=3 |pages=23 |author1=W. Wayt Gibbs |author2=Nathan Myhrvold |bibcode=2011SciAm.304c..23G |year=2011 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0311-23a |pmid = 21438483}}</ref>
+The expansion of [[agriculture]], [[commerce]], [[trade]], and [[transport]]ation between [[civilization]]s in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of [[pottery]] for holding and [[boiling]] of [[water]], expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced [[Scientific method|scientific]] techniques to food preparation to enhance further the [[Flavoring|flavor]] of the dish served.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Spin on Cooking |journal=Scientific American |volume=304 |issue=3 |pages=23 |author1=W. Wayt Gibbs |author2=Nathan Myhrvold |bibcode=2011SciAm.304c..23G |year=2011 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0311-23a |pmid = 21438483}}</ref>
 ==History==
+{{Confusing|section|reason=discussion of when cooking first arose should have appropriate qualifications about who made what claim based on what evidence, but some sentences are left unqualified|date=March 2026}}
 [[File:Cooking in Villages.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cookware and bakeware|Pot]]s being heated with a [[wood-burning]] fire in [[South India]]]]
-[[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic analysis]] suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1–2 million years ago.<ref name=PNAS>{{cite journal| title=Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo | first=Chris | last=Organ | journal= [[PNAS]] | date=22 August 2011 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107806108 | pmid=21873223 | pmc=3167533 | volume=108 | issue=35 | pages=14555–14559| bibcode=2011PNAS..10814555O | doi-access=free}}</ref> {{Nowrap|Re-analysis}} of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the [[Wonderwerk Cave]] in South Africa has provided evidence supporting [[control of fire by early humans]] 1 million years ago.<ref name=Pringle2012>{{citation |date=2 April 2012 |author=Pringle, Heather |title=Quest for Fire Began Earlier Than Thought |journal=ScienceNOW |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415203914/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |access-date=2012-04-04 }}</ref> In his seminal work ''[[Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human]]'', [[Richard Wrangham]] suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early ''[[Homo habilis]]'' regularly cooked food.<ref>Wrangham, R. and Conklin-Brittain, N., 2003. Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), pp. 35–46</ref><ref name="pollard">{{Cite book |title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart |last=Pollard |first=Elizabeth |publisher=Norton |year=2015|isbn=978-0-393-92207-3 |location=New York |pages=13}}</ref> However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, long after ''[[Homo erectus]]''.<ref name="Luke">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120402162548.htm|title=Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago|access-date=2013-10-27|last=Luke|first=Kim|quote=An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago}}</ref><ref name="discovermagazine.com">{{Cite web|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|title=Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire|website=DiscoverMagazine.com|access-date=8 November 2015|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227181202/http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{clarify|date=January 2023}} Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201022042/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 February 2014 | title=Oldest Known Hearth Found in Israel Cave | magazine=National Geographic | date=29 January 2014 | access-date=17 March 2014 | author=Smith, Roff}}</ref> in the form of ancient hearths, [[earth oven]]s, burnt animal bones, and [[flint]], are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food [[Timeline of human evolution#Homo|by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient human relative used fire, surprising discoveries suggest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/12/05/homo-naledi-fire-evolution/ |access-date=11 December 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zohar |first1=Irit |last2=Alperson-Afil |first2=Nira |last3=Goren-Inbar |first3=Naama |last4=Prévost |first4=Marion |last5=Tütken |first5=Thomas |last6=Sisma-Ventura |first6=Guy |last7=Hershkovitz |first7=Israel |last8=Najorka |first8=Jens |title=Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=December 2022 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=2016–2028 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z |pmid=36376603 |bibcode=2022NatEE...6.2016Z |s2cid=253522354 |language=en |issn=2397-334X |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365369121 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Anthropologist]]s think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when [[hearth]]s first appeared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Pennisi_99.html |title= Pennisi: Did Cooked Tubers Spur the Evolution of Big Brains? |publisher=Cogweb.ucla.edu |access-date= 7 November 2013}}</ref>
+[[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic analysis]] suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1–2 million years ago.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo | first=Chris | last=Organ | journal= [[PNAS]] | date=22 August 2011 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107806108 | pmid=21873223 | pmc=3167533 | volume=108 | issue=35 | pages=14555–14559| bibcode=2011PNAS..10814555O | doi-access=free}}</ref> {{Nowrap|Re-analysis}} of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the [[Wonderwerk Cave]] in South Africa has provided evidence supporting [[control of fire by early humans]] 1 million years ago.<ref>{{citation |date=2 April 2012 |author=Pringle, Heather |title=Quest for Fire Began Earlier Than Thought |journal=ScienceNOW |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415203914/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/quest-for-fire-began-earlier-tha.html?ref=em |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |access-date=2012-04-04 }}</ref> In his seminal work ''[[Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human]]'', [[Richard Wrangham]] suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early ''[[Homo habilis]]'' regularly cooked food.<ref>Wrangham, R. and Conklin-Brittain, N., 2003. Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), pp. 35–46</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart |last=Pollard |first=Elizabeth |publisher=Norton |year=2015|isbn=978-0-393-92207-3 |location=New York |pages=13}}</ref> However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, much later than the period species like ''[[Homo erectus]]'' are thought to have lived.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120402162548.htm|title=Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago|access-date=2013-10-27|last=Luke|first=Kim|quote=An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|title=Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire|website=DiscoverMagazine.com|access-date=8 November 2015|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227181202/http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Earliest fire-making dating back 400,000 years ago unearthed in Suffolk, England |publisher=Natural History Museum |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2025/december/earliest-fire-making-dating-back-400-000-years-unearthed-in-suffolk-england.html |access-date=2026-02-08 |website=www.nhm.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201022042/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140129-oldest-hearth-israel-cave-new-human-species-discovery-archaeology-science/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 February 2014 | title=Oldest Known Hearth Found in Israel Cave | magazine=National Geographic | date=29 January 2014 | access-date=17 March 2014 | author=Smith, Roff}}</ref> in the form of ancient hearths, [[earth oven]]s, burnt animal bones, and [[flint]], are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food [[Timeline of human evolution#Homo|by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient human relative used fire, surprising discoveries suggest |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/12/05/homo-naledi-fire-evolution/ |access-date=11 December 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zohar |first1=Irit |last2=Alperson-Afil |first2=Nira |last3=Goren-Inbar |first3=Naama |last4=Prévost |first4=Marion |last5=Tütken |first5=Thomas |last6=Sisma-Ventura |first6=Guy |last7=Hershkovitz |first7=Israel |last8=Najorka |first8=Jens |display-authors=3|title=Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=December 2022 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=2016–2028 |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z |pmid=36376603 |bibcode=2022NatEE...6.2016Z |s2cid=253522354 |language=en |issn=2397-334X |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365369121 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Anthropologist]]s think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when [[hearth]]s first appeared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Pennisi_99.html |title= Pennisi: Did Cooked Tubers Spur the Evolution of Big Brains? |publisher=Cogweb.ucla.edu |access-date= 7 November 2013}}</ref>
-Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.<ref name="SI-2016cook">{{cite web |author= |title=What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Hearths & Shelters |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/hearths-shelters |date=12 August 2016 |work=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>
+Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |author= |title=What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Hearths & Shelters |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/hearths-shelters |date=12 August 2016 |work=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref>
-Communication between the [[Old World]] and the [[New World]] in the [[Columbian Exchange]] influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as [[potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[maize]], [[bean]]s, [[bell pepper]], [[chili pepper]], [[vanilla]], [[pumpkin]], [[cassava]], [[avocado]], [[peanut]], [[pecan]], [[cashew]], [[pineapple]], [[blueberry]], [[Helianthus|sunflower]], [[chocolate]], [[gourd]]s, [[green bean]]s, and [[cucurbita|squash]], had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[rice]], [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[pea]]s, [[chickpea]]s, [[mustard plant|mustard]], and [[carrot]]s, similarly changed New World cooking.<ref name = "history">{{cite journal |last1= Nunn |first1= Nathan |last2= Qian |first2= Nancy |year= 2010 |title= The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal= [[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 163–188 |jstor= 25703506 |doi= 10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |citeseerx= 10.1.1.232.9242 }}</ref>
+Communication between the [[Old World]] and the [[New World]] in the [[Columbian Exchange]] influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as [[potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[maize]], [[bean]]s, [[bell pepper]], [[chili pepper]], [[vanilla]], [[pumpkin]], [[cassava]], [[avocado]], [[peanut]], [[pecan]], [[cashew]], [[pineapple]], [[blueberry]], [[Helianthus|sunflower]], [[chocolate]], [[gourd]]s, [[green bean]]s, and [[cucurbita|squash]], had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[rice]], [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[pea]]s, [[chickpea]]s, [[mustard plant|mustard]], and [[carrot]]s, similarly changed New World cooking.<ref name = "history">{{cite journal |last1= Nunn |first1= Nathan |last2= Qian |first2= Nancy |year= 2010 |title= The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal= [[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 163–188 |jstor= 25703506 |doi= 10.1257/jep.24.2.163  |doi-access= free|citeseerx= 10.1.1.232.9242 }}</ref>
-In the 17th and 18th centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the 19th-century "Age of [[Nationalism]]", [[cuisine]] became a defining symbol of national identity.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
+In the 17th and 18th centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the 19th-century "Age of [[Nationalism]]", [[cuisine]] became a defining symbol of national identity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-09 |title=Britishness revisited: food and the formation of British identities in the late eighteenth century |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |url=https://www.history.ac.uk/news-events/videos-podcasts/britishness-revisited-food-formation-british-identities-late-eighteenth-century |access-date=2026-02-08 |website=www.history.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>
-The [[Industrial Revolution]] brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nordion.com/documents/the-history-of-food-irradiation.pdf |title=The History of Food Irradiation |access-date=2012-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116012256/http://www.nordion.com/documents/The-History-of-Food-Irradiation.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2013 }}</ref> In the 1920s, [[frozen food|freezing methods]], [[cafeteria]]s, and [[fast food restaurant]]s emerged.
+Ilaria Porciani notes that the consequences of industrial food manufacturing, such as McDonald's and other fast-food places, created a desire for authentic cuisine. She argues that food becomes entangled with nostalgia and is imagined in terms of authenticity and tradition, thereby representing continuity with past generations. In this way, food undergoes heritagization. In the 19th and 20th centuries, food became part of a larger process of defining national identity, which can be seen as an informal 'contract' between those who assign heritage status and the people. National intellectuals and folklorists shaped this process by researching national traditions and fostering a sense of national unity. Governments, public institutions, cooks, and gourmets also participated in this informal contract of building a culinary identity for the nation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porciani |first=Ilaria |title=Food Heritage and Nationalism in Europe |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |edition=1st |location=London |pages=3–5}}</ref>
+The [[Industrial Revolution]] brought mass production, mass marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nordion.com/documents/the-history-of-food-irradiation.pdf |title=The History of Food Irradiation |access-date=2012-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116012256/http://www.nordion.com/documents/The-History-of-Food-Irradiation.pdf |archive-date=16 November 2013 }}</ref> In the 1920s, [[frozen food|freezing methods]], [[cafeteria]]s, and [[fast food restaurant]]s emerged.
 ==Ingredients==
-Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living [[organism]]s. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and [[spice]]s come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of [[fungi]]. Cooks also use [[water]] and [[mineral]]s such as [[salt]]. Cooks can also use [[wine]] or [[Distilled beverage|spirits]].
+Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living [[organism]]s. Vegetables, fruits, grains, and nuts, as well as [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of [[fungi]]. Cooks also use [[water]] and [[mineral]]s such as [[salt]]. Cooks can also use [[wine]] or [[Distilled beverage|spirits]].
-Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called ''[[Protein (nutrient)|proteins]]'', ''[[carbohydrate]]s'' and ''[[fat]]s''. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules.
+Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called ''[[Protein (nutrient)|proteins]]'', ''[[carbohydrate]]s'' and ''[[fat]]s''. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves manipulating the chemical properties of these molecules.
 ===Carbohydrates===
@@ Line 36: / Line 40: @@
 Carbohydrates include the common sugar, [[sucrose]] (table sugar), a [[disaccharide]], and such simple sugars as [[glucose]] (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and [[fructose]] (from fruit), and [[starch]]es from sources such as cereal flour, rice, [[arrowroot]] and potato.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002469.htm|title=Carbohydrates: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|website=medlineplus.gov|language=en|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref>
-The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. [[Polysaccharide|Long-chain sugars]] such as [[starch]] tend to break down into more digestible [[Monosaccharide|simpler sugars]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Öste|first=Rickard E.|title=Nutritional and Toxicological Consequences of Food Processing|chapter=Digestibility of Processed Food Protein|date=1991|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=289|pages=371–388|place=Boston, MA|publisher=Springer US|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|isbn=978-1-4899-2628-9|access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref> If the sugars are heated so that all water of [[crystallisation]] is driven off, [[caramelization]] starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of [[carbon]], and other breakdown products producing [[caramel]]. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins causes the [[Maillard reaction]], a basic flavor-enhancing technique.
+The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. [[Polysaccharide|Long-chain sugars]] such as [[starch]] tend to break down into more digestible [[Monosaccharide|simpler sugars]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Öste|first=Rickard E.|title=Nutritional and Toxicological Consequences of Food Processing|chapter=Digestibility of Processed Food Protein|date=1991|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology|volume=289|pages=371–388|place=Boston, MA|publisher=Springer US|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27|isbn=978-1-4899-2628-9|access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref> If the sugars are heated so that all water of [[crystallisation]] is driven off, [[caramelization]] starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of [[carbon]], and other breakdown products producing [[caramel]]. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins causes the [[Maillard reaction]], a basic flavor-enhancing technique.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-15 |title=Carbohydrates: caramelisation |url=https://www.ifst.org/lovefoodlovescience/resources/carbohydrates-caramelisation |access-date=2026-02-08 |website=Institute of Food Science and Technology |language=en}}</ref>
-An [[emulsion]] of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In [[European cuisine|European]] cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a [[roux]] is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|title=What is...roux?|website=MICHELIN Guide|language=en|access-date=2019-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204231411/https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or [[corn starch]] and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous [[saccharide]]s during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of [[sauce]]s. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.
+An [[emulsion]] of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, thicken the dish being cooked. In [[European cuisine|European]] cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a [[roux]] is used to thicken liquids, such as stews and sauces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|title=What is...roux?|website=MICHELIN Guide|language=en|access-date=2019-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204231411/https://guide.michelin.com/sg/dining-in/what-is-roux-sg/news|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or [[corn starch]] and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous [[Saccharide (disambiguation)|saccharide]]s during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of [[sauce]]s. This thickening will, however, break down under additional heat.
 ===Fats===
 {{Main|Fat|Cooking oil}}
 [[File:Frying doughnuts.jpg|thumb|[[Doughnut]]s frying in oil]]
-Types of fat include [[vegetable oil]]s, animal products such as butter and [[lard]], as well as fats from grains, including [[maize]] and [[flax]] oils. Fats are used in a number of ways in cooking and baking. To prepare [[stir fry|stir fries]], [[grilled cheese]] or [[pancake]]s, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as [[cookies]], cakes and pies. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep frying or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans and create a desirable texture.
+Types of fat include [[vegetable oil]]s, animal products such as butter and [[lard]], as well as fats from grains, including [[maize]] and [[flax]] oils. Fats are used in many ways in cooking and baking. To prepare [[stir fry|stir-fries]], [[grilled cheese]], or [[pancake]]s, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as [[cookies]], cakes, and pies. Fats can reach temperatures above the boiling point of water and are often used to transfer high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep-frying, or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans, and create a desirable texture.
-Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], along with [[carbohydrate]]s and [[protein]]s,<ref name="webster2">Entry for [[mwod:fat|"fat"]] {{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |title=Fat &#124; Definition of Fat by Merriam-Webster |access-date=8 December 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725084302/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |url-status=bot: unknown }} in the online Merriam-Webster disctionary, sense 3.2. Accessed on 2020-08-09</ref><ref name="mckin20142">{{Cite web |title=Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat |url=http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921024358/http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=20 September 2014 |website=McKinley Health Center |publisher=[[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]}}</ref> and the main components of common food products like [[milk]], [[butter]], [[tallow]], [[lard]], [[salt pork]], and [[cooking oil]]s. They are a major and dense source of [[food energy]] for many animals and play important structural and [[metabolic]] functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and [[thermal insulation]].<ref name="khan00002">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Energy Storage |url=http://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/introduction-to-energy-storage |publisher=[[Khan Academy]]}}</ref> The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few [[essential fatty acid]]s that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[aroma]] ingredients and [[vitamin]]s that are [[Lipophilicity|not water-soluble]].<ref name="sand20162">Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1–20 of ''Functional Dietary Lipids''. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. {{isbn|978-1-78242-247-1}}{{doi|10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6}}</ref>
+Fats are one of the three main [[macronutrient]] groups in human [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], along with [[carbohydrate]]s and [[protein]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |title=Fat &#124; Definition of Fat by Merriam-Webster |access-date=8 December 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725084302/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fat |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat |url=http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921024358/http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=20 September 2014 |website=McKinley Health Center |publisher=[[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]]}}</ref> and the main components of common food products like [[milk]], [[butter]], [[tallow]], [[lard]], [[salt pork]], and [[cooking oil]]s. They are a major and dense source of [[food energy]] for many animals and play important structural and [[metabolic]] functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and [[thermal insulation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to Energy Storage |url=http://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/introduction-to-energy-storage |publisher=[[Khan Academy]]}}</ref> The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few [[essential fatty acid]]s that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[aroma]] ingredients and [[vitamin]]s that are [[Lipophilicity|not water-soluble]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas A. B. Sanders |year=2016 |title=The Role of Fats in Human Diet |pages=1–20 |chapter=Functional Dietary Lipids |publisher=Woodhead/Elsevier |isbn=978-1-78242-247-1 |doi=10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6}}</ref>
 ===Proteins===
 {{Main|Protein (nutrient)|Protein denaturation}}
-Edible animal material, including [[muscle]], [[offal]], milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]] and [[egg white]]s, contains substantial amounts of protein.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Reynolds |first1=Daman |last2=Caminiti |first2=Jeff |last3=Edmundson |first3=Scott |last4=Gao |first4=Song |last5=Wick |first5=Macdonald |last6=Huesemann |first6=Michael |date=2022-07-12 |title=Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=855–861 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqac190 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=35820048 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="nih1">{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Protein in diet |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002467.htm |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health}}</ref><ref name=":01">{{Cite web |title=High-Protein Alternatives to Meat |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/high-protein-alternatives-to-meat |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=Pocket |language=en}}</ref> Almost all vegetable matter (in particular [[legume]]s and [[seed]]s) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=cooking - Fun_with_Words - 博客园 |url=https://www.cnblogs.com/funwithwords/p/16615263.html |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.cnblogs.com |language=zh-cn}}</ref> Mushrooms have high protein content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Meiqi |last2=Zhao |first2=Ruilin |date=2023-03-01 |title=A review on nutritional advantages of edible mushrooms and its industrialization development situation in protein meat analogues |journal=Journal of Future Foods |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.jfutfo.2022.09.001 |issn=2772-5669|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahi |first1=Deepak K. |last2=Malik |first2=Deepika |date=2016 |title=Diversity of Mushrooms and Their Metabolites of Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Significance |url=https://www.academia.edu/61123496 |journal=Journal of Mycology |volume=2016 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1155/2016/7654123 |doi-access=free |issn=2356-7481}}</ref> Any of these may be sources of [[essential amino acid]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baofu |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7QwBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Any+of+these+may+be+sources+of+essential+amino+acids%22&pg=PA6 |title=The Future of Post-Human Culinary Art: Towards a New Theory of Ingredients and Techniques |date=2013-01-03 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-4484-0 |language=en}}</ref> When [[protein]]s are heated they become [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more [[friable]] – meat becomes ''cooked'' and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of [[albumen]] in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component in baking cakes, and also underpins many desserts based on [[meringue]].
+Edible animal material, including [[muscle]], [[offal]], milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]] and [[egg white]]s, contains substantial amounts of protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reynolds |first1=Daman |last2=Caminiti |first2=Jeff |last3=Edmundson |first3=Scott |last4=Gao |first4=Song |last5=Wick |first5=Macdonald |last6=Huesemann |first6=Michael |display-authors=3|date=2022-07-12 |title=Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=855–861 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqac190 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=35820048 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=Protein in diet |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002467.htm |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=High-Protein Alternatives to Meat |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/high-protein-alternatives-to-meat |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=Pocket |date=10 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Almost all vegetable matter (in particular [[legume]]s and [[seed]]s) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=cooking - Fun_with_Words - 博客园 |url=https://www.cnblogs.com/funwithwords/p/16615263.html |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.cnblogs.com |language=zh-cn}}</ref> Mushrooms have high protein content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Meiqi |last2=Zhao |first2=Ruilin |date=2023-03-01 |title=A review on nutritional advantages of edible mushrooms and its industrialization development situation in protein meat analogues |journal=Journal of Future Foods |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.jfutfo.2022.09.001 |issn=2772-5669|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahi |first1=Deepak K. |last2=Malik |first2=Deepika |date=2016 |title=Diversity of Mushrooms and Their Metabolites of Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Significance |url=https://www.academia.edu/61123496 |journal=Journal of Mycology |volume=2016 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1155/2016/7654123 |doi-access=free |issn=2356-7481}}</ref> Any of these may be sources of [[essential amino acid]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baofu |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7QwBwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Any+of+these+may+be+sources+of+essential+amino+acids%22&pg=PA6 |title=The Future of Post-Human Culinary Art: Towards a New Theory of Ingredients and Techniques |date=2013-01-03 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-4484-0 |language=en}}</ref> When [[protein]]s are heated they become [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the material to become softer or more [[friable]] – meat becomes ''cooked'' and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of [[albumen]] in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid yet flexible matrix from egg white is an important component in baking cakes and underpins many desserts based on [[meringue]].
 [[File:Cuisson des pates.jpg|thumb|Water is often used to cook foods such as [[noodle]]s.]]
@@ Line 55: / Line 59: @@
 ===Water===
 {{Main|Water}}
-Cooking often involves water, and water-based liquids. These can be added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (this is typically done with water, [[stock (food)|stock]] or wine). Alternatively, the foods themselves can release water. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other [[recipe]]s. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in [[steaming]], [[simmering]], [[boiling]], [[braising]] and [[blanching (cooking)|blanching]]. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased [[evaporation]], which [[concentrate]]s the remaining [[Flavoring|flavor]] and ingredients; this is a critical component of both [[stewing]] and sauce making.
+Cooking often involves water and water-based liquids. These can be added to immerse the ingredients being cooked (typically water, [[stock (food)|stock]], or wine). Alternatively, the foods themselves can release water. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other [[recipe]]s. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in [[steaming]], [[simmering]], [[Boiling#In cooking|boiling]], [[braising]], and [[blanching (cooking)|blanching]]. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased [[evaporation]], which [[concentrate]]s the remaining [[Flavoring|flavor]] and ingredients; this is a critical component of both [[stewing]] and sauce making.
 ===Vitamins and minerals===
 [[File:November 15, 2012, The Right Cut (8223639251).jpg|thumb|Vegetables contain important vitamins and minerals.]]
 {{Main|Vitamin|Mineral (nutrient)}}
-Vitamins and minerals are required for normal [[metabolism]]; and what the body cannot manufacture itself must come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables ([[Vitamin C]]), carrots, [[liver (food)|liver]] ([[Vitamin A]]), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil ([[Vitamin D]]) and fresh green vegetables ([[Vitamin K]]). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], [[sodium chloride]] and [[sulfur]]; and in very small quantities copper, [[zinc]] and [[selenium]]. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909071119/http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|url-status=dead |title=Loss of nutrients when vegetables are cooked|archivedate=9 September 2009}}</ref> in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/359175.stm |work=BBC News | title=Cooking vegetables 'improves benefits' | date=2 June 1999 | access-date=30 April 2010}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2013}} The [[bioavailability]] of some vitamins such as [[thiamin]], [[vitamin B6]], [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[folate]], and [[carotenoid]]s are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hotz | first1=Christine | last2=Gibson | first2=Rosalind S. | year=2007 | title=Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=137 | issue=4| pages=1097–1100 | doi=10.1093/jn/137.4.1097 | pmid=17374686 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017-10-12 |title=Effect of different cooking methods on the content of vitamins and true retention in selected vegetables |pmc=6049644 |last1=Lee |first1=S. |last2=Choi |first2=Y. |last3=Jeong |first3=H. S. |last4=Lee |first4=J. |last5=Sung |first5=J. |journal=Food Science and Biotechnology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=333–342 |doi=10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1 |pmid=30263756 }}</ref>
+Vitamins and minerals are required for normal [[metabolism]]; and what the body cannot manufacture itself must come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables ([[Vitamin C]]), carrots, [[liver (food)|liver]] ([[Vitamin A]]), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil ([[Vitamin D]]) and fresh green vegetables ([[Vitamin K]]). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities, including iron, [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], [[sodium chloride]], and [[sulfur]]; and in very small quantities, copper, [[zinc]], and [[selenium]]. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909071119/http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/44825.aspx|url-status=dead |title=Loss of nutrients when vegetables are cooked|archivedate=9 September 2009}}</ref> in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be destroyed by protracted cooking.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news| url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/359175.stm |work=BBC News | title=Cooking vegetables 'improves benefits' | date=2 June 1999 | access-date=30 April 2010}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=February 2013}} The [[Bioavailability (medicine)|bioavailability]] of some vitamins such as [[thiamin]], [[vitamin B6]], [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]], [[folate]], and [[carotenoid]]s are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hotz | first1=Christine | last2=Gibson | first2=Rosalind S. | year=2007 | title=Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets | journal=The Journal of Nutrition | volume=137 | issue=4| pages=1097–1100 | doi=10.1093/jn/137.4.1097 | pmid=17374686 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017-10-12 |title=Effect of different cooking methods on the content of vitamins and true retention in selected vegetables |pmc=6049644 |last1=Lee |first1=S. |last2=Choi |first2=Y. |last3=Jeong |first3=H. S. |last4=Lee |first4=J. |last5=Sung |first5=J. |display-authors=3|journal=Food Science and Biotechnology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=333–342 |doi=10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1 |pmid=30263756 }}</ref>
 ==Methods==
 {{See also|List of cooking techniques}}
-{{unreferenced section|date=March 2017}}
+There are many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming, and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher= [[Health Canada]] |date=2024-02-09 |title=Cooking methods |url=https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/activities/9-11/cooking-methods/ |access-date=2026-02-08 |website=Canada Food Guide}}</ref> Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the result. Some major hot cooking techniques include:
-There are many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the result. Some major hot cooking techniques include:
 [[File:Sautee onions and peppers.jpg|thumb|right|A cook sautees onions and [[bell pepper|green pepper]]s in a [[frying pan|skillet]].]]
@@ Line 72: / Line 75: @@
 :[[Roasting]] – [[Barbecuing]] – [[Grilling]]/[[Broiling]] – [[Rotisserie]] – [[Searing]]
 ;Baking
-:[[Baking]] – [[Blind Baking|Baking Blind]]
+:[[Baking]] – [[Blind-baking]]
 ;Boiling
-:[[Boiling in cooking|Boiling]] – [[Blanching (cooking)|Blanching]] – [[Braising]] – [[Coddling]] – [[Double steaming]] – [[Infusion]] – [[Poaching (cooking)|Poaching]] – [[Pressure cooking]] – [[Simmering]] – [[Smothering (food)|Smothering]] – [[Steaming]] – [[Steeping]] – [[Stewing]] – [[Stone boiling]] –  [[Vacuum flask cooking]]
+:[[Boiling in cooking|Boiling]] – [[Blanching (cooking)|Blanching]] – [[Braising]] – [[Coddling]] – [[Double steaming]] – [[Infusion]] – [[Poaching (cooking)|Poaching]] – [[Pressure cooking]] – [[Simmering]] – [[Smothering (food)|Smothering]] – [[Steaming]] – [[Steeping]] – [[Stewing]] – [[Stone boiling]] – [[Vacuum flask cooking]]
 ;Frying
-:[[Frying|Fry]] – [[Air fryer|Air frying]] — [[Deep frying]] – [[Gentle frying]] – [[Hot salt frying]] – [[Hot sand frying]] – [[Pan frying]] – [[Pressure frying]] – [[Sautéing]]  – [[Shallow frying]] – [[Stir frying]] – [[Vacuum fryer|Vacuum frying]]
+:[[Frying]] – [[Air fryer|Air frying]] — [[Deep frying]] – Gentle frying – [[Hot salt frying]] – [[Hot sand frying]] – [[Pan frying]] – [[Pressure frying]] – [[Sautéing]] – [[Shallow frying]] – [[Stir frying]] – [[Vacuum fryer|Vacuum frying]]
 ;Steaming
-:[[Steaming]] works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporise into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food.  By many it is considered a healthy form of cooking, holding nutrients within the vegetable or meat being cooked.
+:[[Steaming]] works by continuously boiling water, which vaporizes into steam; the steam then transfers heat to the food, cooking it. Many consider it a healthy form of cooking, as it helps retain nutrients in the vegetables or meat being cooked.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Steaming and poaching: Healthier ways to cook |publisher=UCI Health |url=https://www.ucihealth.org/blog/2025/01/steaming-and-poaching-recipes |access-date=2026-02-08 |website=www.ucihealth.org}}</ref>
-: [[En papillote]] – The food is put into a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam the food.
+: [[En papillote]] – The food is placed in a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam it.
 ;Smoking
 :[[Smoking (cooking)|Smoking]] is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.
 ; Sous vide
-:[[Sous vide]]
+:[[Sous vide]] is a method of cooking where the food is placed into a plastic pouch or glass jar which is then sealed (often in a [[vacuum]]) and cooked in a water bath at precise temperatures for longer than normal cooking times, sometimes up to days.
 ==Health and safety==
@@ Line 89: / Line 92: @@
 === Indoor air pollution ===
 {{Main|Household air pollution}}
-As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook using open fires or inefficient stoves using [[kerosene]], [[biomass]], and [[coal]] as fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household air pollution |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Polluting cooking methods, used by billions of people around the world, remain a threat to women's health |url=https://www.equaltimes.org/polluting-cooking-methods-used-by |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=Equal Times |language=en}}</ref> These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household [[air pollution]], causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from [[pneumonia]], 27% from [[ischaemic heart disease]], 20% from [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], 18% from [[stroke]], and 8% from [[lung cancer]]. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.<ref name="who-airpollution">{{cite web |title=Household air pollution and health |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=12 April 2022 |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>
+As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook with open fires or inefficient stoves that use [[kerosene]], [[biomass]], and [[coal]] as fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household air pollution |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Polluting cooking methods, used by billions of people around the world, remain a threat to women's health |url=https://www.equaltimes.org/polluting-cooking-methods-used-by |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=Equal Times |language=en}}</ref> These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household [[air pollution]], causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from [[pneumonia]], 27% from [[ischaemic heart disease]], 20% from [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], 18% from [[stroke]], and 8% from [[lung cancer]]. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Household air pollution and health |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=12 April 2022 |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>
 === Security while cooking ===
@@ Line 97: / Line 101: @@
 * Burns or fires
-To prevent those injuries there are protections such as cooking clothing, anti-slip shoes, fire extinguisher and more.
+To prevent those injuries, safety measures include heat-resistant clothing, anti-slip shoes, a fire extinguisher, and more.
 ===Food safety===
 {{Main|Food safety}}
-Cooking can prevent many [[foodborne illness]]es that would otherwise occur if raw food is consumed. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as [[bacteria]] and viruses, as well as various parasites such as [[tapeworm]]s and ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''. Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|pathogenic strains]] of ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Salmonella typhimurium]]'' and ''[[Campylobacter]]'', viruses such as [[norovirus]]es, and [[protozoa]] such as ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]''. Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done [[Doneness|rare]], and unboiled water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/food-poisoning?dkrd=/health-information/digestive-diseases/foodborne-illnesses|title= Foodborne Illnesses |work=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases }}</ref>
-The [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some [[food spoilage]] bacteria such as ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' or ''[[Bacillus cereus]]'' can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then [[germination|germinate]] and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922234817/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Safe Food Australia – A Guide to the Food Safety Standards|archivedate=22 September 2010}}</ref>
+Cooking can prevent many [[foodborne illness]]es that would otherwise occur if raw food is consumed. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as [[bacteria]] and viruses, as well as various parasites such as [[tapeworm]]s and ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''. Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|pathogenic strains]] of ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Salmonella typhimurium]]'' and ''[[Campylobacter]]'', viruses such as [[norovirus]]es, and [[protozoa]] such as ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]''. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done [[Doneness|rare]], and unboiled water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/food-poisoning?dkrd=/health-information/digestive-diseases/foodborne-illnesses|title= Foodborne Illnesses |work=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases }}</ref>
-Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw [[cereal]] grains are hard to digest, while [[kidney bean]]s are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of [[phytohaemagglutinin]], which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at {{convert|100|C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ |title=News, Notes, And Epidemiology |journal=Br Med J |volume=281 |issue=6234 |pages=236–237 |date=July 1980 |pmid=7407532 |doi=10.1136/bmj.281.6234.235 |pmc=1713670}}</ref>
+The [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and the technique used. Some [[food spoilage]] bacteria, such as ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' or ''[[Bacillus cereus]]'', can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then [[germination|germinate]] and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922234817/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Safe Food Australia – A Guide to the Food Safety Standards|archivedate=22 September 2010}}</ref>
+Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods that are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw [[cereal]] grains are hard to digest, while [[kidney bean]]s are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of [[phytohaemagglutinin]], which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at {{convert|100|C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ |title=News, Notes, And Epidemiology |journal=Br Med J |volume=281 |issue=6234 |pages=236–237 |date=July 1980 |pmid=7407532 |doi=10.1136/bmj.281.6234.235 |pmc=1713670}}</ref>
 Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "[[Danger zone (food safety)|Danger zone]]" temperature range from {{convert|40|to|140|F|C}}; therefore, food should not be stored in this temperature range. [[Washing of hands]] and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/d468f3d9-fb6c-4109-88d7-2931f7132098/Barbecue_Food_Safety.pdf?MOD=AJPERES|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501194525/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/d468f3d9-fb6c-4109-88d7-2931f7132098/Barbecue_Food_Safety.pdf?MOD=AJPERES|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 May 2014|title=Grilling and Food Safety|publisher =USDA|access-date=30 January 2019|date=June 2017}}</ref> are good practices in food preparation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Factsheets/Basics_for_Handling_Food_Safely/index.asp |title=Basics for Handling Food Safely |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928210429/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/factsheets/Basics_for_Handling_Food_Safely/index.asp |archive-date=28 September 2004 }}</ref> Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/health/foodsafety/az1076.html|title=Cutting Boards (Plastic Versus Wood)|publisher=Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, the University of Arizona|work=Food Safety, Preparation and Storage Tips|year=1998|access-date=21 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613074257/http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/health/foodsafety/az1076.html |archive-date=13 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="ReluctantGourmet">{{cite web|url=http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/cutting_board.htm|title=Cutting Boards – wood or plastic?|work=ReluctantGourmet.com|access-date=21 June 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060702142255/http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/cutting_board.htm|archive-date=2 July 2006}}</ref> Washing and [[disinfecting]] cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.<ref name="ReluctantGourmet"/>
@@ Line 113: / Line 118: @@
 [[File:Rawtomatopasta1.jpg|thumb|A raw [[tomato sauce]] with [[olive]]s, [[celery]], [[spinach]] and [[walnut]]s on [[zucchini]] noodles.]]
-Proponents of [[raw foodism]] argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing [[vitamin C]], the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|title=Potato, nutrition and diet – International Year of the Potato 2008|access-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105095547/http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|archive-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, research has shown that in the specific case of [[carotenoid]]s a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/>
+Proponents of [[raw foodism]] argue that cooking food increases the risk of certain detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that when cooking vegetables and fruits rich in [[vitamin C]], the vitamin leaches into the cooking water and is degraded by oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce vitamin C content, especially in potatoes, where most of the vitamin C is in the skin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|title=Potato, nutrition and diet – International Year of the Potato 2008|access-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105095547/http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|archive-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, research has shown that in the specific case of [[carotenoid]]s, a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/>
-[[Sulforaphane]], a [[glucosinolate]] breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as [[broccoli]], and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Jin | first1=Y. | last2=Wang | first2=M. | last3=Rosen | first3=R. T. | last4=Ho | first4=C. T. | title=Thermal Degradation of Sulforaphane in Aqueous Solution | doi=10.1021/jf990082e | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume=47 | issue=8 | pages=3121–3123 | year=1999 | pmid= 10552618| bibcode=1999JAFC...47.3121J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bongoni|first1=R|last2=Verkerk|first2=R|last3=Steenbekkers|first3=B|last4=Dekker| last5=Stieger|first4=M|title= Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance.|journal= Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|doi=10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2|volume=69|issue=3|pages=228–234|pmid=24853375|year=2014|s2cid=35228794}}</ref> Although there has been some basic research on how [[sulforaphane]] might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.
+[[Sulforaphane]], a [[glucosinolate]] breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as [[broccoli]], and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Jin | first1=Y. | last2=Wang | first2=M. | last3=Rosen | first3=R. T. | last4=Ho | first4=C. T. | title=Thermal Degradation of Sulforaphane in Aqueous Solution | doi=10.1021/jf990082e | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume=47 | issue=8 | pages=3121–3123 | year=1999 | pmid= 10552618| bibcode=1999JAFC...47.3121J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bongoni|first1=R|last2=Verkerk|first2=R|last3=Steenbekkers|first3=B|last4=Dekker| last5=Stieger|first4=M|title= Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance.|journal= Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|doi=10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2|volume=69|issue=3|pages=228–234|pmid=24853375|year=2014|bibcode=2014PFHN...69..228B|s2cid=35228794}}</ref> Although there has been some basic research on how [[sulforaphane]] might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.
 The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] has studied retention data for 16 vitamins, 8 minerals, and alcohol for approximately 290 foods across various cooking methods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Data/retn/retn06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400525/Data/retn/retn06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6|date=Dec 2007|website=USDA|publisher=USDA.}}</ref>
@@ Line 121: / Line 126: @@
 ===Carcinogens and AGEs===
 [[File:BBQ Food.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chicken (food)|Chicken]], [[pork]] and [[bacon]]-wrapped [[Maize|corn]] cooking in a [[barbecue]] smoker. Studies show that barbecuing and smoking generate carcinogens.]]
-In a human epidemiological analysis by [[Richard Doll]] and [[Richard Peto]] in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers.<ref>{{Cite journal
+In a human epidemiological analysis by [[Richard Doll]] and [[Richard Peto]] in 1981, diet was estimated to account for a large proportion of cancers.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1=Doll | first1=R.| last2=Peto | first2=R.| title=The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute| volume =66| issue=6| pages=1191–1308| year =1981| pmid =7017215 | doi=10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192}}</ref> Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer |author=Willett WC |journal=Environ Health Perspect |year= 1995 |issue=Suppl 8 |pages=165–170 |pmid=8741778 |pmc=1518978 |doi=10.1289/ehp.95103s8165 |volume=103 |bibcode=1995EnvHP.103S.165W }}</ref> Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens">{{cite book |title=Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/carcinogensantic0000nati |url-access=registration |publisher=National Academy Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-05391-4 }}</ref>
-| last1=Doll | first1=R.
-| last2=Peto | first2=R.
-| title=The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today
-| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute
-| volume =66
-| issue=6
-| pages=1191–1308
-| year =1981
-| pmid =7017215
- | doi=10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192
-}}</ref> Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer |author=Willett WC |journal=Environ Health Perspect |year= 1995 |issue=Suppl 8 |pages=165–170 |pmid=8741778 |pmc=1518978 |doi=10.1289/ehp.95103s8165 |volume=103 |bibcode=1995EnvHP.103S.165W }}</ref> Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens">{{cite book |title=Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/carcinogensantic0000nati |url-access=registration |publisher=National Academy Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-05391-4 }}</ref>
-Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the [[National Cancer Institute]] found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref name=amines>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] |year=2018 }}</ref> While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, [[microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.<ref name=amines/> [[Nitrosamine]]s are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. [[Vitamin C|Ascorbate]], which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens"/><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Cancer Res. |year=1983 |volume=43 |issue=5 Suppl|pages=2435s–2440s |title=Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food |author=Scanlan RA. |pmid= 6831466 }}</ref>
+Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the [[National Cancer Institute]] found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one-third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref name=amines>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] |year=2018 }}</ref> While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, [[microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.<ref name=amines/> [[Nitrosamine]]s are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon is carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. [[Vitamin C|Ascorbate]], which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens"/><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Cancer Res. |year=1983 |volume=43 |issue=5 Suppl|pages=2435s–2440s |title=Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food |author=Scanlan RA. |pmid= 6831466 }}</ref>
-Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of [[acrylamide]]. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109155615/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+Baking, grilling, or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of [[acrylamide]]. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has, however, found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109155615/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-Cooking food at high temperature may create [[advanced glycation end-product]]s (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in a number of diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in ageing.  AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via [[Maillard reaction]]. These compounds impart colors, tastes and smells that are specific to these food, but may also be deleterious to health.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Am J Lifestyle Med|date= May 2017 |volume=13|issue=4|pages=384–404| doi= 10.1177/1559827617708991|title=Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification |first1=Chandan |last1=Prasad |first2= Kathleen E |last2=Davis|first3= Victorine |last3=Imrhan |first4= Shanil|last4= Juma |first5= Parakat |last5=Vijayagopal |pmid= 31285723 |pmc= 6600625 }}</ref> Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or moist heat, reducing the cooking times and temperatures, as well as by first marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Am Diet Assoc|date= June 2010 |volume=110|issue=6|pages=911–16.e12| doi= 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018|title=Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet|first1=Jaime |last1=Uribarri |first2= Sandra |last2=Woodruff|first3= Susan|last3= Goodman|first4= Weijing |last4=Cai|first5= Xue |last5=Chen|first6= Renata |last6=Pyzik|first7= Angie |last7=Yong|first8= Gary E |last8=Striker|first9= Helen|last9= Vlassara|pmid= 20497781 |pmc= 3704564 }}</ref>
+Cooking food at high temperatures may create [[advanced glycation end-product]]s (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in several diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in aging. AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via [[Maillard reaction]]. These compounds impart colors, tastes, and smells specific to these foods but may also be deleterious to health.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Am J Lifestyle Med|date= May 2017 |volume=13|issue=4|pages=384–404| doi= 10.1177/1559827617708991|title=Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification |first1=Chandan |last1=Prasad |first2= Kathleen E |last2=Davis|first3= Victorine |last3=Imrhan |first4= Shanil|last4= Juma |first5= Parakat |last5=Vijayagopal |display-authors=3 |pmid= 31285723 |pmc= 6600625 }}</ref> Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or other moist heat, by reducing cooking times and temperatures, and by marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar beforehand.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Am Diet Assoc|date= June 2010 |volume=110|issue=6|pages=911–16.e12| doi= 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018|title=Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet|first1=Jaime |last1=Uribarri |first2= Sandra |last2=Woodruff|first3= Susan|last3= Goodman|first4= Weijing |last4=Cai|first5= Xue |last5=Chen|first6= Renata |last6=Pyzik|first7= Angie |last7=Yong|first8= Gary E |last8=Striker|first9= Helen|last9= Vlassara |display-authors=3|pmid= 20497781 |pmc= 3704564 }}</ref>
 ==Scientific aspects==
 {{main|Molecular gastronomy}}
 The scientific study of cooking has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of [[food science]] concerning the physical and chemical transformations that occur during cooking.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/molecular-gastronomy#:~:text=Molecular%20gastronomy%2C%20the%20scientific%20discipline,new%20dishes%20and%20culinary%20techniques. Molecular Gastronomy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019161107/https://www.britannica.com/topic/molecular-gastronomy#:~:text=Molecular%20gastronomy%2C%20the%20scientific%20discipline,new%20dishes%20and%20culinary%20techniques. |date=19 October 2021 }} from ''Encyclopedia Britannica''</ref>
-Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as [[Hervé This]] (chemist), [[Nicholas Kurti]] (physicist), [[Peter Barham]] (physicist), [[Harold McGee]] (author), [[Shirley Corriher]] (biochemist, author),  [[Robert Wolke]] (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking" (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, [[Ferran Adria]], [[Heston Blumenthal]], [[Pierre Gagnaire]] (chef).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guler|first=Ozan|title=The Harmony of Science and Food:Molecular Gastronomy|publisher=Strategic Researchers Academy Publishing|date= 2019|isbn=978-605-69709-1-7}}</ref>
+Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as [[Hervé This]] (chemist), [[Nicholas Kurti]] (physicist), [[Peter Barham]] (physicist), [[Harold McGee]] (author), [[Shirley Corriher]] (biochemist, author), [[Robert Wolke]] (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking" (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, [[Ferran Adria]], [[Heston Blumenthal]], [[Pierre Gagnaire]] (chef).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guler|first=Ozan|title=The Harmony of Science and Food: Molecular Gastronomy|publisher=Strategic Researchers Academy Publishing|date= 2019|isbn=978-605-69709-1-7}}</ref>
-Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named [[Maillard reactions]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.food-info.net/uk/colour/maillard.htm|title=Food-Info.net : Maillard reactions|website=www.food-info.net|access-date=2017-03-29}}</ref><ref>Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021</ref>
+Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named [[Maillard reactions]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.food-info.net/uk/colour/maillard.htm|title=Food-Info.net: Maillard reactions|website=www.food-info.net|access-date=2017-03-29}}</ref><ref>Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021</ref>
-Cooking foods with heat depends on many factors: the [[specific heat]] of an object, [[thermal conductivity]], and (perhaps most significantly) the difference in temperature between the two objects. [[Thermal diffusivity]] is the combination of specific heat, conductivity and [[density]] that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barham|first=Peter|title=The Science of Cooking|page=39}}</ref>
+Cooking food with heat depends on many factors: the [[specific heat]] of an object, [[thermal conductivity]], and (perhaps most significantly) the temperature difference between the two objects. [[Thermal diffusivity]] is the combination of specific heat, conductivity, and [[density]] that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barham|first=Peter|title=The Science of Cooking|page=39}}</ref>
 ==Home-cooking and commercial cooking==
 [[File:GER — BY – Oberbayern — München — Stadtbezirk 1 — Altstadt — Sparkassenstr. 6 — EG (Haxnbauer · Küche) — 2005-05-07 — Mattes.jpg|thumb|A restaurant kitchen in [[Munich]], Germany (Haxnbauer restaurant)]]
-Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a [[Communal oven|communal fire]], and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Cecile|title=Men at Work: Labour, Maculinities, Development|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=225}}</ref> Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. [[Bakeries]] were one of the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and bakeries in the past often offered the cooking of pots of food provided by their customers as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" as well as "ready-to-cook" foods being prepared and cooked in factories and home cooks using a mixture of [[wikt:from scratch|scratch made]], and factory made foods together to make a [[meal]]. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods has been found to be inferior to home-made foods.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nutritional Quality of Food Prepared at Home and Away From Home, 1977–2008|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|website=www.ers.usda.gov|access-date=2015-11-21|last1=Lin|first1=Biing-Hwan|last2=Guthrie|first2=Joanne|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122104524/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|archive-date=22 November 2015}}</ref> Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less [[saturated fat]], [[Cholesterol embolism|cholesterol]] and [[sodium]] on a per calorie basis while providing more [[Dietary fiber|fiber]], [[calcium]], and [[iron]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs |journal=Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior |date=2014-08-01 |issn=1878-2620|pmc=4063875 |pmid=24703245 |pages=259–276 |volume=46|issue=4|doi=10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001|first1=Marla|last1=Reicks|first2=Amanda C. |last2=Trofholz |first3=Jamie S.|last3=Stang|first4=Melissa N.|last4=Laska}}</ref> The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing [[Chronic condition|chronic disease]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?|journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine|date=2012-03-01|issn=1559-8276|pages=152–158|volume=6|issue=2|doi=10.1177/1559827611426394|first1=Lu Ann Laurice|last1=Soliah|first2=Janelle Marshall|last2=Walter|first3=Sheila Ann|last3=Jones|citeseerx=10.1.1.1026.8612|s2cid=71797396}}</ref> Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly|journal=Public Health Nutrition|date=2012-07-01 |issn=1475-2727 |pmid=22578892 |pages=1142–1149|volume=15 |issue=7|doi=10.1017/S136898001200136X|first1=Rosalind Chia-Yu|last1=Chen |first2=Meei-Shyuan|last2=Lee|first3=Yu-Hung|last3=Chang|first4=Mark L.|last4=Wahlqvist|url=http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a [[Communal oven|communal fire]], and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Cecile|title=Men at Work: Labour, Maculinities, Development|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=225}}</ref> Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. [[Bakeries]] were among the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and in the past, often offered cooking for pots of food that customers provided as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" as well as "ready-to-cook" foods being prepared and cooked in factories, and home cooks using a mixture of [[wikt:from scratch|scratch made]], and factory-made foods together to make a [[meal]]. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods is inferior to that of home-made foods.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nutritional Quality of Food Prepared at Home and Away From Home, 1977–2008|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|website=www.ers.usda.gov|access-date=2015-11-21|last1=Lin|first1=Biing-Hwan|last2=Guthrie|first2=Joanne|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122104524/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib105.aspx|archive-date=22 November 2015}}</ref> Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less [[saturated fat]], [[Cholesterol embolism|cholesterol]] and [[sodium]] on a per calorie basis while providing more [[Dietary fiber|fiber]], [[calcium]], and [[iron]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs |journal=Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior |date=2014-08-01 |issn=1878-2620|pmc=4063875 |pmid=24703245 |pages=259–276 |volume=46|issue=4|doi=10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001|first1=Marla|last1=Reicks|first2=Amanda C. |last2=Trofholz |first3=Jamie S.|last3=Stang|first4=Melissa N.|last4=Laska}}</ref> The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing [[Chronic condition|chronic disease]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating: What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?|journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine|date=2012-03-01|issn=1559-8276|pages=152–158|volume=6|issue=2|doi=10.1177/1559827611426394|first1=Lu Ann Laurice|last1=Soliah|first2=Janelle Marshall|last2=Walter|first3=Sheila Ann|last3=Jones|citeseerx=10.1.1.1026.8612|s2cid=71797396}}</ref> Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Rosalind Chia-Yu |last2=Lee |first2=Meei-Shyuan |last3=Chang |first3=Yu-Hung |last4=Wahlqvist |first4=Mark L. |author-link4=Mark Wahlqvist |date=2012-07-01 |title=Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly |url=http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=1142–1149 |doi=10.1017/S136898001200136X |issn=1475-2727 |pmid=22578892 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ir.nhri.org.tw/bitstream/3990099045/6476/1/PUB22578892.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
-"Home-cooking" may be associated with [[comfort food]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VMmDwAAQBAJ&q=Home-cooking+may+be+associated+with+comfort+food&pg=PT106|title=Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories|last1=Jones|first1=Michael Owen|last2=Long|first2=Lucy M.|date=2017|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-4968-1086-1|language=en}}</ref> and some commercially produced foods and restaurant meals are presented through advertising or [[packaging]] as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. This trend began in the 1920s and is attributed to people in urban areas of the U.S. wanting homestyle food even though their schedules and smaller kitchens made cooking harder.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant |journal=Gastronomica |date=Fall 2002 |pages=43–52 |volume=2 |issue=4 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |first=Samantha |last=Barbas |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=articles |url-access=subscription }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
+"Home-cooking" may be associated with [[comfort food]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VMmDwAAQBAJ&q=Home-cooking+may+be+associated+with+comfort+food&pg=PT106|title=Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories|last1=Jones|first1=Michael Owen|last2=Long|first2=Lucy M.|date=2017|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-4968-1086-1|language=en}}</ref> and some commercially produced foods and restaurant meals are presented through advertising or [[packaging]] as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. This trend began in the 1920s and is attributed to people in urban areas of the U.S. wanting homestyle food, even though their schedules and smaller kitchens made cooking harder.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant |journal=Gastronomica |date=Fall 2002 |pages=43–52 |volume=2 |issue=4 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |first=Samantha |last=Barbas |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=articles |url-access=subscription }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
 ==See also==
 {{Main|Outline of food preparation}}
 {{Portal|Food}}
 {{div col|colwidth=22em}}
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 [[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
 [[Category:Home economics]]
+[[Category:Cooking techniques]]
 [[Category:Survival skills]]

Cooking: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:06, 28 May 2026

Contents

History

Ingredients

Carbohydrates

Fats

Proteins

Water

Vitamins and minerals

Methods

Health and safety

Indoor air pollution

Security while cooking

Food safety

Effects on nutritional content of food

Carcinogens and AGEs

Scientific aspects

Home-cooking and commercial cooking

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

Cooking: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 22:06, 28 May 2026

History

Ingredients

Carbohydrates

Fats

Proteins

Water

Vitamins and minerals

Methods

Health and safety

Indoor air pollution

Security while cooking

Food safety

Effects on nutritional content of food

Carcinogens and AGEs

Scientific aspects

Home-cooking and commercial cooking

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

Search