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'''Compost''' is a mixture of ingredients used as plant fertilizer and to improve [[soil]]'s physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is commonly prepared by [[Decomposition|decomposing]] plant and food waste, recycling organic materials, and manure. The resulting mixture is rich in plant nutrients and [[beneficial organism]]s, such as bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, and fungi. Compost improves soil fertility in [[garden]]s, [[landscaping]], [[horticulture]], [[urban agriculture]], and [[organic farming]], reducing dependency on commercial chemical fertilizers.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |last= |first= |date=17 April 2013 |title=Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - US EPA |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208003610/https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |archive-date=8 February 2017 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=US EPA}}</ref> The benefits of compost include providing nutrients to crops as [[fertilizer]], acting as a [[soil conditioner]], increasing the [[humus]] or [[Humic acids|humic acid]] contents of the soil, and introducing beneficial microbes that help to suppress pathogens in the soil and reduce soil-borne diseases. | '''Compost''' is a mixture of ingredients used as plant fertilizer and to improve [[soil]]'s physical, chemical, and biological properties. It is commonly prepared by [[Decomposition|decomposing]] plant and food waste, recycling organic materials, and manure. The resulting mixture is rich in plant nutrients and [[beneficial organism]]s, such as bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, and fungi. Compost improves soil fertility in [[garden]]s, [[landscaping]], [[horticulture]], [[urban agriculture]], and [[organic farming]], reducing dependency on commercial chemical fertilizers.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |last= |first= |date=17 April 2013 |title=Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - US EPA |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208003610/https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |archive-date=8 February 2017 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=US EPA}}</ref> The benefits of compost include providing nutrients to crops as [[fertilizer]], acting as a [[soil conditioner]], increasing the [[humus]] or [[Humic acids|humic acid]] contents of the soil, and introducing beneficial microbes that help to suppress pathogens in the soil and reduce soil-borne diseases. | ||
At the | At the most basic level, composting requires gathering a mix of [[green waste]] (nitrogen-rich materials such as leaves, grass, and food scraps) and [[brown waste]] (woody materials rich in carbon, such as stalks, paper, and wood chips).<ref name=":4" /> The materials break down into humus in a process taking months.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kögel-Knabner |first1=Ingrid |author1-link=Ingrid Kögel-Knabner|last2=Zech |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Hatcher |first3=Patrick G. |date=1988 |title=Chemical composition of the organic matter in forest soils: The humus layer |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jpln.19881510512 |journal=Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde |language=en |volume=151 |issue=5 |pages=331–340 |doi=10.1002/jpln.19881510512 |issn=0044-3263|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Composting can be a multistep, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The [[decomposition]] process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water, and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture in a process using open piles or [[windrow]]s.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=The Science of Composting|url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217221013/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm|archive-date=17 February 2016|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois}}</ref> [[Fungi]], [[earthworm]]s, and other [[detritivore]]s further break up the organic material. [[Aerobic bacteria]] and fungi manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, [[carbon dioxide]], and [[ammonium]] ions. | ||
[[File:Composter (compost bin) made from hollow log (Kõrvemaa, Estonia, 2023).png|thumb|Composter made from a hollow log]] | [[File:Composter (compost bin) made from hollow log (Kõrvemaa, Estonia, 2023).png|thumb|Composter made from a hollow log]] | ||
Composting is an important part of waste management, since food and other compostable materials make up about 20% of waste in landfills, and due to anaerobic conditions, these materials take longer to biodegrade in the landfill.<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 October 2019|title=Do Biodegradable Items Degrade in Landfills?|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/do-biodegradable-items-really-break-down-1204144|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|archive-date=9 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609123954/https://www.thoughtco.com/do-biodegradable-items-really-break-down-1204144}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-08-12|title=Reducing the Impact of Wasted Food by Feeding the Soil and Composting|url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=Sustainable Management of Food|publisher=US EPA|language=en|archive-date=15 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415103259/https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/reducing-impact-wasted-food-feeding-soil-and-composting}}</ref> Composting offers an environmentally superior alternative to using organic material for landfill because composting reduces [[methane emissions]] due to anaerobic conditions, and provides economic and environmental co-benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-15|title=Composting to avoid methane production|url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/composting-avoid-methane-production|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-16|website=www.agric.wa.gov.au|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909103755/https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/composting-avoid-methane-production |archive-date=9 September 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Compost |url=https://regeneration.org/nexus/compost |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Regeneration.org |language=en}}</ref> For example, compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and landfill cover. | Composting is an important part of waste management, since food and other compostable materials make up about 20% of waste in landfills, and due to anaerobic conditions, these materials take longer to biodegrade in the landfill.<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 October 2019|title=Do Biodegradable Items Degrade in Landfills?|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/do-biodegradable-items-really-break-down-1204144|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|archive-date=9 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609123954/https://www.thoughtco.com/do-biodegradable-items-really-break-down-1204144}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-08-12|title=Reducing the Impact of Wasted Food by Feeding the Soil and Composting|url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=Sustainable Management of Food|publisher=US EPA|language=en|archive-date=15 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415103259/https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/reducing-impact-wasted-food-feeding-soil-and-composting}}</ref> Composting offers an environmentally superior alternative to using organic material for landfill because composting reduces [[methane emissions]] due to anaerobic conditions, and provides economic and environmental co-benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-15|title=Composting to avoid methane production|url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/composting-avoid-methane-production|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-16|website=www.agric.wa.gov.au|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909103755/https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/composting-avoid-methane-production |archive-date=9 September 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Compost |url=https://regeneration.org/nexus/compost |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Regeneration.org |language=en}}</ref> For example, compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and landfill cover. | ||
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==== Chemical decomposers ==== | ==== Chemical decomposers ==== | ||
* [[Bacteria]] are the most abundant and important of all the [[microorganism]]s found in compost.<ref name=":5" /> Bacteria process carbon and nitrogen and excrete plant-available nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium.<ref name=":5" /> Depending on the phase of composting, [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] or [[Thermophile|thermophilic]] bacteria may be the most prominent. | * [[Bacteria]] are the most abundant and important of all the [[microorganism]]s found in compost.<ref name=":5" /> Bacteria process carbon and nitrogen and excrete plant-available nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium.<ref name=":5" /> Depending on the phase of composting, [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] or [[Thermophile|thermophilic]] bacteria may be the most prominent. | ||
** Mesophilic bacteria get compost to the thermophilic stage through oxidation of organic material.<ref name=":5" /> Afterwards they cure it, which makes the fresh compost more bioavailable for plants.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Compost Physics - Cornell Composting|url= | ** Mesophilic bacteria get compost to the thermophilic stage through oxidation of organic material.<ref name=":5" /> Afterwards they cure it, which makes the fresh compost more bioavailable for plants.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Compost Physics - Cornell Composting|url=https://compost.css.cornell.edu/physics.html#:~:text=Compost%20heat%20is%20produced%20as,microbial%20breakdown%20of%20organic%20material.&text=Compost%20managers%20strive%20to%20keep,help%20to%20dissipate%20the%20heat.|access-date=2021-04-11|website=compost.css.cornell.edu|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109215044/http://compost.css.cornell.edu/physics.html#:~:text=Compost%20heat%20is%20produced%20as,microbial%20breakdown%20of%20organic%20material.&text=Compost%20managers%20strive%20to%20keep,help%20to%20dissipate%20the%20heat.|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
** Thermophilic bacteria do not reproduce and are not active between {{cvt|-5|and|25|C}},<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marchant|first1=Roger|last2=Franzetti|first2=Andrea|last3=Pavlostathis|first3=Spyros G.|last4=Tas|first4=Didem Okutman|last5=Erdbrűgger|first5=Isabel|last6=Űnyayar|first6=Ali|last7=Mazmanci|first7=Mehmet A.|last8=Banat|first8=Ibrahim M.|date=2008-04-01|title=Thermophilic bacteria in cool temperate soils: are they metabolically active or continually added by global atmospheric transport?|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=78|issue=5|pages=841–852|doi=10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|pmid=18256821|s2cid=24884198|issn=1432-0614|access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211321/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> yet are found throughout soil. They activate once the mesophilic bacteria have begun to break down organic matter and increase the temperature to their optimal range.<ref name=":1" /> They have been shown to enter soils via rainwater.<ref name=":1" /> They are present so broadly because of many factors, including their spores being resilient.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Daniel R.|date=January 2014|title=The Geobacillus paradox: why is a thermophilic bacterial genus so prevalent on a mesophilic planet?|journal=Microbiology|volume=160|issue=Pt 1|pages=1–11|doi=10.1099/mic.0.071696-0|doi-access=free |issn=1465-2080|pmid=24085838}}</ref> Thermophilic bacteria thrive at higher temperatures, reaching {{cvt|40|–|60|C}} in typical mixes. Large-scale composting operations, such as [[windrow composting]], may exceed this temperature, potentially killing beneficial soil microorganisms but also [[pasteurizing]] the waste.<ref name=":1" /> | ** Thermophilic bacteria do not reproduce and are not active between {{cvt|-5|and|25|C}},<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marchant|first1=Roger|last2=Franzetti|first2=Andrea|last3=Pavlostathis|first3=Spyros G.|last4=Tas|first4=Didem Okutman|last5=Erdbrűgger|first5=Isabel|last6=Űnyayar|first6=Ali|last7=Mazmanci|first7=Mehmet A.|last8=Banat|first8=Ibrahim M.|date=2008-04-01|title=Thermophilic bacteria in cool temperate soils: are they metabolically active or continually added by global atmospheric transport?|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=78|issue=5|pages=841–852|doi=10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|pmid=18256821|s2cid=24884198|issn=1432-0614|access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211321/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-008-1372-y|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> yet are found throughout soil. They activate once the mesophilic bacteria have begun to break down organic matter and increase the temperature to their optimal range.<ref name=":1" /> They have been shown to enter soils via rainwater.<ref name=":1" /> They are present so broadly because of many factors, including their spores being resilient.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zeigler|first=Daniel R.|date=January 2014|title=The Geobacillus paradox: why is a thermophilic bacterial genus so prevalent on a mesophilic planet?|journal=Microbiology|volume=160|issue=Pt 1|pages=1–11|doi=10.1099/mic.0.071696-0|doi-access=free |issn=1465-2080|pmid=24085838}}</ref> Thermophilic bacteria thrive at higher temperatures, reaching {{cvt|40|–|60|C}} in typical mixes. Large-scale composting operations, such as [[windrow composting]], may exceed this temperature, potentially killing beneficial soil microorganisms but also [[pasteurizing]] the waste.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
** [[Actinomycetota]] are needed to break down paper products such as newspaper, [[Bark (botany)|bark]], etc., and other large molecules such as lignin and cellulose that are more difficult to decompose.<ref name=":5" /> The "pleasant, earthy smell of compost" is attributed to Actinomycetota.<ref name=":5" /> They make carbon, ammonia, and nitrogen nutrients available to plants.<ref name=":5" /> | ** [[Actinomycetota]] are needed to break down paper products such as newspaper, [[Bark (botany)|bark]], etc., and other large molecules such as lignin and cellulose that are more difficult to decompose.<ref name=":5" /> The "pleasant, earthy smell of compost" is attributed to Actinomycetota.<ref name=":5" /> They make carbon, ammonia, and nitrogen nutrients available to plants.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* [[Fungi]] such as [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s and [[yeast]]s help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially cellulose and [[lignin]] in woody material.<ref name=":5" /> | * [[Fungi]] such as [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s and [[yeast]]s help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially cellulose and [[lignin]] in woody material.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* [[Protozoa]] contribute to biodegradation of organic matter and consume inactive bacteria, fungi, and micro-organic particulates.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last1=Trautmann|first1=Nancy|last2=Olynciw|first2=Elaina|title=Compost Microorganisms|url= | * [[Protozoa]] contribute to biodegradation of organic matter and consume inactive bacteria, fungi, and micro-organic particulates.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last1=Trautmann|first1=Nancy|last2=Olynciw|first2=Elaina|title=Compost Microorganisms|url=https://compost.css.cornell.edu/microorg.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-12|website=CORNELL Composting|publisher=Cornell Waste Management Institute|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115202006/http://compost.css.cornell.edu/microorg.html}}</ref> | ||
==== Physical decomposers ==== | ==== Physical decomposers ==== | ||
* [[Ant]]s create nests, making the soil more porous and transporting nutrients to different areas of the compost.<ref name=":5" /> | * [[Ant]]s create nests, making the soil more porous and transporting nutrients to different areas of the compost.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* Beetles as [[Grub (larva)|grubs]] feed on decaying vegetables.<ref name=":5" /> | * Beetles such as [[Grub (larva)|grubs]] feed on decaying vegetables.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* [[Earthworm]]s ingest partly composted material and excrete worm castings,<ref name=":5" /> making nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium available to plants.<ref name=":5" /> The tunnels they create as they move through the compost also increase aeration and drainage.<ref name=":5" /> | * [[Earthworm]]s ingest partly composted material and excrete worm castings,<ref name=":5" /> making nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium available to plants.<ref name=":5" /> The tunnels they create as they move through the compost also increase aeration and drainage.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
* [[Fly|Flies]] feed on almost all organic material and put bacteria into the compost.<ref name=":5" /> Their population is kept in check by [[mite]]s and the thermophilic temperatures that are unsuitable for fly larvae.<ref name=":5" /> | * [[Fly|Flies]] feed on almost all organic material and put bacteria into the compost.<ref name=":5" /> Their population is kept in check by [[mite]]s and the thermophilic temperatures that are unsuitable for fly larvae.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
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=== Phases of composting === | === Phases of composting === | ||
[[File:Komposztáló.JPG|thumb|Three year old household compost]] | [[File:Komposztáló.JPG|thumb|Three-year-old household compost]] | ||
Under ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases:<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phases of composting |url=https://compostsegria.com/ca/en/fases-del-compostaje/ |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Compost Segrià |language=en-GB}}</ref> | Under ideal conditions, composting proceeds through three major phases:<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phases of composting |url=https://compostsegria.com/ca/en/fases-del-compostaje/ |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Compost Segrià |language=en-GB}}</ref> | ||
# '''Mesophilic phase:''' The initial, mesophilic phase is when the decomposition is carried out under moderate temperatures by [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] microorganisms. 2 to 8 days | # '''Mesophilic phase:''' The initial, mesophilic phase is when the decomposition is carried out under moderate temperatures by [[Mesophile|mesophilic]] microorganisms. 2 to 8 days | ||
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# '''Maturation phase:''' As the supply of high-energy compounds dwindles, the temperature starts to decrease. | # '''Maturation phase:''' As the supply of high-energy compounds dwindles, the temperature starts to decrease. | ||
Semicomposting is the degradation process that handles volumes of organic waste lower than that recommended for composting and therefore does not present a [[thermophilic]] stage, because [[mesophilic]] microorganisms are the only responsible ones, for the degradation of [[organic matter]].<ref> | Semicomposting is the degradation process that handles volumes of organic waste lower than that recommended for composting and therefore does not present a [[thermophilic]] stage, because [[mesophilic]] microorganisms are the only responsible ones, for the degradation of [[organic matter]].<ref>[https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-58392017000300287#B11 Comparison of three systems of decomposition of agricultural residues for the production of organic fertilizers. Chilean J. Agric. Res. vol.77 no.3 Chillán set. 2017.]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/339/33953499012/html/|title=Semicompost and Vermicompost Mixed with Peat Moss Enhance Seed Germination and Development of Lettuce and Tomato Seedlings|first1=Adriana|last1=Hernández-Rodríguez|first2=Loreto|last2=Robles-Hernández|first3=Dámaris|last3=Ojeda-Barrios|first4=Jesús|last4=Prieto-Luévano|first5=Ana Cecilia|last5=González-Franco|first6=Víctor|last6=Guerrero-Prieto|date=10 October 2017|journal=Interciencia|volume=42|issue=11|pages=774–779|via=www.redalyc.org}}</ref> | ||
=== Hot and cold composting – impact on timing === | === Hot and cold composting – impact on timing === | ||
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=== Pathogen removal === | === Pathogen removal === | ||
Composting can destroy some [[pathogen]]s and [[seed]]s, by reaching temperatures | Composting can destroy some [[pathogen]]s and [[seed]]s, by reaching certain temperatures. Dealing with stabilized compost – i.e. composted material in which microorganisms have finished digesting the organic matter and the temperature has reached between {{cvt|50|and|70|C}} – poses very little risk, as these temperatures kill pathogens and even make [[oocysts]] unviable.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{Cite journal|date=1995-08-01|title=Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0734242X95900810|journal=Waste Management & Research|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=315–324|doi=10.1016/S0734-242X(95)90081-0|issn=0734-242X|access-date=19 April 2021|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419114736/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0734242X95900810|url-status=live|last1=Gerba|first1=C.|bibcode=1995WMR....13..315G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The temperature at which a pathogen dies depends on the pathogen, how long the temperature is maintained (seconds to weeks), and pH.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mehl|first1=Jessica|last2=Kaiser|first2=Josephine|last3=Hurtado|first3=Daniel|last4=Gibson|first4=Daragh A.|last5=Izurieta|first5=Ricardo|last6=Mihelcic|first6=James R.|date=2011-02-03|title=Pathogen destruction and solids decomposition in composting latrines: study of fundamental mechanisms and user operation in rural Panama|journal=Journal of Water and Health|volume=9|issue=1|pages=187–199|doi=10.2166/wh.2010.138|pmid=21301126|issn=1477-8920|doi-access=free|bibcode=2011JWH.....9..187M }}</ref> | ||
Dealing with stabilized compost – i.e. composted material in which microorganisms have finished digesting the organic matter and the temperature has reached between {{cvt|50|and|70|C}} – poses very little risk, as these temperatures kill pathogens and even make [[oocysts]] unviable.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{Cite journal|date=1995-08-01|title=Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0734242X95900810|journal=Waste Management & Research|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=315–324|doi=10.1016/S0734-242X(95)90081-0|issn=0734-242X|access-date=19 April 2021|archive-date=19 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419114736/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0734242X95900810|url-status=live|last1=Gerba|first1=C.|bibcode=1995WMR....13..315G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The temperature at which a pathogen dies depends on the pathogen, how long the temperature is maintained (seconds to weeks), and pH.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mehl|first1=Jessica|last2=Kaiser|first2=Josephine|last3=Hurtado|first3=Daniel|last4=Gibson|first4=Daragh A.|last5=Izurieta|first5=Ricardo|last6=Mihelcic|first6=James R.|date=2011-02-03|title=Pathogen destruction and solids decomposition in composting latrines: study of fundamental mechanisms and user operation in rural Panama|journal=Journal of Water and Health|volume=9|issue=1|pages=187–199|doi=10.2166/wh.2010.138|pmid=21301126|issn=1477-8920|doi-access=free|bibcode=2011JWH.....9..187M }}</ref> | |||
Compost products such as compost tea and compost extracts have been found to have an inhibitory effect on ''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]'', [[Rhizoctonia solani|''Rhizoctonia'' species]], and ''[[Pythium debaryanum]],'' plant pathogens that can cause crop diseases.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Milinković|first1=Mira|last2=Lalević|first2=Blažo|last3=Jovičić-Petrović|first3=Jelena|last4=Golubović-Ćurguz|first4=Vesna|last5=Kljujev|first5=Igor|last6=Raičević|first6=Vera|date=January 2019|title=Biopotential of compost and compost products derived from horticultural waste—Effect on plant growth and plant pathogens' suppression|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2018.09.024|journal=Process Safety and Environmental Protection|volume=121|pages=299–306|doi=10.1016/j.psep.2018.09.024|bibcode=2019PSEP..121..299M |s2cid=104755582|issn=0957-5820|access-date=27 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211321/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0957582018309704|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Aerated compost teas are more effective than compost extracts.<ref name=":2" /> The [[microbiota]] and enzymes present in compost extracts also have a suppressive effect on fungal plant pathogens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=El-Masry|first1=M.H.|last2=Khalil|first2=A.I.|last3=Hassouna|first3=M.S.|last4=Ibrahim|first4=H.A.H.|date=2002-08-01|title=In situ and in vitro suppressive effect of agricultural composts and their water extracts on some phytopathogenic fungi|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016302729218|journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=18|issue=6|pages=551–558|doi=10.1023/A:1016302729218|s2cid=81831444|issn=1573-0972|access-date=27 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211358/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1016302729218|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Compost is a good source of [[Biocontrol|biocontrol agents]] like [[Bacillus subtilis|''B. subtilis'']], ''B. licheniformis,'' and P. | Compost products such as compost tea and compost extracts have been found to have an inhibitory effect on ''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]'', [[Rhizoctonia solani|''Rhizoctonia'' species]], and ''[[Pythium debaryanum]],'' plant pathogens that can cause crop diseases.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Milinković|first1=Mira|last2=Lalević|first2=Blažo|last3=Jovičić-Petrović|first3=Jelena|last4=Golubović-Ćurguz|first4=Vesna|last5=Kljujev|first5=Igor|last6=Raičević|first6=Vera|date=January 2019|title=Biopotential of compost and compost products derived from horticultural waste—Effect on plant growth and plant pathogens' suppression|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2018.09.024|journal=Process Safety and Environmental Protection|volume=121|pages=299–306|doi=10.1016/j.psep.2018.09.024|bibcode=2019PSEP..121..299M |s2cid=104755582|issn=0957-5820|access-date=27 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211321/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0957582018309704|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Aerated compost teas are more effective than compost extracts.<ref name=":2" /> The [[microbiota]] and enzymes present in compost extracts also have a suppressive effect on fungal plant pathogens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=El-Masry|first1=M.H.|last2=Khalil|first2=A.I.|last3=Hassouna|first3=M.S.|last4=Ibrahim|first4=H.A.H.|date=2002-08-01|title=In situ and in vitro suppressive effect of agricultural composts and their water extracts on some phytopathogenic fungi|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016302729218|journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=18|issue=6|pages=551–558|doi=10.1023/A:1016302729218|s2cid=81831444|issn=1573-0972|access-date=27 April 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211358/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1016302729218|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Compost is a good source of [[Biocontrol|biocontrol agents]] like [[Bacillus subtilis|''B. subtilis'']], ''B. licheniformis,'' and ''P. chrysogenum'' that fight plant pathogens.<ref name=":2" /> Sterilizing the compost, compost tea, or compost extracts reduces the effect of pathogen suppression.<ref name=":2" /> | ||
=== Diseases that can be contracted from handling compost === | === Diseases that can be contracted from handling compost === | ||
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== Environmental benefits == | == Environmental benefits == | ||
Compost adds organic matter to the soil and increases the nutrient content and biodiversity of microbes in soil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2015-08-12 |title=Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting |access-date=2024-05-18 |website= | Compost adds organic matter to the soil and increases the nutrient content and biodiversity of microbes in soil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2015-08-12 |title=Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> Composting at home reduces the amount of green waste being hauled to dumps or composting facilities. The reduced volume of materials being picked up by trucks results in fewer trips, which in turn lowers the overall emissions from the waste-management fleet. | ||
== Materials that can be composted == | == Materials that can be composted == | ||
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=== Human excreta{{anchor|Humanure}} === | === Human excreta{{anchor|Humanure}} === | ||
{{Further|Reuse of excreta}} | {{Further|Reuse of excreta}}{{Redirect|Humanure|the album by Cattle Decapitation|Humanure (album)}} | ||
[[Human excreta]], sometimes called "humanure" in the composting context,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |title=Humanure: The Next Frontier in Composting |first=Brian |last=Barth |work=Modern Farmer |date=7 March 2017 |access-date=23 March 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521095117/https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/12/humanure-composting-toilets |title=Humanure: the end of sewage as we know it? |via=[[The Guardian]] |work=Grist |date=12 May 2009}}</ref> can be added as an input to the composting process since it is a nutrient-rich organic material. Nitrogen, which serves as a building block for important plant amino acids, is found in solid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nitrogen in the Plant |url=https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/wq259 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=extension.missouri.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-02 |title=Human waste could be used to create nitrogen-rich fertilizer |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20200602/Human-waste-could-be-used-to-create-nitrogen-rich-fertilizer.aspx |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=News-Medical.net |language=en}}</ref> Phosphorus, which helps plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of ATP, can be found in liquid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphate in Urine |url=https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/kbase/topic.jhtml?docId=hw202342 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=wa.kaiserpermanente.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphorus Basics: Deficiency Symptoms, Sufficiency Ranges, and Common Sources |url=https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crop-production/phosphorus-basics-deficiency-symptoms-sufficiency-ranges-and-common-sources/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=Alabama Cooperative Extension System |language=en-US}}</ref> | [[Human excreta]], sometimes called "humanure" in the composting context,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |title=Humanure: The Next Frontier in Composting |first=Brian |last=Barth |work=Modern Farmer |date=7 March 2017 |access-date=23 March 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521095117/https://modernfarmer.com/2017/03/humanure-next-frontier-composting/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/12/humanure-composting-toilets |title=Humanure: the end of sewage as we know it? |via=[[The Guardian]] |work=Grist |date=12 May 2009}}</ref> can be added as an input to the composting process since it is a nutrient-rich organic material. Nitrogen, which serves as a building block for important plant amino acids, is found in solid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nitrogen in the Plant |url=https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/wq259 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=extension.missouri.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-02 |title=Human waste could be used to create nitrogen-rich fertilizer |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20200602/Human-waste-could-be-used-to-create-nitrogen-rich-fertilizer.aspx |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=News-Medical.net |language=en}}</ref> Phosphorus, which helps plants convert sunlight into energy in the form of ATP, can be found in liquid human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphate in Urine |url=https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/kbase/topic.jhtml?docId=hw202342 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=wa.kaiserpermanente.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phosphorus Basics: Deficiency Symptoms, Sufficiency Ranges, and Common Sources |url=https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/crop-production/phosphorus-basics-deficiency-symptoms-sufficiency-ranges-and-common-sources/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=Alabama Cooperative Extension System |language=en-US}}</ref> | ||
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Animal carcasses may be composted as a disposal option. Such material is rich in nitrogen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Composting Large Animal Carcasses |url=https://tammi.tamu.edu/2017/07/20/composting-large-animal-carcasses/ |website=Texas Animal Manure Management Issues |date=20 July 2017}}</ref> | Animal carcasses may be composted as a disposal option. Such material is rich in nitrogen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Composting Large Animal Carcasses |url=https://tammi.tamu.edu/2017/07/20/composting-large-animal-carcasses/ |website=Texas Animal Manure Management Issues |date=20 July 2017}}</ref> | ||
=== Human bodies === | |||
{{excerpt|Human composting}} | {{excerpt|Human composting}} | ||
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[[File:End point (4315712587).jpg|thumb|upright|An almost completed {{lang|de|hügelkultur}} bed; the bed does not have soil on it yet.]] | [[File:End point (4315712587).jpg|thumb|upright|An almost completed {{lang|de|hügelkultur}} bed; the bed does not have soil on it yet.]] | ||
{{Main|Hügelkultur}} | {{Main|Hügelkultur}} | ||
The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called {{lang|de|[[Hügelkultur]]}} in German.<ref name="richsoil.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ |title=hugelkultur: the ultimate raised garden beds |publisher=Richsoil.com |date=2007-07-27 |access-date=2013-07-18 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107013815/https://richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="permaculture.org.au">{{cite web |url=http://permaculture.org.au/2010/08/03/the-art-and-science-of-making-a-hugelkultur-bed-transforming-woody-debris-into-a-garden-resource/ |title=The Art and Science of Making a Hugelkultur Bed - Transforming Woody Debris into a Garden Resource Permaculture Research Institute - Permaculture Forums, Courses, Information & News |date=2010-08-03 |access-date=2013-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105061510/http://permaculture.org.au/2010/08/03/the-art-and-science-of-making-a-hugelkultur-bed-transforming-woody-debris-into-a-garden-resource/ |archive-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is in effect creating a [[nurse log]] that is covered with soil. | The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called {{lang|de|[[Hügelkultur]]}} in German.<ref name="richsoil.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ |title=hugelkultur: the ultimate raised garden beds |publisher=Richsoil.com |date=2007-07-27 |access-date=2013-07-18 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107013815/https://richsoil.com/hugelkultur/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="permaculture.org.au">{{cite web |url=http://permaculture.org.au/2010/08/03/the-art-and-science-of-making-a-hugelkultur-bed-transforming-woody-debris-into-a-garden-resource/ |title=The Art and Science of Making a Hugelkultur Bed - Transforming Woody Debris into a Garden Resource Permaculture Research Institute - Permaculture Forums, Courses, Information & News |date=2010-08-03 |access-date=2013-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105061510/http://permaculture.org.au/2010/08/03/the-art-and-science-of-making-a-hugelkultur-bed-transforming-woody-debris-into-a-garden-resource/ |archive-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is in effect creating a [[nurse log]] that is covered with soil. | ||
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* Co-composting is a technique that processes organic solid waste together with other input materials such as dewatered [[fecal sludge]] or [[sewage sludge]].<ref name="tilley2" /> | * Co-composting is a technique that processes organic solid waste together with other input materials such as dewatered [[fecal sludge]] or [[sewage sludge]].<ref name="tilley2" /> | ||
* [[Anaerobic digestion]] combined with mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams is increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating [[biodegradable waste]] before it enters a landfill reduces [[global warming]] from fugitive [[methane]]; untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing [[landfill gas]] that contains methane, a potent [[greenhouse gas]]. The methane produced in an anaerobic digester can be used as [[biogas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2019/11/21/food-waste-fuel-energy-sustainability-070265|title=How Cities Are Turning Food into Fuel|last=Dawson|first=Lj|website=POLITICO|date=21 November 2019 |language=en|access-date=2020-02-28|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228203453/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2019/11/21/food-waste-fuel-energy-sustainability-070265|url-status=live}}</ref> | * [[Anaerobic digestion]] combined with mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams is increasingly being used in developed countries due to regulations controlling the amount of organic matter allowed in landfills. Treating [[biodegradable waste]] before it enters a landfill reduces [[global warming]] from fugitive [[methane]]; untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill, producing [[landfill gas]] that contains methane, a potent [[greenhouse gas]]. The methane produced in an anaerobic digester can be used as [[biogas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2019/11/21/food-waste-fuel-energy-sustainability-070265|title=How Cities Are Turning Food into Fuel|last=Dawson|first=Lj|website=POLITICO|date=21 November 2019 |language=en|access-date=2020-02-28|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228203453/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2019/11/21/food-waste-fuel-energy-sustainability-070265|url-status=live}}</ref> | ||
* Small-scale and organic farms can also produce aerobic compost piles for crop bed preparation using a "turned pile" technique in which piles are formed with the appropriate ratios of nitrous, carbonous, and neutral materials, checked with a temperature gauge, and turned by-hand at weekly intervals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of New Brunswick |date=May 19, 2015 |title=Compost – Basics of On-Farm Composting |url=https://www.gnb.ca/en/search.html.html?q=compost&cx=004686105439310941724%3A3leejyo91sk&as_sitesearch=&cof=FORID%3A11&ie=UTF-8&x=0&y=0&_gl=1*1os7g4e*_ga*MjAzMDI2ODc1MC4xNzYwMDQ1MDA5*_ga_F531P4D0XX*czE3NjAwNDUwMDkkbzEkZzEkdDE3NjAwNDUwMjYkajQzJGwwJGgw*_ga_X5V0H8WVKQ*czE3NjAwNDUwMDkkbzEkZzEkdDE3NjAwNDUwMjYkajQzJGwwJGgw |access-date=October 9, 2025 |website=Government of New Brunswick}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-03-01 |title=Compost Turning: The Key to Quick Composting - Oklahoma State University |url=https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/compost-turning-the-key-to-quick-composting.html |access-date=2025-10-09 |website=extension.okstate.edu |language=en}}</ref> | |||
== Uses == | == Uses == | ||
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===Agriculture and gardening=== | ===Agriculture and gardening=== | ||
[[File:Compost steaming - detail 3.jpg|alt=Compost - detail|thumb|Compost used as fertilizer]] | [[File:Compost steaming - detail 3.jpg|alt=Compost - detail|thumb|Compost used as fertilizer]] | ||
On open ground for growing [[wheat]], [[Maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, and similar crops, compost can be broadcast across the top of the soil using spreader trucks or spreaders pulled behind a tractor. It is expected that the spread layer is very thin (approximately {{cvt|6|mm}}) and worked into the soil prior to planting. Application rates of {{cvt|25|mm}} or more are not unusual when trying to rebuild poor soils or control erosion. | On open ground for growing [[wheat]], [[Maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, and [[Row crop|similar crops]], compost can be broadcast across the top of the soil using spreader trucks or spreaders pulled behind a tractor. It is expected that the spread layer is very thin (approximately {{cvt|6|mm}}) and worked into the soil prior to planting. Application rates of {{cvt|25|mm}} or more are not unusual when trying to rebuild poor soils or control erosion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erosion Benefits - US Composting Council |url=https://www.compostingcouncil.org/page/ErosionBenefits |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250825002020/https://www.compostingcouncil.org/page/ErosionBenefits |archive-date=25 August 2025 |access-date=2025-10-09 |website=www.compostingcouncil.org |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> In countries such as Germany, where compost distribution and spreading are partially subsidized in the original waste fees, compost is used more frequently on open ground on the premise of nutrient "sustainability".<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.landwirtschaft-mlr.baden-wuerttemberg.de/servlet/PB/show/1118971/Landinfo_Nachhaltige%20Kompostanwendung%20in%20der%20Landwirtschaft-%20Ergebnisse%20eines%20mehrj%E4hrigen%20DBU-Projektes%20aus%20Baden-W%FCrttemberg.pdf|title = Startseite|date = 7 April 2003|access-date = 23 July 2021|archive-date = 22 March 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210322232906/https://www.landwirtschaft-bw.info/pb/,Lde/Startseite|url-status = dead}}</ref> | ||
In [[plasticulture]], [[strawberries]], [[tomato]]es, [[Capsicum|pepper]]s, [[melon]]s, and other fruits and vegetables are grown under plastic to control temperature, retain moisture and control weeds. Compost may be banded (applied in strips along rows) and worked into the soil prior to bedding and planting, be applied at the same time the beds are constructed and plastic laid down, or used as a top dressing. | In [[plasticulture]], [[strawberries]], [[tomato]]es, [[Capsicum|pepper]]s, [[melon]]s, and other fruits and vegetables are grown under plastic to control temperature, retain moisture and control weeds. Compost may be banded (applied in strips along rows) and worked into the soil prior to bedding and planting, be applied at the same time the beds are constructed and plastic laid down, or used as a top dressing. | ||
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Compost can be added to soil, [[coir]], or [[peat]], as a [[tilth]] improver, supplying humus and nutrients.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Benefits and Uses|url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/benefits.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219205407/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/benefits.cfm|archive-date=19 February 2016|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois}}</ref> It provides a rich growing medium as absorbent material. This material contains moisture and soluble minerals, which provide support and [[nutrient]]s. Although it is rarely used alone, plants can flourish from mixed [[soil]] that includes a mix of compost with other additives such as [[sand]], grit, bark chips, [[vermiculite]], [[perlite]], or [[clay]] granules to produce [[loam]]. Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /> | Compost can be added to soil, [[coir]], or [[peat]], as a [[tilth]] improver, supplying humus and nutrients.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Benefits and Uses|url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/benefits.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219205407/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/benefits.cfm|archive-date=19 February 2016|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois}}</ref> It provides a rich growing medium as absorbent material. This material contains moisture and soluble minerals, which provide support and [[nutrient]]s. Although it is rarely used alone, plants can flourish from mixed [[soil]] that includes a mix of compost with other additives such as [[sand]], grit, bark chips, [[vermiculite]], [[perlite]], or [[clay]] granules to produce [[loam]]. Compost can be tilled directly into the soil or growing medium to boost the level of organic matter and the overall fertility of the soil. Compost that is ready to be used as an additive is dark brown or even black with an earthy smell.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /> | ||
Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry, the possible presence of [[phytotoxin]]s in immature compost that may inhibit germination,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morel|first1=P.|last2=Guillemain|first2=G.|year=2004|title=Assessment of the possible phytotoxicity of a substrate using an easy and representative biotest|journal=Acta Horticulturae|issue=644|pages=417–423|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.644.55}}</ref><ref>Itävaara et al. Compost maturity - problems associated with testing. in Proceedings of Composting. Innsbruck Austria 18-21.10.2000</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Aslam DN, etal|year=2008|title=Development of models for predicting carbon mineralization and associated phytotoxicity in compost-amended soil.|journal=Bioresour Technol|volume=99|issue=18|pages=8735–8741|doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.04.074|pmid=18585031|bibcode=2008BiTec..99.8735A }}</ref> and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.<ref name="compost.css.cornell.edu">{{cite web|title=The Effect of Lignin on Biodegradability - Cornell Composting|url= | Generally, direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry, the possible presence of [[phytotoxin]]s in immature compost that may inhibit germination,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morel|first1=P.|last2=Guillemain|first2=G.|year=2004|title=Assessment of the possible phytotoxicity of a substrate using an easy and representative biotest|journal=Acta Horticulturae|issue=644|pages=417–423|doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.644.55}}</ref><ref>Itävaara et al. Compost maturity - problems associated with testing. in Proceedings of Composting. Innsbruck Austria 18-21.10.2000</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Aslam DN, etal|year=2008|title=Development of models for predicting carbon mineralization and associated phytotoxicity in compost-amended soil.|journal=Bioresour Technol|volume=99|issue=18|pages=8735–8741|doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.04.074|pmid=18585031|bibcode=2008BiTec..99.8735A }}</ref> and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin.<ref name="compost.css.cornell.edu">{{cite web|title=The Effect of Lignin on Biodegradability - Cornell Composting|url=https://compost.css.cornell.edu/calc/lignin.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927195626/http://compost.css.cornell.edu/calc/lignin.html|archive-date=27 September 2018|access-date=3 March 2009|work=cornell.edu}}</ref> It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting [[seedlings]]. | ||
Compost can be used to increase plant immunity to diseases and pests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bahramisharif|first1=Amirhossein|last2=Rose|first2=Laura E.|year=2019|title=Efficacy of biological agents and compost on growth and resistance of tomatoes to late blight|journal=Planta|volume=249|issue=3|pages=799–813|doi=10.1007/s00425-018-3035-2|issn=1432-2048|pmid=30406411|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Plant.249..799B }}</ref> | Compost can be used to increase plant immunity to diseases and pests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bahramisharif|first1=Amirhossein|last2=Rose|first2=Laura E.|year=2019|title=Efficacy of biological agents and compost on growth and resistance of tomatoes to late blight|journal=Planta|volume=249|issue=3|pages=799–813|doi=10.1007/s00425-018-3035-2|issn=1432-2048|pmid=30406411|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019Plant.249..799B }}</ref> | ||
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==== Commercial sale ==== | ==== Commercial sale ==== | ||
Compost is sold as bagged potting mixes in garden centers and other outlets.<ref name="RHS">{{cite web|title=John Innes potting compost|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=952|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814113532/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=952|archive-date=14 August 2020|access-date=7 August 2020|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> This may include composted materials such as manure and peat but is also likely to contain loam, fertilizers, sand, grit, etc. Varieties include multi-purpose composts designed for most aspects of planting, [[John Innes compost|John Innes]] formulations,<ref name="RHS" /> grow bags, designed to have crops such as tomatoes directly planted into them. There are also a range of specialist composts available, e.g. for vegetables, orchids, houseplants, hanging baskets, roses, ericaceous plants, seedlings, potting on, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Compost for Specialist Plants - Garden Advice - Westland Garden Health |url=https://www.gardenhealth.com/advice/soil-and-compost/compost-for-specialist-plants |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Garden Health |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How to choose the best compost for your plants |url=https://www.lovethegarden.com/uk-en/article/how-to-choose-the-best-compost-for-your-plants |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Love The Garden |language=en-gb}}</ref> | Compost is sold as bagged potting mixes in garden centers and other outlets.<ref name="RHS">{{cite web|title=John Innes potting compost|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=952|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814113532/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=952|archive-date=14 August 2020|access-date=7 August 2020|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> This may include composted materials such as manure and peat but is also likely to contain loam, fertilizers, sand, grit, etc. Varieties include multi-purpose composts designed for most aspects of planting, [[John Innes compost|John Innes]] formulations,<ref name="RHS" /> grow bags, designed to have crops such as tomatoes directly planted into them. There are also a range of specialist composts available, e.g. for vegetables, orchids, houseplants, hanging baskets, roses, ericaceous plants, seedlings, potting on, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Compost for Specialist Plants - Garden Advice - Westland Garden Health |url=https://www.gardenhealth.com/advice/soil-and-compost/compost-for-specialist-plants |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Garden Health |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How to choose the best compost for your plants |url=https://www.lovethegarden.com/uk-en/article/how-to-choose-the-best-compost-for-your-plants |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Love The Garden |language=en-gb}}</ref> | ||
==== Community composting ==== | |||
Community composting uses organic materials sourced from a local community. Sites used for compost piles include educational institutions or [[Community gardening|community gardens]]. Community composting programs may be involved in community education. The compost generated is used locally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-19 |title=Approaches to Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/approaches-composting |access-date=2026-03-31 |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> Each community composting operation is generally smaller than a commercial composting operation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-06 |title=Community Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/community-composting |access-date=2026-03-31 |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> | |||
=== Other === | === Other === | ||
Compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, [[Constructed wetland|wetland construction]], and [[landfill]] cover.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2015-08-12 |title=Reducing the Impact of Wasted Food by Feeding the Soil and Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting |access-date=2022-08-18 |website= | Compost can also be used for land and stream reclamation, [[Constructed wetland|wetland construction]], and [[landfill]] cover.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2015-08-12 |title=Reducing the Impact of Wasted Food by Feeding the Soil and Composting |url=https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/composting |access-date=2022-08-18 |website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> | ||
The temperatures generated by compost can be used to heat [[greenhouse]]s, such as by being placed around the outside edges.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neugebauer|first=Maciej|date=10 January 2021|title=A compost heating solution for a greenhouse in north-eastern Poland in fall|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620336581|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411023538/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620336581|archive-date=11 April 2021|access-date=29 April 2021|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=279| | The temperatures generated by compost can be used to heat [[greenhouse]]s, such as by being placed around the outside edges.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neugebauer|first=Maciej|date=10 January 2021|title=A compost heating solution for a greenhouse in north-eastern Poland in fall|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620336581|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411023538/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620336581|archive-date=11 April 2021|access-date=29 April 2021|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=279|article-number=123613|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123613|bibcode=2021JCPro.27923613N |s2cid=224919030|url-access=subscription}}</ref> | ||
== Regulations == | == Regulations == | ||
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There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.<ref>{{cite web|title=US Composting Council|url=http://www.compostingcouncil.org/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415204627/https://www.compostingcouncil.org/|archive-date=15 April 2019|access-date=2013-07-18|publisher=Compostingcouncil.org}}</ref> Compost is regulated in Canada<ref>{{cite web|date=2005|title=Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment - Guidelines for Compost Quality|url=http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/waste/compost_quality/compostgdlns_1340_e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018085550/http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/waste/compost_quality/compostgdlns_1340_e.pdf|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=2017-09-04|publisher=CCME Documents}}</ref> and Australia<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=Organics Recycling in Australia|url=https://www.biocycle.net/2011/01/25/organics-recycling-in-australia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922135731/https://www.biocycle.net/2011/01/25/organics-recycling-in-australia/|archive-date=22 September 2018|access-date=2017-09-04|publisher=BioCycle}}</ref> as well. | There are process and product guidelines in Europe that date to the early 1980s (Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) and only more recently in the UK and the US. In both these countries, private trade associations within the industry have established loose standards, some say as a stop-gap measure to discourage independent government agencies from establishing tougher consumer-friendly standards.<ref>{{cite web|title=US Composting Council|url=http://www.compostingcouncil.org/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415204627/https://www.compostingcouncil.org/|archive-date=15 April 2019|access-date=2013-07-18|publisher=Compostingcouncil.org}}</ref> Compost is regulated in Canada<ref>{{cite web|date=2005|title=Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment - Guidelines for Compost Quality|url=http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/waste/compost_quality/compostgdlns_1340_e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018085550/http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/waste/compost_quality/compostgdlns_1340_e.pdf|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=2017-09-04|publisher=CCME Documents}}</ref> and Australia<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=Organics Recycling in Australia|url=https://www.biocycle.net/2011/01/25/organics-recycling-in-australia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922135731/https://www.biocycle.net/2011/01/25/organics-recycling-in-australia/|archive-date=22 September 2018|access-date=2017-09-04|publisher=BioCycle}}</ref> as well. | ||
EPA Class A and B guidelines in the United States<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/40cfr503_02.html |title=EPA Class A standards |access-date=23 July 2021 |archive-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204040726/http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/40cfr503_02.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> were developed solely to manage the processing and [[beneficial reuse]] of [[sludge]], also now called [[biosolids]], following the US EPA ban of ocean dumping. About 26 American states now require composts to be processed according to these federal protocols for [[pathogen]] and [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] control, even though the application to non-sludge materials has not been scientifically tested. An example is that green waste composts are used at much higher rates than sludge composts were ever anticipated to be applied at.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/cpg/products/compost.htm|archive-url=https://archive. | EPA Class A and B guidelines in the United States<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/40cfr503_02.html |title=EPA Class A standards |access-date=23 July 2021 |archive-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204040726/http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/40cfr503_02.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> were developed solely to manage the processing and [[beneficial reuse]] of [[sludge]], also now called [[biosolids]], following the US EPA ban of ocean dumping. About 26 American states now require composts to be processed according to these federal protocols for [[pathogen]] and [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] control, even though the application to non-sludge materials has not been scientifically tested. An example is that green waste composts are used at much higher rates than sludge composts were ever anticipated to be applied at.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/cpg/products/compost.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508005517/http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/tools/cpg/products/compost.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 May 2013|title=EPA regulations for compost use|access-date=3 March 2009}}</ref> U.K guidelines also exist regarding compost quality,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/Introduction_to_BSI_PAS_100-20052.92f2ee6e.2181.pdf|title=British Standards Institute Specifications}}</ref> as well as Canadian,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.compost.org/compostqualitydoc.pdf|title=Consensus Canadian national standards|access-date=23 July 2021|archive-date=9 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309120941/http://www.compost.org/compostqualitydoc.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Australian,<ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/publications/waste/composting/quality.html Australian quality standards]</ref> and the various European states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/topics/waste-and-recycling/biodegradable-waste_en|title=Biodegradable waste|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> | ||
In the United States, some compost manufacturers participate in a testing program offered by a private lobbying organization called the U.S. Composting Council. The USCC was originally established in 1991 by Procter & Gamble to promote composting of disposable diapers, following state mandates to ban diapers in landfills, which caused a national uproar. Ultimately the idea of composting diapers was abandoned, partly since it was not proven scientifically to be possible, and mostly because the concept was a marketing stunt in the first place. After this, composting emphasis shifted back to recycling organic wastes previously destined for landfills. There are no bonafide quality standards in America, but the USCC sells a seal called | In the United States, some compost manufacturers participate in a testing program offered by a private lobbying organization called the U.S. Composting Council. The USCC was originally established in 1991 by Procter & Gamble to promote composting of disposable diapers, following state mandates to ban diapers in landfills, which caused a national uproar. Ultimately the idea of composting diapers was abandoned, partly since it was not proven scientifically to be possible, and mostly because the concept was a marketing stunt in the first place. After this, composting emphasis shifted back to recycling organic wastes previously destined for landfills. There are no bonafide quality standards in America, but the USCC sells a seal called "Seal of Testing Assurance"<ref>{{Cite web |title=US Composting Council |url=https://www.compostingcouncil.org/ |access-date=25 October 2022 |website=US Composting Council}}</ref> (also called "STA"). For a considerable fee, the applicant may display the USCC logo on products, agreeing to volunteer to customers a current laboratory analysis that includes parameters such as nutrients, respiration rate, salt content, pH, and limited other indicators.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.compostingcouncil.org/programs/sta/test_methods.php|title=US Composting Council testing parameters}}</ref> | ||
Many countries such as [[Wales]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Gwynedd Council food recycling|url=http://www.gwynedd.gov.uk/gwy_doc.asp?doc=25454&language=1&p=1&c=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501141531/http://www.gwynedd.gov.uk/gwy_doc.asp?doc=25454&language=1&p=1&c=1|archive-date=1 May 2014|access-date=21 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Anglesey households achieve 100% food waste recycling|url=http://www.edie.net/news/5/Anglesey-households-achieve-100-food-waste-recycling/19101/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905052711/https://www.edie.net/news/5/Anglesey-households-achieve-100-food-waste-recycling/19101/|archive-date=5 September 2017|access-date=13 April 2013|work=edie.net}}</ref> and some individual cities such as Seattle and [[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance|San Francisco]] require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting ([[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance]]).<ref>{{cite web|date=2016|title=Recycling & Composting in San Francisco - Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://sfenvironment.org/recycling-composting-faqs|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905003224/https://sfenvironment.org/recycling-composting-faqs|archive-date=5 September 2017|access-date=4 September 2017|publisher=San Francisco Dept. of the Environment}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Tyler|first=Aubin|date=21 March 2010|title=The case for mandatory composting|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http:// | Many countries such as [[Wales]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Gwynedd Council food recycling|url=http://www.gwynedd.gov.uk/gwy_doc.asp?doc=25454&language=1&p=1&c=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501141531/http://www.gwynedd.gov.uk/gwy_doc.asp?doc=25454&language=1&p=1&c=1|archive-date=1 May 2014|access-date=21 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Anglesey households achieve 100% food waste recycling|url=http://www.edie.net/news/5/Anglesey-households-achieve-100-food-waste-recycling/19101/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905052711/https://www.edie.net/news/5/Anglesey-households-achieve-100-food-waste-recycling/19101/|archive-date=5 September 2017|access-date=13 April 2013|work=edie.net |date=3 December 2010 }}</ref> and some individual cities such as Seattle and [[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance|San Francisco]] require food and yard waste to be sorted for composting ([[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance]]).<ref>{{cite web|date=2016|title=Recycling & Composting in San Francisco - Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://sfenvironment.org/recycling-composting-faqs|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905003224/https://sfenvironment.org/recycling-composting-faqs|archive-date=5 September 2017|access-date=4 September 2017|publisher=San Francisco Dept. of the Environment}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Tyler|first=Aubin|date=21 March 2010|title=The case for mandatory composting|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|url=http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/magazine/articles/2010/03/21/the_case_for_mandatory_composting/|url-status=live|access-date=19 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825201135/http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/magazine/articles/2010/03/21/the_case_for_mandatory_composting/|archive-date=25 August 2010}}</ref> | ||
The | The US is the only Western country that does not distinguish sludge-source compost from green-composts, and by default 50% of US states expect composts to comply in some manner with the federal EPA 503 rule promulgated in 1984 for sludge products.<ref>{{cite web|year=1998|title=Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40, part 503. Standards for the use or disposal of sewage sludge|url=http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=ef0e4bc903a2845519f1d9129ad7eef7&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:31.0.1.2.42&idno=40|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922173729/https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=ef0e4bc903a2845519f1d9129ad7eef7&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:31.0.1.2.42&idno=40|archive-date=22 September 2018|access-date=30 March 2009|work=U.S. Government Printing Office}}</ref> | ||
There are health risk concerns about [[PFASs]] ("[[forever chemicals]]") levels in compost derived from sewage sledge sourced biosolids, and [[EPA]] has not set health risk standards for this. The [[Sierra Club]] recommends that home gardeners avoid the use of sewage sludge-base fertilizer and compost, in part due to potentially high levels of PFASs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sludge-garden-toxic-pfas-home-fertilizers-made-sewage-sludge#biosolids |title=Sludge in the Garden: Toxic PFAS in Home Fertilizers Made From Sewage Sludge |website=sierraclub |date=21 May 2021 |publisher=Sierra Club |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411043652/https://www.sierraclub.org/sludge-garden-toxic-pfas-home-fertilizers-made-sewage-sludge#biosolids |url-status=dead }}</ref> The EPA '''PFAS Strategic Roadmap''' initiative, running from 2021 to 2024, will consider the full lifecycle of PFAS including health risks of PFAS in wastewater sludge.<ref>{{cite web |title=PFAS Strategic Roadmap: EPA's Commitments to Action 2021-2024 |date=14 October 2021 |url=https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-strategic-roadmap-epas-commitments-action-2021-2024 |access-date=2022-03-24 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> | There are health risk concerns about [[PFASs]] ("[[forever chemicals]]") levels in compost derived from sewage sledge sourced biosolids, and [[EPA]] has not set health risk standards for this. The [[Sierra Club]] recommends that home gardeners avoid the use of sewage sludge-base fertilizer and compost, in part due to potentially high levels of PFASs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sludge-garden-toxic-pfas-home-fertilizers-made-sewage-sludge#biosolids |title=Sludge in the Garden: Toxic PFAS in Home Fertilizers Made From Sewage Sludge |website=sierraclub |date=21 May 2021 |publisher=Sierra Club |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411043652/https://www.sierraclub.org/sludge-garden-toxic-pfas-home-fertilizers-made-sewage-sludge#biosolids |url-status=dead }}</ref> The EPA '''PFAS Strategic Roadmap''' initiative, running from 2021 to 2024, will consider the full lifecycle of PFAS including health risks of PFAS in wastewater sludge.<ref>{{cite web |title=PFAS Strategic Roadmap: EPA's Commitments to Action 2021-2024 |date=14 October 2021 |url=https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-strategic-roadmap-epas-commitments-action-2021-2024 |access-date=2022-03-24 |publisher=EPA}}</ref> | ||
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== History == | == History == | ||
[[File:Compost Basket.jpg|thumb|upright|Compost basket]] | [[File:Compost Basket.jpg|thumb|upright|Compost basket]] | ||
Composting dates back to at least the early Roman Empire and was mentioned as early as [[Cato the Elder]]'s 160 BCE piece {{lang|la|[[De Agri Cultura]]}}.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/A*.html|title=De Agri Cultura|last=Cato|first=Marcus|date=|chapter=37.2; 39.1|access-date=19 February 2021}}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Traditionally, composting involved piling organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil. Methodologies for organic composting were part of [[Traditional agriculture|traditional agricultural systems]] around the world. | Composting dates back to at least the early Roman Empire and was mentioned as early as [[Cato the Elder]]'s 160 BCE piece {{lang|la|[[De Agri Cultura]]}}.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/A*.html|title=De Agri Cultura|last=Cato|first=Marcus|date=|chapter=37.2; 39.1|access-date=19 February 2021}}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Traditionally, composting involved piling organic materials until the next planting season, at which time the materials would have decayed enough to be ready for use in the soil. Methodologies for organic composting were part of [[Traditional agriculture|traditional agricultural systems]] around the world. | ||
Composting began to modernize somewhat in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for [[organic farming]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=History of Composting|url=https://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/history.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004232552/https://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/history.cfm|archive-date=4 October 2018|access-date=11 July 2016|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois}}</ref> The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in [[Wels]], Austria, in the year 1921.<ref>Welser Anzeiger vom 05. Januar 1921, 67. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, S. 4</ref> Early proponents of composting in farming include [[Rudolf Steiner]], founder of a farming method called [[biodynamic agriculture|biodynamics]], and [[Annie Francé-Harrar]], who was appointed on behalf of the government in [[Mexico]] and supported the country in 1950–1958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and [[soil degradation]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gETbAwAAQBAJ&q=Annie+Franc%C3%A9-Harrar+compost&pg=PA86|title=A History of the Garden in Fifty Tools|last=Laws|first=Bill|year=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226139937|pages=86|language=en|access-date=16 October 2020|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211322/https://books.google.com/books?id=gETbAwAAQBAJ&q=Annie+Franc%C3%A9-Harrar+compost&pg=PA86|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Sir Albert Howard]], who worked extensively in [[India]] on sustainable practices,<ref name=":7" /> and [[Lady Eve Balfour]] were also major proponents of composting. Modern scientific composting was imported to America by the likes of [[J. I. Rodale]] – founder of [[Rodale, Inc.]] Organic Gardening, and others involved in the organic farming movement.<ref name=":7" /> | Composting began to modernize somewhat in the 1920s in Europe as a tool for [[organic farming]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=History of Composting|url=https://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/history.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004232552/https://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/history.cfm|archive-date=4 October 2018|access-date=11 July 2016|website=Composting for the Homeowner|publisher=University of Illinois}}</ref> The first industrial station for the transformation of urban organic materials into compost was set up in [[Wels]], Austria, in the year 1921.<ref>Welser Anzeiger vom 05. Januar 1921, 67. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, S. 4</ref> Early proponents of composting in farming include [[Rudolf Steiner]], founder of a farming method called [[biodynamic agriculture|biodynamics]], and [[Annie Francé-Harrar]], who was appointed on behalf of the government in [[Mexico]] and supported the country in 1950–1958 to set up a large humus organization in the fight against erosion and [[soil degradation]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gETbAwAAQBAJ&q=Annie+Franc%C3%A9-Harrar+compost&pg=PA86|title=A History of the Garden in Fifty Tools|last=Laws|first=Bill|year=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226139937|pages=86|language=en|access-date=16 October 2020|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713211322/https://books.google.com/books?id=gETbAwAAQBAJ&q=Annie+Franc%C3%A9-Harrar+compost&pg=PA86|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Sir Albert Howard]], who worked extensively in [[India]] on sustainable practices,<ref name=":7" /> and [[Lady Eve Balfour]] were also major proponents of composting. Modern scientific composting was imported to America by the likes of [[J. I. Rodale]] – founder of [[Rodale, Inc.]] Organic Gardening, and others involved in the organic farming movement.<ref name=":7" /> | ||
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{{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
{{Commons category|Compost}} | == External links == | ||
{{Wikibooks|Category:Composting}} | * {{Commons category-inline|Compost}} | ||
* {{Wikibooks-inline|Category:Composting}} | |||
{{Recycling}} | {{Recycling}} | ||
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[[Category:Biodegradable waste management]] | [[Category:Biodegradable waste management]] | ||
[[Category:Permaculture]] | [[Category:Permaculture]] | ||
[[Category:By-products]] | |||