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{{Short description|Political community established for common good}}
{{Short description|Political community established for common good}}
{{About|the generic term|the association of primarily former British Empire territories|Commonwealth of Nations|other uses}}
{{About|the generic term|the association of primarily former British Empire territories|Commonwealth of Nations|other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date = July 2020}}
A '''commonwealth''' is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the [[common good]]. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Origin and meaning of commonwealth|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/commonwealth|access-date=2020-07-20|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|language=en}}</ref> Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "[[wealth]]", which is "well-being", and was deemed analogous to the Latin ''[[res publica]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=A|first=J|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mk3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA180|title=The Monthly Magazine And British Register|date=1796|volume=1|pages=179–180|language=en|quote=Our English word ''commonwealth'' or ''commonweal'', is precisely analogous to ''respublica''}}</ref> The term literally meant common well being. In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "[[public welfare]]" or "[[wikt:commonweal|commonweal]]" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a [[republic]] or [[democracy|democratic state]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boyd|first=James Penny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkwKAQAAMAAJ&q=commonwealth+republic+democracy&pg=PA14|title=The Political History of the United States, Or, Popular Sovereignty and Citizenship|date=1888|publisher=International Publishing Company|language=en|quote=You find in your reading other terms used to convey the same idea as "democracy" or "republic." The word "commonwealth" is one of them.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Barclay|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zo87PD4-pCUC&pg=PP242|title=Barclay's English Dictionary|date=1791|publisher=Nicholson & Company|language=en|quote=COMMONWEAL, or COMMONWEALTH ... a republic; a democracy.}}</ref>
A '''commonwealth''' is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the [[common good]]. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Origin and meaning of commonwealth|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/commonwealth|access-date=2020-07-20|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|language=en}}</ref> Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "[[wealth]]", which is "well-being", and was deemed analogous to the Latin ''[[res publica]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=A|first=J|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mk3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA180|title=The Monthly Magazine And British Register|date=1796|volume=1|pages=179–180|language=en|quote=Our English word ''commonwealth'' or ''commonweal'', is precisely analogous to ''respublica''}}</ref> The term literally meant "common well-being". In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "[[public welfare]]" or "[[wikt:commonweal|commonweal]]" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a [[republic]] or [[democracy|democratic state]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boyd|first=James Penny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkwKAQAAMAAJ&q=commonwealth+republic+democracy&pg=PA14|title=The Political History of the United States, Or, Popular Sovereignty and Citizenship|date=1888|publisher=International Publishing Company|language=en|quote=You find in your reading other terms used to convey the same idea as "democracy" or "republic." The word "commonwealth" is one of them.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Barclay|first=James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zo87PD4-pCUC&pg=PP242|title=Barclay's English Dictionary|date=1791|publisher=Nicholson & Company|language=en|quote=COMMONWEAL, or COMMONWEALTH ... a republic; a democracy.}}</ref>


The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – [[Australia]], the [[Bahamas]], and [[Dominica]] – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four [[U.S. state]]s and two [[Territories of the United States|U.S. territories]]. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some associations of states, most notably the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], an organisation primarily of former [[Territory|territories]] of the [[British Empire]]. It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – [[Australia]], the [[Bahamas]], and [[Dominica]] – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four [[U.S. state]]s and two [[Territories of the United States|U.S. territories]]. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some associations of states, most notably the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], an organisation primarily of former [[Territory|territories]] of the [[British Empire]]. It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
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===Rome===
===Rome===
{{Main|Res publica|Roman Republic}}
{{Main|Res publica|Roman Republic}}
Translations of [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] writers' works to English have on occasion translated "''[[Res publica]]''", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole.
Translations of [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] writers' works to English have on occasion translated "''[[Res publica]]''", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole. <ref>Cicero, On the Commonwealth and On the Laws, trans. James E. G. Zetzel (Cambridge University Press, 1999)</ref><ref>Livy, The Early History of Rome, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt (Penguin Classics, 1960).</ref>


===England===
===England===
{{Main|Commonwealth of England}}
{{Main|Commonwealth of England}}
The [[Commonwealth of England]] was the official name of the political unit (''de facto'' military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the [[Kingdom of England]] (after the [[English Civil War]]) from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, under the rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and his son and successor [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former [[Kingdom of Scotland]], operated under different institutions (at times as a ''de facto'' monarchy) and is known by historians as the [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]]. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth".{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
The [[Commonwealth of England]] was the official name of the political unit (''de facto'' military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the [[Kingdom of England]] (after the [[English Civil War]]) from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, under the rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and his son and successor [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former [[Kingdom of Scotland]], operated under different institutions (at times as a ''de facto'' monarchy) and is known by historians as the [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]]. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth".<ref>Sean Kelsey, Inventing a Republic: The Political Culture of the English Commonwealth, 1649–1653 (Manchester University Press, 1997)</ref><ref>Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2002).</ref>


In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the [[Common Wealth Party]] was active.<ref name="bh">Ben Hughes, ''They shall not pass!: the British battalion at Jarama: the Spanish Civil War''. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Pub., 2011. {{ISBN|9781849085496}} (p. 227).</ref> Previously a similarly named party, the [[Commonwealth Land Party (UK)|Commonwealth Land Party]], was in existence.<ref>Peter Barberis, John McHugh and Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations</ref>
In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the [[Common Wealth Party]] was active.<ref name="bh">Ben Hughes, ''They shall not pass!: the British battalion at Jarama: the Spanish Civil War''. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Pub., 2011. {{ISBN|9781849085496}} (p. 227).</ref> Previously a similarly named party, the [[Commonwealth Land Party (UK)|Commonwealth Land Party]], was in existence.<ref>Peter Barberis, John McHugh and Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations</ref>
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===Iceland===
===Iceland===
{{Main|Icelandic Commonwealth}}
{{Main|Icelandic Commonwealth}}
The period of Icelandic history from the establishment of the [[Althing]] in 930 to the pledge of fealty to the [[King of Norway|Norwegian king]] in 1262 is usually called the ''Icelandic Nation'' ({{langx|is|Þjóðveldið}}) in Icelandic and the ''[[Icelandic Commonwealth]]'' in English. In this period Iceland was colonized by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)|Norway]] who had fled the unification of that country under [[King]] [[Harald Fairhair]].
The period of Icelandic history from the establishment of the [[Althing]] in 930 to the pledge of fealty to the [[King of Norway|Norwegian king]] in 1262 is usually called the ''Icelandic Nation'' ({{langx|is|Þjóðveldið}}) in Icelandic and the ''[[Icelandic Commonwealth]]'' in English. In this period Iceland was colonized by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)|Norway]] who had fled the unification of that country under [[King]] [[Harald Fairhair]].<ref>Jón Jóhannesson, A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth: Íslendinga saga (University of Manitoba Press, 1974; repr. 2006).</ref>


===Philippines===
===Philippines===
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===Poland–Lithuania===
===Poland–Lithuania===
{{Main|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
{{Main|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
''Republic'' is still an alternative translation of the traditional name ''[[Rzeczpospolita]]'' of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. [[Wincenty Kadłubek]] (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term ''[[res publica]]'' in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland". The name was used officially for the [[Confederation|confederal]] union formed by [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] (1569–1795).
''Republic'' is still an alternative translation of the traditional name ''[[Rzeczpospolita]]'' of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. [[Wincenty Kadłubek]] (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term ''[[res publica]]'' in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland".<ref>Juliusz Bardach, Historia państwa i prawa Polski.</ref> The name was used officially for the [[Confederation|confederal]] union formed by [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] (1569–1795).<ref>Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, vol. I (Oxford University Press, 1981)</ref><ref>Daniel Stone, The Polish–Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (University of Washington Press, 2001).</ref>


It is also often referred as "[[Golden Liberty|Nobles' Commonwealth]]" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of [[religious tolerance]] called [[Warsaw Confederation]], had its own parliament ''[[Sejm]]'' (although elections were restricted to [[nobility]] and [[elected king]]s, who were bound to certain contracts ''[[Pacta conventa (Poland)|Pacta conventa]]'' from the beginning of the reign).
It is also often referred as "[[Golden Liberty|Nobles' Commonwealth]]" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of [[religious tolerance]] called [[Warsaw Confederation]], had its own parliament ''[[Sejm]]'' (although elections were restricted to [[nobility]] and [[elected king]]s, who were bound to certain contracts ''[[Pacta conventa (Poland)|Pacta conventa]]'' from the beginning of the reign).<ref>Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland.</ref>


"A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of [[Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki]] "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
"A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of [[Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki]] "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref>Dorota Pietrzyk-Reeves, Republicanism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.</ref>


===Catalonia===
===Catalonia===
{{Main|Commonwealth of Catalonia}}
{{Main|Commonwealth of Catalonia}}
Between 1914 and 1925, [[Catalonia]] was an autonomous region of Spain. Its government during that time was given the title ''[[mancomunidad]]'' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''mancomunitat''), which is translated into English as "commonwealth". The [[Commonwealth of Catalonia]] had limited powers and was formed as a federation of the four Catalan provinces. A number of Catalan-language institutions were created during its existence.
Between 1914 and 1925, [[Catalonia]] functioned as an administrative union of its four provinces under the [[Mancomunidad|Mancomunitat de Catalunya]], often translated into English as the “[[Commonwealth of Catalonia]]”. The institution possessed limited powers and coordinated regional infrastructure, education, and cultural policy as a federation of the provincial councils of [[Barcelona]], [[Girona]], [[Lleida]], and [[Tarragona]].<ref>Albert Balcells, Catalan Nationalism: Past and Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 1996); “Mancomunitat de Catalunya,” Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> During its existence, the Mancomunitat promoted the development of [[Catalan language|Catalan-language]] institutions, including libraries, research bodies, and technical education establishments.<ref>Albert Balcells, Catalan Nationalism; Andrew Dowling, The Rise of Catalan Independence (Routledge, 2018).</ref>


===Liberia===
===Liberia===
{{See also|History of Liberia#Colonization (1821–1847)|label 1=Commonwealth of Liberia}}
{{See also|History of Liberia#Colonization (1821–1847)|label 1=Commonwealth of Liberia}}
Between 1838 and 1847, [[Liberia]] was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1985/liberia_1_commonwealth.htm| title = The Commonwealth of Liberia}}</ref>
Between 1838 and 1847, [[Liberia]] was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1985/liberia_1_commonwealth.htm| title = The Commonwealth of Liberia}}</ref>
=== Lunda Empire ===
{{Main|Lunda Empire}}
The [[Lunda Empire]] in southeastern DR Congo has frequently been referred to as a commonwealth because it was not ruled from one centre and involved numerous independent though connected states.<ref name="Mukhtar-20162">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=Luba-Lunda states |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |publisher=Wiley |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe060 |last=Macola |first=Giacomo}}</ref>


==Current use==
==Current use==
===Australia===
===Australia===
{{Main|Australia|l1 = Commonwealth of Australia|Australian Government}}
{{Main|Australia|l1 = Commonwealth of Australia|Australian Government}}
"Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the six Australian [[crown colony|crown colonies]] at the [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)#1891 convention|1891 constitutional convention]] in [[Sydney]]. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of [[Oliver Cromwell]] ([[#England|see above]]), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution.<ref>Helen Irving. [http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/helen_irving,9939.html Australian Federation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715000750/http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/helen_irving%2C9939.html |date=2015-07-15 }} – Civics and Citizenship Education. Retrieved 15 July 2015.</ref> The term was finally incorporated into law in the ''[[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900'', which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the [[States and territories of Australia|state governments]] (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the [[Government of Australia|federal government]], and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country.
"Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the six Australian [[crown colony|crown colonies]] at the [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)#1891 convention|1891 constitutional convention]] in [[Sydney]]. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of [[Oliver Cromwell]] ([[#England|see above]]), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution.<ref>Helen Irving. [http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/helen_irving,9939.html Australian Federation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715000750/http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/helen_irving%2C9939.html |date=2015-07-15 }} – Civics and Citizenship Education. Retrieved 15 July 2015.</ref> The term was finally incorporated into law in the ''[[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900'', which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the [[States and territories of Australia|state governments]] (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the [[Government of Australia|federal government]], and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country.


===The Bahamas===
===The Bahamas===
{{Main|The Bahamas|l1 = Commonwealth of the Bahamas}}
{{Main|The Bahamas|l1 = Commonwealth of the Bahamas}}
[[The Bahamas]], a [[Commonwealth realm]], has used the official style ''Commonwealth of The Bahamas'' since its independence in 1973.
 
[[The Bahamas]], a [[Commonwealth realm]], has used the official style ''Commonwealth of The Bahamas'' since its independence in 1973.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.immigration.gov.bs/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/TheConstitution_11.pdf|title=The Constitution of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas|access-date=8 June 2023|archive-date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217141226/https://www.immigration.gov.bs/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/TheConstitution_11.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>


===Dominica===
===Dominica===
{{Main|Commonwealth of Dominica}}
{{Main|Commonwealth of Dominica}}
The small [[Caribbean]] republic of [[Dominica]] has used the official style ''Commonwealth of Dominica'' since 1978.
 
The small [[Caribbean]] republic of [[Dominica]] has used the official style ''Commonwealth of Dominica'' since 1978.<ref>Government of Dominica, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Dominica, 1978; CIA World Factbook, “Dominica,” https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominica.</ref>


===Certain U.S. states and territories===
===Certain U.S. states and territories===
{{Main|Commonwealth (U.S. state)|Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)}}
{{Main|Commonwealth (U.S. state)|Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)}}
====States====
====States====
Four [[U.S. state|states]] of the [[United States|United States of America]] officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of [[British America|Great Britain's possessions]] along the [[East Coast of the United States|Atlantic coast of North America]] prior to the [[American Revolution]]. As such, they share a strong influence of [[common law|English common law]] in some of their laws and institutions. The four are:
Four [[U.S. state|states]] of the [[United States|United States of America]] officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of [[British America|Great Britain's possessions]] along the [[East Coast of the United States|Atlantic coast of North America]] prior to the [[American Revolution]]. As such, they share a strong influence of [[common law|English common law]] in some of their laws and institutions. The four are:
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====Territories====
====Territories====
Two [[Territories of the United States|organized]] but [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated]] U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are:
Two [[Territories of the United States|organized]] but [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated]] U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are:
* [[Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]], since 1952
* [[Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]], since 1952<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.estado.pr.gov/en/about-us/about-us-department-of-state?|title=Puerto Rico Department of State|publisher=Government of Puerto Rico|access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
* [[Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands]], since 1978
* [[Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands]], since 1978<ref>{{cite web|url=https://governor.cnmi.gov/about/|title=CNMI - About the Governor|publisher=Government of the Norther Mariana Islands|access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>


In 2016, the [[Council of the District of Columbia|Washington, D.C. city council]] also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of [[Statehood movement in the District of Columbia|State of Washington, D.C.]], following the [[2016 Washington, D.C. statehood referendum|2016 statehood referendum]], at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://dcist.com/story/16/10/18/following-a-series-of/ |title= Council Tosses 'New Columbia,' Changes Constitution To 'The State Of Washington D.C.' |website= DCist |date= October 18, 2016 |access-date= June 26, 2020 |first= Rachel |last= Kurzius |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200629141413/https://dcist.com/story/16/10/18/following-a-series-of/ |archive-date= June 29, 2020 |url-status= live }}</ref>
In 2016, the [[Council of the District of Columbia|Washington, D.C. city council]] also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of [[Statehood movement in the District of Columbia|State of Washington, D.C.]], following the [[2016 Washington, D.C. statehood referendum|2016 statehood referendum]], at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://dcist.com/story/16/10/18/following-a-series-of/ |title= Council Tosses 'New Columbia,' Changes Constitution To 'The State Of Washington D.C.' |website= DCist |date= October 18, 2016 |access-date= June 26, 2020 |first= Rachel |last= Kurzius |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200629141413/https://dcist.com/story/16/10/18/following-a-series-of/ |archive-date= June 29, 2020 |url-status= live }}</ref>
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====Commonwealth of Nations====
====Commonwealth of Nations====
{{Main|Commonwealth of Nations}}
{{Main|Commonwealth of Nations}}
The [[Commonwealth of Nations]] is a voluntary association of 56 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the [[British Empire]]. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The [[Head of the Commonwealth]] is [[Charles III|King Charles III]], who also reigns as monarch in the 15 member states known as [[Commonwealth realm]]s since his accession in 2022.
 
The [[Commonwealth of Nations]] is a voluntary association of 56 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the [[British Empire]]. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The [[Head of the Commonwealth]] is [[Charles III|King Charles III]], who also reigns as monarch in the 15 member states known as [[Commonwealth realm]]s since his accession in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |url=https://thecommonwealth.org/about-us |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910080412/https://thecommonwealth.org/about-us |archive-date=10 September 2022 |access-date=25 March 2026 |website= |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat}}</ref>


====Commonwealth of Independent States====
====Commonwealth of Independent States====
{{Main|Commonwealth of Independent States}}
{{Main|Commonwealth of Independent States}}
The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) is a loose [[military alliance|alliance]] or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Republics]], the exceptions being [[Turkmenistan]] (a CIS associate member), [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] left the CIS in August 2008 following [[2008 South Ossetia war|the 2008 invasion]] of the [[Russia]]n military into [[South Ossetia]] and [[Abkhazia]]. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]]. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in [[economics]], [[Defence (military)|defence]], and [[foreign policy]].<ref>Constantine, Michalopoulos, and Tarr David. "The economics of customs unions in the Commonwealth of Independent States." Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38, no. 3 (1997): 125-143.</ref>
The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) is a loose [[military alliance|alliance]] or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Republics]], the exceptions being [[Turkmenistan]] (a CIS associate member), [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] left the CIS in August 2008 following [[2008 South Ossetia war|the 2008 invasion]] of the [[Russia]]n military into [[South Ossetia]] and [[Abkhazia]]. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]]. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in [[economics]], [[Defence (military)|defence]], and [[foreign policy]].<ref>Constantine, Michalopoulos, and Tarr David. "The economics of customs unions in the Commonwealth of Independent States." Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38, no. 3 (1997): 125-143.</ref>


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===United Kingdom===
===United Kingdom===
{{See also|Republicanism in the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Republicanism in the United Kingdom}}
[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] MP [[Tony Benn]] sponsored a [[Commonwealth of Britain Bill]] several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a [[Republicanism in the United Kingdom|British republic]]. It never reached [[second reading]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}
[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] MP [[Tony Benn]] sponsored a [[Commonwealth of Britain Bill]] several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a [[Republicanism in the United Kingdom|British republic]]. It never reached [[second reading]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=By |title=Tony Benn’s Plan to Democratise Britain – and Abolish the Monarchy |url=https://tribunemag.co.uk/2021/02/tony-benns-plan-to-democratise-britain-and-abolish-the-monarchy |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=tribunemag.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 09:34, 6 May 2026

This article is about the generic term. For the association of primarily former British Empire territories, see Commonwealth of Nations. For other uses, see Commonwealth (disambiguation).

A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century.[1] Originally a phrase (the common-wealth or the common wealth – echoed in the modern synonym "public wealth"), it comes from the old meaning of "wealth", which is "well-being", and was deemed analogous to the Latin res publica.[2] The term literally meant common well being. In the 17th century, the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "public welfare" or "commonweal" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state".[3][4]

The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories. Since the early 20th century, the term has been used to name some associations of states, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation primarily of former territories of the British Empire. It is also used in the translation for the organisation made up of formerly Soviet states, the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Historical use

Rome

Main articles: Res publica and Roman Republic

Translations of Ancient Roman writers' works to English have on occasion translated "Res publica", and variants thereof, to "the commonwealth", a term referring to the Roman state as a whole. [5][6]

England

Main article: Commonwealth of England

The Commonwealth of England was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the Kingdom of England (after the English Civil War) from 1649 to 1653 and 1659 to 1660, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell and his son and successor Richard. From 1653 to 1659, although still legally known as a Commonwealth, the republic, united with the former Kingdom of Scotland, operated under different institutions (at times as a de facto monarchy) and is known by historians as the Protectorate. In a British context, it is sometimes referred to as the "Old Commonwealth".[7][8]

In the later 20th century a socialist political party known as the Common Wealth Party was active.[9] Previously a similarly named party, the Commonwealth Land Party, was in existence.[10]

Iceland

Main article: Icelandic Commonwealth

The period of Icelandic history from the establishment of the Althing in 930 to the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262 is usually called the Icelandic Nation (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.) in Icelandic and the Icelandic Commonwealth in English. In this period Iceland was colonized by a public consisting largely of recent immigrants from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair.[11]

Philippines

Main article: Commonwealth of the Philippines

The Commonwealth of the Philippines was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings–McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence, which was achieved in 1946. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a founding member of the United Nations.[12]

Poland–Lithuania

Main article: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Republic is still an alternative translation of the traditional name Rzeczpospolita of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Wincenty Kadłubek (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160–1223) used for the first time the original Latin term res publica in the context of Poland in his "Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland".[13] The name was used officially for the confederal union formed by Poland and Lithuania (1569–1795).[14][15]

It is also often referred as "Nobles' Commonwealth" (1505–1795, i.e., before the union). In the contemporary political doctrine of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, "our state is a Republic (or Commonwealth) under the presidency of the King". The Commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance called Warsaw Confederation, had its own parliament Sejm (although elections were restricted to nobility and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts Pacta conventa from the beginning of the reign).[16]

"A commonwealth of good counsaile" was the title of the 1607 English translation of the work of Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki "De optimo senatore" that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[17]

Catalonia

Main article: Commonwealth of Catalonia

Between 1914 and 1925, Catalonia functioned as an administrative union of its four provinces under the Mancomunitat de Catalunya, often translated into English as the “Commonwealth of Catalonia”. The institution possessed limited powers and coordinated regional infrastructure, education, and cultural policy as a federation of the provincial councils of Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona.[18] During its existence, the Mancomunitat promoted the development of Catalan-language institutions, including libraries, research bodies, and technical education establishments.[19]

Liberia

See also: Commonwealth of Liberia

Between 1838 and 1847, Liberia was officially known as the "Commonwealth of Liberia". It changed its name to the "Republic of Liberia" when it declared independence (and adopted a new constitution) in 1847.[20]

Lunda Empire

Main article: Lunda Empire

The Lunda Empire in southeastern DR Congo has frequently been referred to as a commonwealth because it was not ruled from one centre and involved numerous independent though connected states.[21]

Current use

Australia

Main articles: Commonwealth of Australia and Australian Government

"Commonwealth" was first proposed as a term for a federation of the six Australian crown colonies at the 1891 constitutional convention in Sydney. Its adoption was initially controversial, as it was associated by some with the republicanism of Oliver Cromwell (see above), but it was retained in all subsequent drafts of the constitution.[22] The term was finally incorporated into law in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which established the federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalised), which is often abbreviated to Cth, refers to the federal government, and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country.

The Bahamas

Main article: Commonwealth of the Bahamas

The Bahamas, a Commonwealth realm, has used the official style Commonwealth of The Bahamas since its independence in 1973.[23]

Dominica

Main article: Commonwealth of Dominica

The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style Commonwealth of Dominica since 1978.[24]

Certain U.S. states and territories

Main articles: Commonwealth (U.S. state) and Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)

States

Four states of the United States of America officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic coast of North America prior to the American Revolution. As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The four are:

  • Kentucky is designated a commonwealth by the Kentucky Constitution as the "Commonwealth of Kentucky".[25]
  • Massachusetts is a commonwealth,[26] declaring itself as such in its constitution, which states: "[T]he body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals: it is a social compact, by which the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good."[27]
  • Pennsylvania uses the "Commonwealth of Pennsylvania" constitutionally and in its official title.[28]
  • Virginia has been known as the "Commonwealth of Virginia" since before the American Revolutionary War, and is referred to as a commonwealth in its constitution.[29]

Territories

Two organized but unincorporated U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are:

In 2016, the Washington, D.C. city council also selected "Douglass Commonwealth" as the potential name of State of Washington, D.C., following the 2016 statehood referendum, at least partially in order to retain the initials "D.C." as the state's abbreviation.[32]

International bodies

Commonwealth of Nations

Main article: Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 56 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The Head of the Commonwealth is King Charles III, who also reigns as monarch in the 15 member states known as Commonwealth realms since his accession in 2022.[33]

Commonwealth of Independent States

Main article: Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a loose alliance or confederation consisting of nine of the 15 former Soviet Republics, the exceptions being Turkmenistan (a CIS associate member), Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Ukraine, and Georgia. Georgia left the CIS in August 2008 following the 2008 invasion of the Russian military into South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Its creation signalled the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its purpose being to "allow a civilised divorce" between the Soviet Republics. The CIS has developed as a forum by which the member-states can co-operate in economics, defence, and foreign policy.[34]

Proposed use

United Kingdom

See also: Republicanism in the United Kingdom

Labour MP Tony Benn sponsored a Commonwealth of Britain Bill several times between 1991 and 2001, intended to abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It never reached second reading.[35]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Origin and meaning of commonwealth". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
  2. ↑ A, J (1796). The Monthly Magazine And British Register. 1. pp. 179–180. Our English word commonwealth or commonweal, is precisely analogous to respublica
  3. ↑ Boyd, James Penny (1888). The Political History of the United States, Or, Popular Sovereignty and Citizenship. International Publishing Company. You find in your reading other terms used to convey the same idea as "democracy" or "republic." The word "commonwealth" is one of them.
  4. ↑ Barclay, James (1791). Barclay's English Dictionary. Nicholson & Company. COMMONWEAL, or COMMONWEALTH ... a republic; a democracy.
  5. ↑ Cicero, On the Commonwealth and On the Laws, trans. James E. G. Zetzel (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
  6. ↑ Livy, The Early History of Rome, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt (Penguin Classics, 1960).
  7. ↑ Sean Kelsey, Inventing a Republic: The Political Culture of the English Commonwealth, 1649–1653 (Manchester University Press, 1997)
  8. ↑ Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2002).
  9. ↑ Ben Hughes, They shall not pass!: the British battalion at Jarama: the Spanish Civil War. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Pub., 2011. ISBN 9781849085496 (p. 227).
  10. ↑ Peter Barberis, John McHugh and Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations
  11. ↑ Jón Jóhannesson, A History of the Old Icelandic Commonwealth: Íslendinga saga (University of Manitoba Press, 1974; repr. 2006).
  12. ↑ "United Nations website listing founding members".
  13. ↑ Juliusz Bardach, Historia państwa i prawa Polski.
  14. ↑ Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, vol. I (Oxford University Press, 1981)
  15. ↑ Daniel Stone, The Polish–Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (University of Washington Press, 2001).
  16. ↑ Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland.
  17. ↑ Dorota Pietrzyk-Reeves, Republicanism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
  18. ↑ Albert Balcells, Catalan Nationalism: Past and Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 1996); “Mancomunitat de Catalunya,” Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  19. ↑ Albert Balcells, Catalan Nationalism; Andrew Dowling, The Rise of Catalan Independence (Routledge, 2018).
  20. ↑ "The Commonwealth of Liberia".
  21. ↑ Macola, Giacomo (2015). "Luba-Lunda states". The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley.
  22. ↑ Helen Irving. Australian Federation Archived 2015-07-15 at the Wayback Machine – Civics and Citizenship Education. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
  23. ↑ "The Constitution of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
  24. ↑ Government of Dominica, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Dominica, 1978; CIA World Factbook, “Dominica,” https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominica.
  25. ↑ "Kentucky.gov". Kentucky.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  26. ↑ "Mass.Gov". Mass.Gov. 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  27. ↑ "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts". Malegislature.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  28. ↑ "Commonwealth of Pennsylvania | The Keystone State". Pa.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  29. ↑ "Home". Virginia.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
  30. ↑ "Puerto Rico Department of State". Government of Puerto Rico. Retrieved 25 March 2026.
  31. ↑ "CNMI - About the Governor". Government of the Norther Mariana Islands. Retrieved 25 March 2026.
  32. ↑ Kurzius, Rachel (October 18, 2016). "Council Tosses 'New Columbia,' Changes Constitution To 'The State Of Washington D.C.'". DCist. Archived from the original on June 29, 2020. Retrieved June 26, 2020.
  33. ↑ "About Us". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2026.
  34. ↑ Constantine, Michalopoulos, and Tarr David. "The economics of customs unions in the Commonwealth of Independent States." Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 38, no. 3 (1997): 125-143.
  35. ↑ By. "Tony Benn's Plan to Democratise Britain – and Abolish the Monarchy". tribunemag.co.uk. Retrieved 2025-10-28.
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